Grade XII_Unit 1: History of Fashion

 Fashion, Clothing, Apparel & Costume

o Fashion
 Fashion is more than just clothing; it reflects the wider spectrum of
aesthetics, art
and design trends in contemporary society. This makes it a multi-faceted
word
engaging with a range of surrounding influences. In simple terms, fashion
is a social
process by which newly introduced styles or trends become popular in a
certain
time with acceptability by a wider cross-section of consumers.
o Clothing:
 Clothing is a general term referring to actual objects related to the
human body.
o Apparel:
 Apparel refers to garments made of fabric, knits, leather or other
wearable
materials.
o Costume:
 Costume is derived from word 'custom' evolving from the environment
and customs
of society. It refers to clothing for a specific use - be it for a ritual or
performance,
ethnic or historical within a specific context of occasion and time.
 The knowledge of fashion and costume history is important since they
are the inevitable outcome
of the socio-cultural-political influences prevalent in society at different
points in time. To
understand contemporary fashion within a context, it is essential to know
its origin and
evolutionary process.
 Clothes are what cover the human body, which in turn, depend on
physical conditions like:
o Climate
o geographical area
o available raw material
o textiles
 Clothes indicate social significance like:
o religious beliefs
o aesthetics
o exhibit individual status
o proclaim alliance with
o create differentiation among a group.
 Several points of views regarding the origin and need for clothing:
o One school of thought believes that man covered his body for
protecting himself from the
vagaries of climate and nature.
o Psychologists and ethnologists refer to psychological reasons like the
fig leaf used by
Adam and Eve as a symbol of modesty referred to in the Bible.
o Anthropologists cite reasons associated with taboo as well as the
desire for personal
adornment to please both oneself and others.
o Psychologists propound the view that human beings like to modify their
appearance - the
use of body covering is one such type of modification. Other ways for
achieving this is
through varying hairstyles, alteration of shape and surface of the body
through clothes,
body adornment etc. Such changes are done in order to make the self,
more acceptable to
others so that there is a commonality and bonding with the others within
the same social
'tribe'.
 Evolution:
o Primitive men covered their body with animal skin and fur which were
shaped to parts of
the human body.
o Later they used tree bark fibre to protect themselves against
extremities of climate.
 Sources of information:
o Remnants of their clothing have been found in valleys and caves.
o Tools, costumes and accessories travelled along the trade routes which
were extended and
defined in the Bronze and Iron Ages.
o It is assumed that fur, stones etc. may have been bartered in different
societies.
o The predominant use of animal skins would have been necessitated by
the need for warmth.
The skins were scraped and the fur was combed.
o The eyed-needle of bone or horn was used for assembly of pieces
threaded by long manes
and tails of horses as well as split reindeer tendons.
o Few vestiges of clothing from early ages remain, since cloth made of
vegetable fibre like
rushes (grass), linen etc. are perishable.
 Fashion historian James Laver, has propounded three principles that
govern the origin of clothing:
o Seduction
o Utility
o Hierarchy
Other historians have propounded 4 different explanations or
theories of origin of clothing:
PROTECTION:
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 Several scholars say that the need for clothing was born out of physical
necessity.
 Men required clothing in response to the need for protection and for
shelter against extreme
variations of temperature, rain, dust, thorns, wild animals and insects.
 For activities like warfare and hunting, extra protection was needed for
the body.
 Eskimos wear closely fitted garments in several layers to effectively
trap and retain body warmth.
They wear a fur garment which is so suited for the freezing cold that
European explorers of the
Arctic have adopted similar garments like fur-lined parkas.
 Pastoral people like Turkoman and Kirghiz wear three or four bulky
padded Caftan-like coats with sheepskin over-jackets for protection
against the bitter Central Asian winter.
 Wearing several layers of clothing is also seen in areas of high
temperature where it is important to prevent the body from becoming
dehydrated under the blazing sun.
 The Tuareg of the Sahara and the Bedou of Saudi Arabia wear
long robes and loose trousers in light, cool cotton for protection and air
circulation.
 In parts of Saudi Arabia and Africa, men protect themselves with a loose
head-covering which can cover their heads, mouth and nostrils for
protection against dust and sand, revealing only the eyes.
 Indigenous clothing in different parts of the world use locally available
materials utilizing the craft skills of the people.
o Leather garments made by tribes, by cleaning of the leather either by
scraping away excess
animal fat sticking to it and then softening it by rubbing animal fat, or
even by mastication
(chewing).
o The Ainu of North Japan & Siberian Gilayak use fish skins to make
waterproof
garments.
o The natives who live in the cool temperate zones near on the North
West coast of Canada,
wear short poncho-like rain capes of shredded cedar barks and conical
wide brimmed
waterproof woven hats, for protection against heavy rainfall.
o Bark fibre is preferable over animal skins in moist, tropical areas since it
dries more easily.
RITUALS:
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 Primitive man believed that certain costumes could endow special
attributes and would protect him
from evil.
 Certain parts of animals like claws, hooves and teeth worn as
accessories, were believed to
enhance the wearer's strength and imbuehtion with the characteristics of
that creature.
 In Egypt, the lion's tail and claws being symbolic of bravery, vigour and
shrewdness were an important part of the Pharaoh's regalia.
 Eventually through auspicious association, he adopted a certain animal
as his symbol and this became a family totem or crest through
inheritance. This was publicized by the use of their symbols on aprons,
blankets or on totem poles.
 From earliest times, articles of clothing were also worn to ward off the
evil eye. They believed that only magic could help to combat malignant
forces around.
 For women, the greatest fear or curse was that of sterility. To counteract
this, cowry shells which resembled a woman's reproductive organs, were
used in clothing and accessories.
