Globalisation

Convergence

Q. 'Globalisation has led to cultural convergence' Evaluate this view. |35]

The impact of globalisation is argued to either result in cultural convergence which
means that cultures are being homogenised (more people are adopting a similar
culture) or cultural divergence, which is an anti-convergence stand point (people
are actually heading towards a diverse range of cultures). Hyper globalists prove
cultural convergence by showing its evident advantages, sceptics and marxist view
points side with cultural convergence by unveiling it's disadvantages, therefore
proving cultural convergence's existence, on the contrary, transformationalist and
postmodernism denies cultural convergence by stating how globalisation is
actually leading to cultural divergence
From a hyperglobalist standpoint, globalisation has led to cultural convergence and
it is beneficial, to society. Global processes are increasingly spreading across
different borders and now a homogenised culture is increasingly being developed
which is not affected by cultural boundaries or national borders even. A
homogenised culture means that many people now consume the same types of
standardised products such as food, fashion and leisure activities. This point was
highlighted by Martell and we can see how it is leading to positive convergence of
cultures. Many people are united by the same consumption habits and can co-
relate with each other, the rising western consumer culture in youth around the
world and activities shaped by global popular culture help people become closely
connected to each other, for instance people sharing each others ideas on the
same brand of watch they wear or the fact that many people are united by football
around the world, despite football not being part of their initial culture shows that
cultures are converging and bringing about a positive impact. There are also many
scenarios where people actually start a conversation and develop a deep
connection to the other person just because they are also interested in consuming
the same type of global products such as hyper cars. This has increased so much
that even car meets are held where people connect on the basis of their cars, such
meets are open for all individuals despite their race, ethnicity, gender or even
religion and really play a major role in connecting people.

Moreover, cultural convergence can also be proven by the fact that it has led to
negative effects and outcomes, globalisation has acted as a threat to local cultures
by homogenising people's cultures and tastes to such an extent that local cultures
have become increasingly isolated. Globalisation has led to convergence at a scale
where people are increasingly worried about their local cultures being destroyed or
dying out completely.
Giddens raised this point of globalisation acting as a threat to local cultures and
this can be proven by the fact that our cultures are greatly influenced by the US
entertainment industry such as Netflix and Mickey Mouse who are examples that
have increasingly attracted many audiences to a similar, homogenised taste and
have threatened the local cultures. Stevens can be used to back up this point as he
stated that US influence is greatly aided by its entertainment industry. To further
clarify this concept, language can be used to explain the influence of western
cultures and threats to local cultures. Many cartoons such as Mickey Mouse or
Charlie Chaplin use English as a mode of communication. This leads to local
languages being used less frequently as more and more young children are
influenced to speak in english, according to a study 50% of the languages spoken
will disappear by the end of 21st century.
Lastly, convergence is seen to be occurring via cultural imperialism through
economic dominance of the west. Putting on a Marxist lens, we can see how the
core countries are constantly exploiting the peripheral countries through TNCs that
are constantly homogenising cultural tastes this leads to more and more people
consuming the same western cultural products such as McDonalds or coca-cola.
Ritzer highlighted that global capitalism has led to 'McDonaldization. To put it
simply this process has led to people's taste abandoning their local cultural
products and have made them become more inclined towards western products,
products and have made them become more inclined towards western products,
local restaurants are going bankrupt and traditional cuisine which represent a
culture are being avoided by people who constantly search for McDonalds and
other similar industries. This can also be extended to cover fashion, for instance
local fashion is dying out such as balochi dresses as people are becoming
attracted more towards brands like Levis, Gucci and Nike.

On the contrary, it is argued from a transformationalist view point that globalisation

has led to cultural hybridity. Globalisation and tourism, travel, migration have led to
cultures actually becoming more diverse instead of homogenised. Steger
highlighted this point, to simplify it we can see how Asians who migrate to the UK
in search of better opportunities do not actually abandon their local cultures,
instead they form a hybrid identity that allows them to be unique as well as helps
them fit in the UK. These new identities are different from traditional asian and UK
identities and thus are called hybrid identities, this point was explained by Johal,
for instance Japanese who migrate do not abandon their traditional identity of
politeness but inorder to fit in learn English language too and celebrate both local
and traditional cultures in their new homes in UK. Furthermore it is also important
to realise that such practices lead to glocalisation as it leads to transformative
change as stated by held. A form of glocalisation is indigenisation where certain
elements of one culture are adopted to be carried on in an individual's personality
alongside their local cultural elements. Creolisation is also an important form of
glocalisation as it leads to a new blend of cultural elements such can be seen in
black churches where they all together created a new form of culture as they
blended together traditional christian hymns with their local african music. This
was highlighted by Clammer and this can be explained overall to be pointing
towards cultural diversity.
Secondly, diving deeper from a macro level to the micro level and understanding
things from a postmodern perspective, we can see how individuals in today's
global world have diverse options to choose from and construct their unique
identity. For example streetwear is a form of clothing which mixes classic baggy
pants with gothic jewellery to all together create a new fashion. Similarly many
pants with gothic jewellery to all together create a new fashion. Similarly many
Turkish restaurant owners combine the bread of doner kebabs with traditional blue
cheese from France, overall the point here is that globalisation has given people
the options and freedom to choose different aspects of different cultures and mix
and match these elements to create a unique identity of their own. This aspect of
globalisation was brought forward by Rampton and goes on to show that
individuals are given more diversity to choose from. Staying in the same lens of
postmodernism we can also see how globalisation actually helps the local cultures
stay afloat as the flow is both ways, local to global and global to local, for instance
old western culture is arguably still afloat thanks to many movies being made on it
and shown to the world via the process of globalisation. This point was highlighted
by Robertson.
Furthermore, the fact that identities are dying out is exaggerated and not true as
ethnic revitalisation and cultural defence takes place for instance when people
migrate to new places, these people, ethnic revitalisation refers to the demand of
migrants or even minority ethnic communities to be able to retain certain elements
of their culture while still having the freedom to choose elements from the national,
majority culture. Ethnic revitalisation thus demands for state institution's sensitivity
towards cultures and identities of minority groups. A relevant example is how
globalisation has allowed for people to stay connected despite their long
distances, this allows for many people to stay in touch with their local cultural
identities, religion for example plays a major role for Pakistani students abroad to
achieve cultural defence as stated by Bruce. Bruce's point highlights how
globalisation has in this manner allowed and achieved cultural diversity.
Lastly, convergence can be questioned by the fact that many TNCs have actually
acknowledged different cultures they function in and have even adopted policies
and products to better suit these economies. For instance McDonalds has
introduced McArabia as a meal option in arab countries that closely resembles
their local chicken wraps (shawarma) or that McDonalds serves a vegan option in
their menus in India. There are many other examples too, Netflix offers subtitles
and dubbed options for many diverse languages too such as Hindi, Japanese, and
Korean. Thus if convergence was happening, we wouldn't have such options and
would all be experiencing a fixed, standardised experience, which is not the case
thus convergence is questionable in this aspect as stated by Held and McGrew.
This point goes on to prove that divergence is more prominent than convergence.
Overall, it can be seen that globalisation has actually led to cultural convergence,
this is highly agreeable to a large extent as globalisation has created threats for
local cultures and has led to people developing a more homogenised, western
taste to consumption, this is evident by the fact than many younger people are
adopting western fashion, their cyber versions closely resemble westerners cyber
versions and they favour more western foods as opposed to traditional ones, this
can be proven by the fact that McDonalds and other fast food franchises such as
KFC are booming in these countries and local restaurants are going bankrupt and
shutting down. Moreover the counter argument does not take into account that
many individuals don't have a free choice to choose from and construct their
identities, in many aspects even if choice is present, their uniques identities are
frowned upon and so are the traditional identities as they are labelled as
backwards, this means that only the western identity such as western fashion is
seen as the superior option, leading to homogenisation and convergence of
cultures. Thus it is proven that Globalisation has led to cultural convergence.