 It is the same belief that caused both positive and modern men to wear
amulets, rings and other adornments, which would act as good luck
charms.
 Certain costumes and ornaments also identify the wearer with gods,
heroes and other men. For primitive people, this identification was factual
(for heroes) while in contemporary times, it is more symbolic.
 Theatre, which has its origin in ancient times, ranges from simple play-
acting by children at play, home or at school, to the more sacred
performances in Greco-Roman and Oriental / Asian plays. In theatre,
costumes appear to 'disguise' the wearer's individuality and transform him
into a different persona or even a 'God'.
 Some costumes are associated with religious significance. A religious
head or priest can be
recognized by specific clothes, which proclaim his religious role and
authority. Believers and
followers of different religions have distinctive clothes and/or accessories
for reasons of respect, actual or symbolic identification with God and the
need to express those emotions in their mortal existence.
ADORNMENT:
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 ADORNMENT THROUGH CLOTHES:
o While the prime function of clothing is self-protection, indication of:
 social status
 wealth
 age
 occupation
humans also pander to their self-vanity which enhances their physical
attributes.
o In primitive and tribal societies, people used easily available indigenous
and natural
materials as diverse as:
 Seeds
 sea shells
 wood
 precious stones
 Animal parts like teeth, bone, fur, feathers etc. selected on the basis of
color, texture
and shape.
o They also discovered methods of crafting the materials like tanning of
hides, weaving,
dyeing, and printing of fabrics for decoration in clothing.
o History has instances where the desire for adornment occasionally
transcends practical
concerns like comfort and wearability. When ostentation and exaggeration
dominate other
factors, the resultant look may become distinctive but impractical.
 The shoe called 'Poulaine' worn in medieval times. Originating in
France, this
shoe extended to such exaggerated lengths that it had to be held in the
hand while
walking or else tied back to the ankle with a ribbon until laws were passed
restricting the length of the toe to 6" commoners, 12" for gentlemen and
24" for
nobility and royalty.
 In 18 century England, an exaggerated mode of clothing was that of
tight breeches
for men which made it difficult for them to even sit down.
 The 19 century Victorian corset created the desirable tiny waist size.
However the
constant constriction of the ribcage made even the simple act of
breathing very
difficult.
 In 18 century Europe, women's skirts expanded tremendously in width
and
Therefore had to be supported by layers of petticoats, which made
mobility very
cumbersome. The Panier, a lighter supporting frame made of graduated
oblong
shaped boned hoops stitched to an underskirt made the skirt so wide on
either side
of the hips that doors and stairways had to be widened to enable the
wearer to pass
through.
 ADORNMENT OF THE BODY:
o The concept of beautification of the body has been a variable factor in
different societies
and at different periods in history.
o This is done through 4 different methods:
 Body Modification:
 It has many examples of which one is the now-abolished practice of
Chinese foot binding. This ancient custom, considered as the ultimate
expression of feminine beauty and social status by a Chinese woman, was
to have a tiny 'lotus' foot by tying the foot tightly in a way which, in
time, would create a man-made artificial heel.
 Similarly the custom of wearing large circular lip plates by the Kichepo
women in Sudan is yet another example of reshaping of the body. The
women would consider themselves undressed without their lip plates and
would never be seen in public without them.
 The Paduang tribe also known as Kayans, have a tradition of
artificially elongating the necks of girls and women with a series of brass
rings.
 Scarification:
 It is an indication of status and tribal identification in some African
cultures.
 Elaborate incisions in a delicate pattern are made in certain parts of a
person's body. The painful incisions must be endured without any signs of
physical distress or pain. Natural skin irritants are rubbed into the skin
which, on healing, leave characteristic scars and raised pattern-like marks
on the face and body that identify the individual as an adult member of
the
tribe.
 Tattooing:
 It involves a permanent change in body colour based on the
insertion of an indelible dye in the punctured skin.
 Tattooing was used by the Thracians to indicate rank.
 In some African societies women's foreheads were tattooed so that if
captured by rivals, she could be sold back to her own tribe.
 Tattoos on men serve the same purpose as war uniforms by making
them identifiable by their own tribe.
 The Maoris of New Zealand have elaborated facial tattoos as marks of
distinction and esteem.
 Some Indian tribes also tattoo their body.
 In modern societies tattooing can be a form of personal adornment or
can indicate ones affinity/allegiance to a group.
 The Japanese Yakuza have a tradition of tattooing which has symbolic
meaning.
 In a western society, tattooing is commonly seen among sailors, biker
groups etc. Today tattooing is fairly common among the youth across the
world.
 Body painting:
 It includes face painting has its roots in sacred ritual.
 Girls in some Congolese tribes oil themselves all over and dust on red
powered camwood in order to look more attractive.
 Noble ladies of some ancient Chinese dynasties as well as Japanese
'geisha' girls applied very heavy face make-up with the powder of
ground rice and white lead. Application of rose petal rouge on cheeks and
centre of the lower lip, simulated a tiny pursued mouth, considered to be
very beautiful. The modern cosmetic industry thrives and flourishes due to
the interest of women for 'painting' their faces.
IDENTIFICATION:
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 IDENTIFICATION OF SOCIAL STATUS:
o In most societies, people often advertise their position and wealth
through outer trappings
like the choice of clothes, colour and fabric consumption.
o Based on the same line of reasoning, in some civilization complete
nudity was considered a lowly condition, bereft of status. Therefore slaves
could be nude since they were 'nonpersons'. In pre-Inca Peru, the Mochia
stripped their prisoners of clothing and therefore of rank and humanity.
o At different points of time in history, rulers have attempted to maintain
the status quo
between themselves and commoners through restrictive sumptuary laws.
Medieval laws
restricted the use of fabrics like velvet, laces and fur while some colors
like purple and gold
were reserved exclusively for royalty and nobility. In 17th century England
even the length
and elaborate styles of clothes and
accessories were regulated.
 IDENTIFICATION OF RANK:
o Clothes also clearly indicate rank and power as in the case of uniforms
of the armed
services also used to:
 Intimidate or evoke obedience.
 Encourage a sense of allegiance, loyalty and identity within the ranks
 Emit clear signals indicating hierarchy through the design and number
of buttons,
insignia and ribbons
 IDENTIFICATION OF PROFESSION:
o In contemporary times professional and administrative costumes
distinguish the wearer and imbue him/her with personal or delegated
authority.
o Examples of this can be seen in the robes and wigs of a judge or in the
uniform of army
personnel or policemen.
o On the other extreme end of the spectrum, are the clothes of convicts.
 IDENTIFICATION OF MARITAL STATUS:
o Dress and ornament are also indicating of the social and marital status
of women.
o Among the Yoruk Turkis nomads, a girl can border her silk head cloth
with coins to
signal that she is ready for marriage. When betrothed she also wears a
white scarf along
with the headdress. If a widow wishes to remarry, she braids her hair
under her black scarf.
o In parts of India, the vermillion or crimson Sindoor powder applied
in the parting of the
hair and the Mangalsutra necklace are symbols of the married status of
women.
o In Western culture, a wedding band on the ring finger indicates
marital status.
 IDENTIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL STATUS IN TRIBE:
o Costumes also help to identity to special individuals by imposing
authority and instilling a
sense of fear and awe in others.
o For a tribal chieftain, certain components of the costume single him
out of the crowd by
expressing his power and special status.
o Similarly, a warrior's costume emphasizes his physical superiority.
o A tribal shaman wears special clothes, mask and carries accessories
which single him out
as a person 'apparently' endowed with supernatural power to cure or
expel evil.
 Over several thousand years of history, all clothes can be broadly
classified under 5 archetypes or
categories:
o Draped Costume:
 Derived by the wrapping of skin or material length around the body like
the
Egyptian schenti, Greek himation and the Tahitian pareo.
o Slip-on costume:
 Made from one piece of skin or material length, with a hole for the head
to pass
through. Examples of this would be the Roman paenula, the Medieval
huque and
the South American poncho.
o Closed stitched costume:
 Where the fabric is worn around the body with armholes for the sleeves
to be
attached. This category developed into the Greek chiton, the Roman tunic,
the
Medieval chemise.
o Open stitched costume:
 Worn over layers of inner clothes. Examples of these are the Asian
caftan and the
European overcoat.
o Sheath costume:
 These are Fitted/moulded to the body contours. This category also
extended into
trousers and breeches.
INDIAN COSTUMES:
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 Ancient Indian garments were draped rather than stitched. Draped
apparel was worn both by men and women.
 The earliest references to textile production and draped garments in
India, date between 2500 to 2000 BC in the Indus Valley civilization
in the two cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.
 Knowledge of early Indian costume is based on the study of sculpted
figures and engraved seals, where both men and women are depicted
wearing unstitched fabrics draped around the body.
 The statuette of the 'high priest' wears a patterned shawl with a formal
drape. Other statuettes and engravings are seen in short draped sarong
like skirts, jewellery and elaborate hairstyles.
 Similar garments can also be seen in the later Ajanta cave paintings
where the figures are scantily dressed with a tight sarong around the
waist accentuating the curvaceous forms and a thin draped shawl or choli
on the upper body.
 While traditional Indian garments were unisex, the fabric and the
manner of draping, were
indicative of the profession and social status of the wearer.
 3 prime categories of clothing in Ancient India were:
o Uttariya or upper garment:
 The Uttariya or upper garment was usually of cotton or silk with
ornamented
borders and fringes.
 The way it was worn depended on the profession of the wearer. In court,
the
uttariya could be draped on one or both shoulders, diagonally across the
chest.
 It could also be loosely draped across the back with the free ends
hanging down
both the lower arms or wrapped around the wrist.
 For practical purposes, the working classes wrapped the coarse cotton
uttariya
around the head for protection against the sun or wrapped it snugly
around the
waist, leaving the arms bare.
 Women wore it as a head covering, hanging straight down the back or
secured with
a headband. This could also be held in place by wearing tight fitted caps
under or
over it.
o Antariya or lower garment:
 The Antariya of white cotton, linen or muslin was the main garment for
both sexes.
 Occasionally it could be embroidered in gold and embellished with
precious stones.
 The antariya worn by women was initially of opaque fabric and later of
transparent
material.
 A small piece was fixed to the sash in front, passed through the legs and
tucked at
The centre back. It could also be worn as skirt wrapped around the hips.
o Kayabandh or sash:
 A sash called Kayabandh was fastened at the waist, knotted at the front.
The
manner of tying and decorating the sash could be either simple or
elaborate.
 Other clothing items:
o Kachcha:
 Men wore unstitched pieces of fabric draped on the hips and passed
between the
legs like a loincloth called Kachcha.
 While commoners and peasants wore a shorter version, the length of
this garment
varied from waist to the calf or ankles for the higher classes.
o Ushnisha:
 The Ushnisha was a turban for men.
 Along with the hair, it was twisted into a top knot and the rest was
wound around
the head.
 THE SARI:
o Unchanging in its essence, is the traditional six to nine yard sari, where
the manner of
draping is indicative of the geographical location in India where the
wearer resides.
o There are several traditional sari drapes in India.
o The draped unstitched garment has a wide border on one end called
Palla with the rest of
garment with narrow or wide borders either woven or sewn to the fabric.
o Variations in the drape are sometimes simple like wearing the palla
over the left shoulder
hanging down the back or worn in the traditional Gujarati or Marwari
style with the palla
brought over the right should shoulder to fan out in front.
o At times the fabric is pleated in the legs and tucked at the back the
waist. The free end of
the palla is sometimes used to cover the head like a veil.