Inequality

Q. 'Globalisation is a positive development that brings benefits to all social groups.

Evaluate. [35]
Globalisation refers to the growing interdependence between different cultures
and groups. Global networked society has provided more opportunities for the
developing nations and provided a platform to minorities where their issues can be
discussed. This is supported by transformationalists, who point out the cultural
benefits of globalisation to all social groups. Liberal feminists provide the benefits
women have garnered from globalisation which has improved their social position.
Moreover, the modernization theory argues that globalisation has improved the
economic condition of the working class in developing nations. On the contrary,
various theories provide that globalisation has increased discrimination.
Postmodernists argue that decreasing the choice of cultures and homogenization
is negative for all social groups. The Marxist dependency and world system theory
provides how globalisation has led to more economic inequality. Finally, the
sceptical globalists point out how everything related to globalisation has
consequences, and it has especially threatened the sovereignty of nations, and
repressed many social groups.
Globalisation has improved cultural knowledge among different people and allows
the spread of good values from all cultures. The flow of ideas has increased, and it
has given individuals more options to choose from.
Culture rather than being something that differentiates people instead brings them
together. Apart from the growing spread of popular culture. globalisation and
especially social media have given a voice to minorities.
For example, the Baloch people in Pakistan are able to protest regarding the
disappearances of their family members. This is supported by Castells, who
elaborated that social media has given a platform to many social groups to raise
awareness regarding issues they face and can receive support globally. Due to
social media websites such as X. (formally Twitter) or Instagram people can ask for
help from the global community. In Palestine, people are utilising social media to
get donations from all over the world to help them leave and seek refuge in
neighbouring countries.
Specifically, it has also helped women which is supported by Lewis's research who
elaborated on how social media has helped women be more open regarding sexual
exploitation. It has allowed them to be anonymous, which protects them and hides
their identity while posting about the oppression that they have faced whether in
workplaces or at home.
Industrialization helped improve the economic conditions for many Western
countries and they can now help developing countries due to globalisation,
Globalisation allows for the free movement of resources, ideas, and developmental
aid. For example in Vietnam, through trade agreements such as the EU-Vietnam
Free Trade Agreement, the country has seen substantial economic growth and has
become a major exporter of electronics. TNCs especially have improved the
economic conditions of developing countries. This is supported by Goldthrope who
highlighted that TNCs and aid have brought benefits to the less industrialised
world in the form of essential infrastructure. This infrastructure development has
improved travel, education, and health care and provided more employment
opportunities for the people. This is further developed by research by Aisbett, who
provided the range of benefits of TNCs to developing countries. They provide
investment to developing countries and improve the quality of their products for
international trade. Another example of investment can be seen in Pakistan
through the CPEC development done by China, which has improved Pakistan's
economic position. Further benefits include improved living standards, more skills
and training, and economic diversification. The benefit of globalisation can be seen
in many countries to various social groups. O'Neill provided the example of BRIC
countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) whose economies are boosting greatly
due to globalisation.
Furthermore, hyperglobalists have pointed out the positive political benefits
globalisation has brought to all social groups. Globalisation has given birth to many
transnational organisations, providing an equal opportunity and platform for all
countries,
smaller organisations, and
social activists to discuss their issues on a global forum. For example, Malala
Yousaf was able to address the United Nations Youth Assembly in
2013. This is supported by Schultink, who argued that some international agencies
have played an important role in uplifting poorer nations. TNOs have helped reduce
the risk of global wars. A prominent example of that is how after the formation of
the United Nations following the Second World War, there has not been a single
war with many countries involved Furthermore, they also provide forums for peace
treaties such as through the Geneva Conventions and Paris Peace Accords.
Furthermore, global social movements have also led to the growing connection of
people across borders for a single cause. GSMs such as the Black Lives Matter
movement, the Me Too movement, and the climate change protests have garnered
support from people across the globe and have given power to the citizens to
protest for their rights. This is supported by Held, who provided that SMs are
increasingly important in a globalised world because they help liberal democratic
nations deal with the consequences of globalisation. Moreover, as Beck proposed,
we now like a global risk society, and due to globalisation, these risks can be
controlled more efficiently. For example, vaccines can be shared from the
developed nations to the rest of the world
However, while discussing globalisation and its positive developments we must
remember the negative consequences,
especially through
imperialism and Westernization which have increased global tensions.
Westernization erodes local cultures and traditions, as Western values lifestyles,
and consumer habits become dominant. This cultural homogenization results in the
loss of many unique cultural identities and practices that were passed down
through generations. This is supported by Giddens, who argued that globalisation