MESOPOTAMIA:
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 Between 3500 - 3000 BC, a great civilization arose in Mesopotamia, now
in present day Iraq.
 Some of the different cultures who inhabited Mesopotamia were:
o Sumerians
o Babylonians and
o Assyrians…….all showed a strong commonality in their draped clothes.
SUMERIAN COSTUMES:
 The most basic form for both men and women was the simple ankle-
length, wrap around skirt.
 The sculpture of a priest shows him in a long Kaunakes skirt tied at the
waist, while the excess waistband forms an animal-like tail hanging
loosely at the back.
BABYLONIAN COSTUMES:
 The earlier, thicker, tufted Kaunakes skirt was transformed into a
draped look worn by both sexes.
 Those of high rank wore elaborately draped large woven shawls edged
with fringes and tassels while lower ranks wore simple linen skirts.
 A typical style was of the shawl draped under the armpits across the
body with the excess fabric covering the left arm and thrown over the left
shoulder leaving the right shoulder and arm bare.
 The style almost prefigures the Greek Himation or Roman Toga two
thousand years later.
ASSYRIAN COSTUMES:
 The Assyrians wore either rectangular or semi-circular draped shawls
with the short-sleeve Tunic.
 Another small square or rectangular shawl was worn like an Apron at
the back, while the semicircular shawl was draped around the torso.
 The amount of fringe edging also indicated rank.
EGYPTIAN COSTUMES:
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 A characteristic of Egyptian costume was that it covered the lower body,
leaving parts of the upper body bare.
 Egyptian clothing was mainly draped and pleated.
 The basic garment for men was the Schenti which was a single strip of
linen wrapped around the hips, worn by all classes, except for the fact
that the Pharaoh's schenti was much finer and often pleated. Similar to
the Indian drape, the common way of wearing it was diagonally across the
hips with one end tucked in at the waist and the other hanging free in
front.
 Male royalty also draped a large transparent material around the body
knotted at the waist creating elaborate folds at the hips called the Haik.
 Women wore the sheath-like tunic called Kalasaires. Religious costume
was an important part of Egyptian clothing.
 When the shawl was not draped but merely placed flat on the shoulder,
it became a ritual garment which covered the arms but left the hands
bare.
 The Pharaoh wears the Schenti under the draped transparent material
around the body creating elaborate folds at the shoulders and hips of the
royal 'Haik'. The Queen wore the Kalasaires.
GREEK COSTUMES:
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 Ancient Greek costumes were draped in a traditional manner.
 Draped styles of dress were characterized by the arrangement of large
pieces of rectangular, oval
or crescent-shaped fabric which were folded, pleated, pinned or
belted around the body in different ways.
 This style of dressing utilized the entire fabric ensuring there was no
waste.
 In spite of influences from other countries, Greek costumes did not
undergo any major
transformation.
 Classical Greek costumes were based on two principles:
o The first was that a unisex rectangular piece of cloth woven in varying
sizes, was the basis
of all draped styles, be it a tunic or a cloak.
o The second was that this cloth was always draped around the body
according to certain
norms, but not cut or shaped. There were vast possibilities of drapes that
could arise out of
this rectangular fabric, as seen in the examples of architectural draping at
different temples.
 Greek costume for Men:
o The basic costume was the Chiton, a rectangle of cloth usually wool.
o It formed a tunic fastened on the left shoulder leaving the right arm free
or on both
shoulders.
o This could be worn with one or two belts at the waist.
o Without a belt this tunic hung loosely and served as a night garment.
o When lengthened, it became a ceremonial or festive costume.
o It could also be draped around the body like the Indian shawl.
o Another male garment was the enveloping cloak called Himation made
of a single large
(6' x 9') piece of cloth, swathed around the body without fixed
fastenings.
o This cloak was versatile in its draped style:
 It could be worn alone, baring the right arm, shoulder and upper chest.
 It could also wrap the wearer up to the chin covering the arms and the
head.
 It could be used as a blanket at night.
 Greek costume for Women:
o All Greek women wore the Peplos which was essentially a rectangular
shawl with a
Fibula or brooch/ decorative pin on the shoulder and was usually open on
one side.
o This open peplos was usually not belted at the waist.
o Greek women also wore the closed Peplos by seaming the two free
edges of the fabric
together.
ROMAN COSTUMES:
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 Roman costume was more class-based than that of the Greeks and
reflected the society's formal
distinctions between its own citizens and outsiders, within a highly
organized system of rules.
 The civilian costumes of the Romans were broadly classified into two
categories:
o Those which were slipped over the head
o Those which were wound around the body.
 The wrapped garment was a Roman cloak called Toga. Originally it was
an outer garment for both sexes which also served as a blanket at night.
 The draped cloak was made of a large piece of cloth cut as a segment of
a circle. Gradually the toga became extremely wide and complicated
especially when used as a ceremonial garment.
 The elite indicated social status through various interesting ways of
slanting or crossed drapery to which bands of specific colours were added
for distinction.
 Women wore a tunic with the draped palla which was the equivalent to
the male toga.
 It was a large square or rectangular piece of cloth folded lengthwise and
held on each shoulder with the fibula. It could partly cover the head and
partly mask the face.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLTION:
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 Prior to industrialization of fabric production in the 18th and 19th
centuries, the fabric cost washigh which prohibited most people from
possessing too many clothes.
 Most people had to spin their own yarns, weave and knit their own
fabrics and then sew their own clothes in their spare time.
 Lower classes wore homespun clothes since fabrics in fine weaves were
unaffordable for them.