is a threat to traditional beliefs and practices. An example of this could be the loss
of indigenous clothing such as the Japanese kimono or Native American Anuks.
Clothing items were made handmade with care and sustainability, due to Western
consumerism, there has been a promotion of fast fashion, which is detrimental to
the environment, and labourers in sweatshops, and is highly unsustainable.
Moreover, there has been a spread of Western ideals in the media, which impose
unrealistic standards, especially for women, which can cause social and
psychological issues. Women may often be portrayed as side characters to men, or
viewed as objects. This is a sort of cultural imperialism of the West and has
negative consequences for many social groups. This is supported by Stevens, who
suggested that the US influence is greatly aided by its entertainment industry.
Through globalisation, they can promote their cultures, which has led to a decline
in other important cultural practices.
Moreover, considering the economic benefits discussed previously, it is important
to note that globalisation and TNCs are also increasingly exploitative towards
developing countries. TNCs seek to maximise profits by taking advantage of lower
labour costs and less stringent regulatory environments in these nations. This
often results in poor working conditions, inadequate wages, and exploitation of
workers who lack protections compared to developed nations. This is supported by
Klein, who argued that TNCs over-exercise power without taking responsibility.
Examples of this can be seen in Congo, where workers are exploited due to Cobalt
mining, people living in those areas are displaced, their resources are being
depleted and its mining machinery is increasingly causing environmental
degradation. Bakan called TNCs "institutional psychopaths" as they have no regard
for the country they are exploiting for their means.
Profits generated are often sent to companies' home countries, and well-paying
jobs are often given to people who migrate from developed countries. It leads to
increased economic inequality instead of positive development. Moreover, the aid
that developing countries are provided with leads to more dependency and even
worse conditions if it is loaned and has to be returned with a great amount of
interest. Sociologist Frank supported this by arguing that TNCs, world trade, and
aid are the three horsemen of neo-colonialism, due to which developing countries
stay in a cycle of poverty. Any benefits provided are outnumbered by the
drawbacks, hence it can be said that globalisation does result in economic
development for developing countries
Finally, it is important to consider how globally there's a power imbalance and a
false impression of unity which negates the political benefits discussed earlier.
Martell argued how TNOs wield a lot of power and influence in decision-making in
other countries, affecting their sovereignty.
TNOs can shape policies and practices in ways that prioritise their interests over
those of local communities. This is enabled by the decision-making process of the
United Nations, where the veto powers get to decide which human rights violations
they will stay ignorant of and where they will interfere, This is supported by Cohen,
who argued that the definitions of Human rights should extend to cover the
activities of the rich Western nations and TNCs. The world ignores human rights
violations committed by the West, but immediately puts sanctions on other
countries for the same things, and calls themselves the champions of human
rights. This was especially noted when the US invaded Afghanistan in 2001, in the
name of eradicating terrorism, but instead affected the population for decades to
come and suffered no consequences for breaching the humanitarian law.
Moreover, global social movements often provide a false sense of unity by glossing
over deep-seated cultural, economic, and social differences.
These movements can sometimes be co-opted by powerful entities, diluting their
impact and diverting attention from grassroots efforts. This is supported by
Martell, who argued that social technology gives a false impression of power given
away to the people. Often petitions with many signatures are ignored and accounts
are banned by the social media companies resulting in fruitless protests. It is
evident that politically, globalisation has not resulted in any positive development.
Considering all the negative consequences of globalisation it can be said with
surety that it has not provided positive developments for all social groups. It has
resulted in more inequality, giving more power to the ruling class and increasing
suffering for the minorities. The dependency theory provides how globalisation has
increased the dependency of developing nations on the richer nations, which has
led to them being in a constant cycle of poverty. Due to this western nations can
exploit the resources and people. The dependency theory also proves that TNCs
reject the sovereignty of the countries, and indulge in the political affairs of
developing nations. TNCs promote Westernization, which results in negative
consumer practices and degrades the environment. Moreover, growing cultural
homogenization as a positive development ignores that it has resulted in cultural
erasure and the rights of such minority groups being ignored. Positive
developments are only evident for the people who are already in power, therefore,
it is evident that globalisation has not resulted in positive development, and has
instead caused more negative impact.
Global inequality, the stark contrast in resources, wealth, and opportunities across
nations, is a pressing issue in today's interconnected world. To unravel the
complexities of this disparity, scholars have put forth several theories. Among
these are modernization theory, which posits that as societies modernize and
industrialize, they progress towards prosperity and equality; dependency theory,
which emphasizes the exploitative relationships between developed and
developing nations; and world systems theory, which focuses on the
interconnected nature of the global economy and power dynamics between core
and periphery nations. These theories offer distinct lenses through which to
analyze and understand the origins and perpetuation of global inequality.