 In the mid-18th century, a general change swept Western civilization.
 The middle class grew stronger and began to actively participate in
trade and industry.
 Every facet of life was affected including textiles and costume.
 In England the Industrial Revolution rapidly transformed the country.
 Several new inventions followed by patents, considerably developed the
industrial spinning and weaving centres. While these speeded up the
process of textile production, they also led to riots and laws were
passed to stop their implementation due to the fear that increased
mechanization could create widespread unemployment, thereby
adversely affecting the lives of common people.
 The opening of new markets in Spanish colonies, abundant imports of
Indian cotton and
extension of French silk mills also contributed to the change.
 The British textile industry primarily produced broadcloth.
Manchester transformed itself from a market town to the centre of the
cotton industry while Norwich produced wool and Coventry silk.
 The fall in prices, as a result of mechanization, opened up the world
market for England.
 Cotton revolutionized European clothing with the production of exclusive
fabrics such as Lawn and Batiste. The vogue for cotton garments as well
as accessories in lawn, muslin and gauze
grew steadily.
 An unexpected effect of the use of cotton was the slave trade. Cotton
cloth was transported to Africa where it was bartered for natives, who
were then taken to the new American states.
Subsequently, the ships returned with raw cotton.
MECHANICAL INVENTIONS DURING INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
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 At the beginning of the 18 century, most of the work related to the
textile spinning and weaving woolen industry was carried out in people's
homes. A chain of inventions changed the situation
completely.
 This caused unrest among people who feared that machines
which could do the work of several men would result in
unemployment. Though sporadic attempts were made to break
machines, the process of mechanization continued.
 With the increased demand for cotton goods there was greater
need for cleaning of cotton, which was normally an approximate amount
of 1 pound in a day.
 Eli Whitney invented and patented an automatic Ginning machine
which was a simple yet effective way of separating cottonseed from short
staple cotton fibre.
 In 1804 refinement and complexity in woven textile patterns came in
the form of the Jacquard loom named after the designer Joseph
Jacquard. This loom invented a way of automatically controlling the warp
and weft threads on a silk loom by 'recording' patterns of holes on a
string of cards. This relatively simple method evolved and was modified
later into computer punch cards.
 The invention of the sewing machine by was revolutionary. It inspired
the first domestic sewing machine by Issac Singer in 1851. In the 19th
century, the sewing machine brought the principle of assembly-line, which
led eventually to mass production, standardization of sizes and ready-to-
wear clothing, sold in departmental stores.
 Increasingly, active scientific research made a lot of progress in colours
and dyes. Sir Isaac
Newton had earlier isolated the principal colours of the spectrum - red,
yellow and blue of which the other tones were only mixtures.
 Johan Tobias Mayer explained the principles of colour mixing,
obtaining several new [Link] new possibilities of colour provided
textile manufacturers with numerous colour
combinations.
 In 1856 Sir William Perkin invented the first synthetic dye.
EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ON INDIA:
----------------------------------------------------
 India was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1898. India's
economy at this juncture as in ancient times depended largely on its
textiles.
 Indian cotton and other specialized textiles were unmatched
quality and were therefore used to trade in spices.
 During colonial rule, the traditional royal and temple patronage
declined, as the British
government changed India's role as the largest exporter of textiles in
the world, to the biggest importer of English-made cloth.
 The country was systematically plagiarized as the Indian domestic
market was swamped by cheap copies of Indian textiles, industrially
produced in Lancashire.
 Stringent taxes were imposed on weavers who specialized in hand-
made fabrics. As a result of this, weavers of textile weaving centres like
Surat and Murshidabad faced tremendous hardship, to the extent that
some textile weaving techniques became extinct.
 British women's clothing profited from the progress made in the nation's
mills whose raw material was provided by the East Indian colonies.
 Cotton was the most sought after for its superior quality, afford ability
and durability.
 Beautiful Indian prints called Chintz (derived from the Indian cheent
meaning 'spray of
raindrops'), delicate muslins and calico fabrics were very popular in
England.
 France too exhibited great interest in printed, painted or dyed
calicoes called Indiennes.
 Shawls from Kashmir in complex designs and labour-intensive
weaves called Kani were regarded as luxuries in Europe.
 Inspired by the exotic garments of the West Indies and the exquisite
clothes of the nawabs of India and Ceylon, British clothes were fashioned
by overseas colonies.
 It is significant that words which are part of the modern global textile
vocabulary like chintz, muslin, calico, shawl, khakhi, kamarbandh,
jodhpurs, pyjama etc. are of Indian origin.
EVOLUTION OF MODERN INDIAN FASHION:
--------------------------------------------------------------
1900 to 1910:
 At the turn of the century, the socio-political scenario was that of the
British Raj firmly entrenched in India.
 On one hand the influence of Western fashion in menswear was seen in
baggy trousers, buttoned shirts, jackets, hats, walking sticks worn
by some Indians in the workplace.
 However dhotis and pajamas with kurtas and turbans continued to
be the staple items of
clothing for most people, indicative of regional or national identity.
 Women wore a high collared three-quarter sleeved blouse with the
sari pinned on the left shoulder with a brooch.
 The wives of those working for the colonial government were the first to
step out and mingle with the British. The ladies of Brahmo Samaj of
Bengal were the earliest to adapt to Western styles.
 While the tradition of wearing saris with regional draping variations
continued to be firmly
entrenched, women began to experiment with the sari blouse. The
stitched sari blouse echoed the latest styles of English blouses with cuffs,
laces and pleats with the sari palla pinned at the
shoulder.
 The long ruffled skirts worn by the English inspired the stitched
petticoats worn with saris decorated with pretty borders and dainty
laces. Heavier embroidery embellished with pure silver and the resham
combined Mughal inspiration with Western influence.
1920s:
 In the West, the decade called 'Roaring Twenties' characterized by
the 'Flapper' style enhanced the slender columnar silhouette.
 In India the trend was echoed with changes in the sari blouse where the
semi-fitted rectangular shape continued in the long-sleeved blouses with
raised sedate necklines.
1930s:
 This trend continued into the 30s where the sari palla was draped either
seedha (back to front) or ulta (front to back).
 The Western style of padded shoulders translated into puffed
sleeved blouses.
 This era saw the advent of movies which transformed film stars into
icons whose every nuance of style was faithfully emulated by the masses.
With the first talkies, elegant chiffon saris became fashionable
popularized by the upper echelon of society and film stars.
 The first fashion show was held in Pune in 1930 when Catherine
Courtney of 'Pompadour Gowns' presented western clothes on
European models.
1940s:
 Austerity measures along with a renewed zeal in patriotism marked this
decade.
 Mahatma Gandhi's call for complete independence in the 1940s
had the objective of uniting the entire country and manifested itself by the
burning of all foreign materials/clothes.
 It was a significant gesture that 'khadi'- traditional, rough, homespun
which was woven on the 'charkha' was not just a fabric but also a symbol
of the Indian spirit of the times-of self-reliance, nationalism and resistance
to British rule. Khadi kurtas, pajamas and dhotis were worn along with the
simple folded Gandhi topi. This look submerged differences in religion,
creed and caste into one collective identity of being Indian.
 Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay epitomized Indian elegance in her hand
women saris. Generally, women wore saris with conservative waist-length
semi-fitted blouses with high neck or band collar and half-length, half
three-quarter length or full length sleeves.
POST-INDEPENDENCE & 1950s:
 Post 1947, the limitations of the Indian style statement was expanded
by India's first Prime
Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. He consistently exhibited an
inimitable style with his well stitched churidar-kurtas, Gandhi topi and a
'bandhgala' band-collar jacket with a red rose pinned on the lapel. The
'Nehru jacket' as it was known, gave a new direction to menswear
fashion in India.
 The post-Independence era brought about a buoyant mood which
continued in the 1950s, where the sari blouse showed distinct signs of
innovation in pattern. The length of the blouse became shorter. The 'cup'
could now be cut as a separate piece with darts and seams.
Embellishment though embroidery, mirror work, beads and sequins
made blouses more decorative.
 Indian women now had the dual responsibility of balancing the
household and work outside the home. Optimizing time, she found the
'salwar-kameez' very convenient. Originating from Punjab, this
ensemble was adopted as a natural choice irrespective of local and
provincial influences. It was initially worn with a short jacket or 'bundi'
and a 'dupatta'.
1960s:
 This decade was the beginning of street wear bubbling up to high
fashion, the ethnic look to hit the runway as well as for hippies to run free.
 In the West, the mini skirt/dress, shot up above the knees often teamed
with knee-high boots.
Correspondingly the 'salwar kameez' lengths grew shorter.
 'Tights' worn with skin-fitting knit tops and pullovers was an integral part
of the look.
 Hindi films held up a true mirror of fashion in society of the time.
Heroines wore extremely tight
kameezes with churidars which were replaced by nylon stretch pants
and 'dupattas' of sheer
materials like chiffon, net or nylon.
 With sari blouses the craze for curvaceous toned midriffs continued. The
back neckline plunged or could be knotted in a bow on a sleeveless blouse
worn with sari with rather short 'palla' seemingly carelessly thrown over
the shoulder. Worn below the navel, saris were draped versions of low
waisted 'hipster' skirts and pants. Another variation was the mini-sari
draped above the knee which was perhaps too risqué to become a
widespread style statement.
 Hindi films gave the first stitched sari, figure-hugging with pleats
and 'palla' in place which just needed to be zipped up. This zip-on sari
became a party-wear favourite because of the convenience of wearing it.
Sensuous fabrics like chiffon, crepe and georgette were conducive to this
sari drape.
 Bouffant hair with occasional hints of a fringe, heavy lidded eyes and
pale lips completed the look.
 This decade was synonymous with trousers called 'Bell-bottoms' with
varying degrees of flare, a style that continued into the next decade.
 Loose, straight-leg trousers named 'Parallels' pre-dating modern wide-
legged Pallazo pants were also fashionable.
 Indian kameezes were also teamed with these pants.
 The kurta/kameez was also teamed with the Lungi a wrap-around skirt
either as a rectangle or as a large cylinder that could be draped on any
body size. This was essentially a sarong-like wrap which was seen not only
in the Orient but was also a traditional draped with regional variations
seen in Saurashtra in the West, Kerala in the South and Punjab in the
North.
 Lucknow Shararas and Ghararas worn with kameezes and dupattas
became part of the formal dress code.
 Another ensemble that became popular was the Rajasthani, ghagra-
choli ensemble adopted by socialites at weddings and other traditional
ceremonies. The long or short ghagra skirt was worn with stylized cholis
and kurtis.
 With Femina acquiring the franchise to several international beauty
pageants like Miss Universe, Miss World and Miss Asia in 1965, beauty
competitions and fashion shows were held in Delhi, Bangalore, Calcutta
and Madras.
1970s:
 This was a time when the clash of lifestyles and aesthetic values
resulted from the widespread use of new materials and techniques.
Plastics replaced natural materials, factory produced goods replaced
handcrafted ones and nylon replaced hand-woven silks and cottons.
 Yet against all odds, a strong revivalist movement revitalized the legacy
of textile crafts largely through the efforts of visionaries like Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyay and Pupul Jayakar who set up several institutes and
organizations to energize the textile industry and to encourage the
continuance of traditional hand crafted skills of artisans.