Q. Modernisation theory provides the best explanation of global inequality.

Evaluate the view. 135l
The western model of modernization is often seen as effective due to its emphasis
on key elements such as capitalism, democracy, secularism, and scientific
advancements. This model suggests that societies can progress along a linear
pathway to success, where achieving one stage acts as a platform to launch into
the next. Scholars like Rostow have outlined a five-stage model of development,
illustrating how nations evolve from traditional societies to modern industrialized
states. Additionally, Ferguson's concept of the "six killer apps" highlights the
crucial factors that have historically driven Western economic success, including
competition, property rights, and the scientific method. Furthermore, Llosa's idea
of a single global culture emerging from Western influence underscores the
perceived universality and influence of Western values and practices in shaping
the modern world. These perspectives collectively support the notion that the
western model of modernization offers an effective framework for economic and
social progress.
Developed countries have significantly impacted developing nations both directly
and indirectly, yielding various benefits. Different transnational organizations
(TNOs) play a pivotal role in this dynamic. These organizations contribute to
improved healthcare in developing countries by aiding in disease control, providing
vaccinations, and enhancing overall healthcare infrastructure. Moreover, TNOs
actively promote human rights by establishing platforms for advocacy and
awareness.
Additionally, the presence of transnational corporations (TNCs) from developed
countries has been instrumental in creating job opportunities and stimulating the
economies of less economically developed countries (LEDCs). Scholars like
Contreras have highlighted the positive relationship between TNCs and economic
growth, showcasing how these corporations can drive development in host
countries.
Furthermore, experts like Schultink have underscored the role of international
agencies in uplifting poorer nations. Through various initiatives and programs,
these agencies have contributed to enhancing living standards, promoting
education, and fostering economic growth in developing countries. The combined
efforts of TNOs, TNCs, and international agencies have played a significant role in
bridging the gap between developed and developing nations, showcasing the
tangible benefits that have accrued to the latter due to the influence and support
of the former.
The concept that inequality can be attributed to the subcultural values prevalent in
developing countries is a perspective that highlights the influence of traditional
beliefs and practices on societal disparities. In many developing nations,
subcultural values such as fatalism, particularism, and patriarchy can contribute to
a mindset where individuals are entrenched in traditional ways and reluctant to
adopt more progressive beliefs and values aligned with modern [Link]
like Parsons have emphasized the importance of eradicating cultural barriers to
address global inequalities effectively. By challenging and transforming subcultural
values that perpetuate inequality, societies can move towards a more equitable and
inclusive future. This approach aligns with the idea that cultural shifts and the
adoption of more contemporary norms are essential steps in reducing disparities
on a global scale. Furthermore, thinkers like Allen have critiqued Marxist theories
for their reductionist elements, suggesting that they may not provide a practical or
viable alternative to address the complexities of inequality. This perspective
underscores the need for nuanced and comprehensive approaches that consider
the multifaceted nature of societal inequalities and the role of cultural values in
shaping social structures.

Opposing side:
The notion that the western model is presented as the ultimate remedy for global
inequalities is indeed a contentious issue. This perspective often reflects a form of
ethnocentrism, where Western lifestyles are idealized and considered morally
superior, overlooking the diverse cultural richness and unique approaches to
societal organization present in various countries. It is crucial to acknowledge that
different nations possess their own distinct cultures, traditions, and values, which
shape their ways of life and societal structures. By recognizing and respecting this
diversity, a more inclusive and equitable approach to addressing global inequalities
can be fostered, one that appreciates the richness of different civilizations and
avoids imposing a singular Western-centric worldview as the universal solution.
Scholars like Edwards advocate for a balanced approach that integrates traditional
practices with modern advancements. By valuing and incorporating elements from
both the traditional and modern spheres, societies can harness the strengths of
their cultural heritage while embracing progress and innovation. This approach
highlights the importance of cultural sensitivity and the need to move beyond
ethnocentric perspectives when addressing complex global issues like inequality.
The structural and economic factors contributing to global inequality are indeed
multifaceted. The colonial legacy of exploitation has played a pivotal role in setting
back developing countries and hindering their developmental progress. Developed
nations historically benefited from the extraction of resources and exploitation of
labor from developing countries, laying the foundations of their own prosperity.
Scholars like Frank argue that global inequalities originated from the historical
injustices of slavery and colonialism, perpetuated by global capitalism deliberately
underdeveloping economies of developing nations to maintain dependency. Sachs,
on the other hand, posits that the root cause of inequality lies in the scarcity of
resources. Wallerstein's world-systems theory provides a comprehensive
framework to understand how the global economic system perpetuates inequality
through core-periphery relationships.
Developed countries have significantly exploited and disadvantaged developing
nations through various means. Transnational organizations (TNOs) and
transnational corporations (TNCs) have been instrumental in exerting control over
developing countries. These entities often fail to provide the necessary aid and
assistance that developing nations require. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)
have been criticized for their unjust nature, leading to further exploitation and
widening the gap between developed and developing nations.
TNOs, primarily funded by more economically developed countries (MEDCs), wield
considerable power in determining aid allocation to less economically developed
countries (LEDCs) based on the interests of the former. Scholars like Madeley have
pointed out how TNCs leverage their financial resources, power, and size to
influence governments and shape policies in their favor. Bakan's characterization
of TNCs as 'institutional psychopaths' emphasizes the negative impact of their
actions on global economic dynamics, highlighting the exploitative nature of their
practices.
Conclusion:
Disagree with the statement.
Dependency theory offers a better explanation of global inequality. Highlights the
problematic and unjust power and influence that developed countries have over
developing countries and how they've deliberately kept the latter in a state of
dependency for their own benefit.