 The cottage industry found a strong Government supported
infrastructure. Revival through
recognition of national cultural roots came from fabrics, clothes and
accessories designers.
 Ritu Kumar was one of the earliest pioneers of fashion with extensive
research into block prints and innovative application of the technique of
zardozi embroidery.
 Radical options in draping the sari in the Coorgi style, leaving the
shoulders bare, the butterfly style and the lungi style were seen.
 Backless embroidered blouses teamed with cotton saris.
 Both the churidar-kurta and the salwar-kameez were equally popular
with the paunchier stiffened hemline of the latter becoming extremely
wide with the occasionally hazard of getting stuck in the 'platform' heels.
 Dupattas were either in a contrasting colour or else of the same print
and colour as the 'suit' itself.
1980s:
 Globally, 'power dressing' with padded shoulders, a tightly belted
waist and a hip length peplum was the characteristic silhouette.
 Indians responded with kameezes and tops with shoulder pads and leg
o' mutton or puffed sleeves tapering to be wrist both of which usually
visually widened the shoulder width. The waist was belted, tucked or
sashed. Below were 'dhoti' pants, cowled pants, harem pants, or 'Patiala
salwar’
 The revivalist movement continued its momentum with independent as
well as government
sponsored research projects and exhibitions both in India and abroad by
stalwarts like Martand
Singh, to showcase and promote India's varied textile tradition and crafts.
 Talented designers like:
o Asha Sarabhai
o Archana Shah
o David Abraham
o Rakesh Thakore ('Abraham and Thakore')
from National Institute of Design who created labels with a distinctive
globally relevant look based on their deep knowledge of textiles.
 Designers who commanded an impressive following of admirers were:
o Satya Paul
o Hemant Trivedi
o James Ferriera
o Pallavi Jaikishan
o Abu Jani and Sandeep Khosla
o Monapali
o Rohit Khosla
o Tarun Tahiliani
o Suneet Varma
o Ravi Bajaj
o Rohit Bal
o Rina Dhaka
1990s:
 This decade saw a multitude of influences, an eclectic mix with the
return of chic, glamour and high-fashion. With rapid strides in
communication, fashion shows in any part of the globe could be
transmitted instantaneously by satellite.
 In India, TV channels like 'FTV' and 'Trends' along with programmes
like 'MTV House of Style, 'CNN Style with Elsa Klensch' brought the
latest fashion to living rooms.
 On one hand, therefore, for the urban consumer, was the awareness and
acceptability of western clothes, to look 'cool' as dictated by style icons on
MTV and be among the elite who wore Gucci and carried Louis Vuitton
bags.
 On the other hand, was the need for ethnic clothing for semi-formal and
traditional occasions like weddings and festivals. These high-priced 'haute
couture' (high fashion) garments were expensive not only for their
'designer' label but also for the high level of skills of the embroiderer and
the quality of materials used.
 In the context of the masses, grew a parallel prêt-a-porter (ready to
wear) industry catering to the middle class by its volume in sales and
affordability in prices.
 This decade saw the beginning of branding and the emergence of
departmental stores and large single brand stores. To entice more
customers to patronize the label/brand, there was widespread advertising
from press releases, catalogues, magazines, hoardings to video ads.
 Fashion shows became a very effective mode for publicity both for
designers and brand
promotions.
 Designers like:
o Raghavendra Rathore
o Wendell Rodericks
o Anamika Khannna
o Aki Narula
o Rohit Gandhi and Rahul Khanna
o Meera and Muzzafar Ali
also established their labels with distinct signature styles.
 To tap the purchasing power of the Indian consumer, designers like
Zandra Rhodes (UK), Pierre Cardin (France), Ichiro Kimijima and
Kansai Yamamoto (Japan) held promotional shows in India.
 Some brands like Pierre Cardin and Ted Lapidus launched their labels
in India but could not sustain long term success.
 The establishment of the Fashion Design Council of India (FDCI) in
1998 provided designers an organized forum for discussion and decision-
making pertaining to the business. In Delhi, FDCI
organizes bi-annual Fashion Weeks for ready-to-wear, Couture Week and
Mens Fashion Week.
 The annual Lakme India Fashion Week (LIFW) which started in 2000,
provided several
designers with the opportunity to showcase their creations to a wider
audience, including national and international buyers. Today LIFW is
considered to be a forum showcasing fashion associated with cine stars.
 Bridal Asia showcases the exclusive creations in wedding trousseau
wear.
 With the establishment of the National Institute of Fashion
Technology in 1986, a new wave of designers began to create designs
which put India firmly on the global map.
o Ritu Beri
o JJ Valaya
o Ashish Soni
o Narendra Kumar Ahmad
o Ashima Singh
o Ranna
o Sonam Dubal
o Sunita Shankar
o Rajesh Pratap Singh
o Manish Arora
o Namrata Joshipura
o Puja Nayyar
o Sabyasachi Mukherjee
o Shantanu Goenka
o Gaurav Gupta
o Nida Mahmood
o Pankaj and Nidhi
o Shalini and Paras
and others are synonymous with contemporary Indian fashion.
 Each designer label has distinctive design aesthetics and a style
recognizable by the fashion
fraternity.
 Each label is associated primarily with either Indian or western styles,
women or men's clothing, elaborate surface embellishment or pattern-
making oriented, minimalist or flamboyant etc.
 Designers strike a balance between creativity and commercial
viability with keen business acumen.
 Some designers like:
o Amit Aggarwal
o Rimzim Dadu
o Alpana- Neeraj
o Tanvi Kedia
o Kallol Datta
o Himanshu and Smita
experiment with modern technology to innovate structures through
materials and techniques.
 Shivan-Narresh have created their niche in swimwear and resortwear.
 Aneeth Arora ('Pero'), Rahul Mishra have created its signature
styles through the reinterpretation of handcrafting traditions with
sustainable business practices.
 Samant Chauhan works exclusively with fabrics from Bhagalpur.
 Nitin Bal Chauhan works with artisans in Chamba.
 Uma Prajapati ('Upasana Design Studio') involves community
participation in Tamil Nādu with an abiding commitment to sustainable
fashion practices.
 The waves of liberalization and lowering of international trade barriers
are sweeping the world.
 Opening up of the Indian market has heightened the awareness that
design has to play a more significant role than ever before.
 Other countries are looking at India as a market leader because of its
large population and
potential customer base with purchasing power. With the entry of several
international brands of apparel, accessories, jewellery, furniture and other
lifestyle products, the Indian fashion market scenario is competitive,
challenging and exciting.
 The rise of the luxury market is indicative of the increasing numbers of
billionaires in India. The coexistence of foreign labels with domestic
corporate brands, mass-produced labels with
handcrafted one-of-a-kind ensembles implies that there is a requirement
for designers, textile and clothing technologists and merchandisers with
talent, in-depth understanding of the industry, skills and a professional
attitude related to the fashion business.
FILMS & FASHION:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------
 India is the producer of the largest number of feature films in the world
with centres for filmmaking
such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Hyderabad.
 However it is Bollywood (originating from the original name of
Bombay) in Mumbai which, in particular, produces hundreds of films
annually, inspires dreams among many. In India, Hindi films have a
tremendous reach into the homes and hearts of millions. The star status
of movie actors makes them celebrities. This is the reason for the
effectiveness of product endorsements by stars. Advertising practitioners
rely on a celebrity face to stand out among innumerable advertisements
and expect the likeability of the star to transfer to the product.
 Their performances create an illusion of interpersonal relationships with
viewers. Even though the relationship is imaginary, people identify with
them. Social behaviour and consumer purchasing is often influenced by
media personalities because they are perceived as reliable advisors and
role models.
 Costumes in movies are very influential in creating distinctive styles and
looks which stimulate fashion trends across the nation.
 The screen image of:
o Amitabh Bachchan in formal sherwanis in Mohabatein
o Aamir Khan in stylish formals in Ghajini
o Salman Khan in khakis and aviator shades in Dabangg
o Shahrukh Khan in chic casualwear in Kal Ho Na Ho
o Rekha in flowing Anarkali-like kurtas in Umrao Jaan
o Bhagyashri in hand painted kurta-churidar in Maine Pyar Kiya
o Madhuri Dixit in a purple sari in Hum Apke Hain Kaun
o Kareena Kapoor in short kurtis and T-shirts with salwars in Jab We Met
and others have influenced many other commercial designers and
manufacturers to capitalize on the 'style wave'.
 Costume designers are those who design and accessorize the clothes
worn by actors onscreen.
 Bhanu Athaiya who has designed for several movies including Lagaan,
conducted prior in-depth research to establish historical authenticity
before finalizing the costumes for Sir Richard Attenborough's Gandhi.
She won the Academy award for Best Costume Design for this movie in
1983.
 Shama Zaidi designed costumes for several award winning films
including the Satyajit Ray's National award winning Shatranj Ke
Khiladi.
 However in many period films based on historical events and characters,
the costumes may or may not be credible in their interpretation;
sometimes the lavish production, elaborate sets and a glossy look may
merely require correspondingly glamorous costumes.
 Some more examples of designers/ costume designers and a few of their
most recognizable movies are:
o Aki Narula Bunty aur Babli, Don
o Ameira Punwani Guru
o Arjun Bhasin Dil Chahta Hai, Lakshya, The Namesake, The life of Pi
o Dolly Ahluwalia Omkara, Bhaag Milkha Bhaag, Water, Bandit
Queen(National
o award for Best Costume)
o Leena Daru Tezaab
o Lovleen Bains Rang De Basanti
o Niharika Khan Band Baaja Baaraat, Rock On, Delhi Belly, The Dirty
Picture
o (National award for Best Costume)
o Neeta Lulla Jodha Akbar, Devdas (President award)
o Priyanjali Lahiri Tare Zameen Par
o Sabyasachi Mukherjee Black (National award for Best Costume)
 Today designers for movie stars, both on-screen and off-screen have a
celebrity status of their own. Moreover, film-making has become more
organized as an industry with the entry of professional fashion designers
as costume designers designing for stars both onscreen and off it.
 The relationship between designer and actor was best exemplified by
designer Givenchy with actress Audrey Hepburn as his inspiration of
'Muse' in the 1950s.
 In Hindi films there are similar examples such as:
o Manish Malhotra who designs and styles Karishma and Kareena Kapoor
o Sabyasachi Mukherjee for Rani Mukherjee and Vidya Balan
o Neeta Lulla for Aishwarya Rai and so on.
 Designers like Rocky S, Vikram Phadnis, Surily Goel, Anna Singh, Arjun
Bhasin also design for movies.
 Anaita Shroff Adjania, fashion editor for Vogue India has designed
the costumes and styled the look in Dhoom, Dhoom 2 and Love Aaj Kal.
 Muzaffar Ali director of Umrao Jaan is also a fashion designer.
 The two movies Fashion and Heroine directed by Madhur Bhandarkar
showed a range of
glamorous clothes on-screen which are associated with fashion and
costume designers.
 Both movies and television are significant in creating and showcasing
new styles that have become iconic, spreading like wildfire, capturing the
imagination of the masses. These on-screen costumes have started trends
resulting in mass buying of similar styles at affordable price points.
 The actors, the screen characters and the clothes they wear in
commercially successful movies and serials, become influential factors in
the clothing and lifestyle choices for the masses and create market
demand for the same styles.