Biology Assignment

1. Differentiate between C3 and C4 plants based on any three key features.

C3 plants:
· Photosynthesis occur in mesophyll cells
· Kranz anatomy is absent
· High rate of photorespiration, especially under high temperature and low CO■.
C4 plants:
· …mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.
· Kranz anatomy is present.
· Photorespiration is negligible due to CO■-concentrating mechanism.
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2. Describe the main stages of the Calvin cycle: carboxylation, reduction, and regeneration.
· Carboxylation: CO■ combines with RuBP (ribulose phosphate) in the presence of rubisco, forming
two molecules of 3-Phospholyceric acid (3-PGA).
· Reduction: 3-PGA is reduced to triose phosphate using ATP and NADPH from light reaction
· Regeneration: Some Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecules regenerate RuBp to continue the cycle;
others form glucose
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3. Explain the role of accessory pigments in photosynthesis.
· Accessory pigments such as chlorophyll-b, xanthophylls, and carotenoids absorb light in regions
where chlorophyll-a is less efficient.
· They transfer the absorbed energy to chlorophyll-a, helping in the photochemical reactions of
photosynthesis.
· These pigments protect chlorophyll by preventing photo-oxidation and dissipating excess light energy
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4. Discuss the difference between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
· Cyclic photophosphorylation:
I. Performed by Photosystem I independently
II. Synthesizes ATP
III. Doesn’t take part in photosynthesis except in certain bacteria
· Non-cyclic photophosphorylation:
I. ….by the collaboration of PSI and PSII
II. …both ATP and NADPH
III. This system is connected with CO2 fixation in all plants
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5. Explain how light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration affect the rate of photosynthesis.
· Light intensity: As light increases, the rate of photosynthesis rises until it reaches a saturation point
beyond which it cannot increase further.
· CO■ concentration: Higher CO■ increases the rate until Rubisco becomes saturated. Very low CO■
drastically slows photosynthesis.
· Both act as limiting factors depending on environmental conditions.
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6. Describe Kranz anatomy and its importance in C4 plants.
· C■ plants show Kranz anatomy, where vascular bundles are surrounded by large, thick-walled
bundle-sheath cells containing numerous chloroplasts.
· Mesophyll cells initially fix CO■ into 4-carbon compounds (such as OAA or malate), which are then
transported to the bundle-sheath cells.
· This mechanism minimizes photorespiration and increases the overall photosynthetic efficiency of C■
plants.
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7. What is photorespiration and how does it compare to regular respiration?
Photosynthesis is a metabolic process in plants where the enzyme RuBisCo fixes O2 instead of CO2
which reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis and releases CO2.
Moreover,
· Photosynthesis:
· Requires light (light dependent)
· CO2 released, no ATP or NADPH formed
· Respiration:
· Occurs in both light and dark
· CO2, H2O, released and ATP produced
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8. State the products of the light-dependent reactions and how they are utilized in the light-independent
reactions.
The light-dependent reactions produce ATP, NADPH, and O■.
· ATP serves as the energy currency for the synthesis of carbohydrates in the Calvin Cycle.
· NADPH provides reducing power for the Calvin cycle for CO2 fixation.
· O■ diffuses out of the chloroplast and is used or respiration or released into the atmosphere.
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9. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis, focusing on homologous chromosome pairing and
separation.
· Mitosis:
· The no. of chromosomes remain the same after mitosis
· No variations are introduced
· Its takes less time to complete
· Meiosis:
· …reduced to after meiosis
· It introduces variation
· …takes longer time to complete
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10. Why is the G0 phase of the cell cycle important for certain cells?
Importance of G0 Phase:
1. Some cells exit the cell cycle and enter a resting or quiescent phase called G0 Phase
2. Cells in G0 phase do not divide but perform normal function eg. Nerve & heart cells
3. It helps to maintain tissue stability and prevents uneccesary cell division
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11. Explain how the DNA content and chromosome number change during the S and G2 phases of the
cell cycle.
· S phase: DNA is replicated, so DNA content doubles, but the chromosome number remains
unchanged. Each chromosome now has two sister chromatids.
· G2 phase:
1. Cell prepares for mitosis, proteins and enzymes are synthesized
2. Thus by the end of G2 phase, DNA content doubles, chromosomes remain unseperated.
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12. Explain the significance of meiosis in sexually reproducing organisms.
Significance of Meiosis:
1. Maintains chromosome no. by reducing diploid to haploid in gametes.
2. Promotes genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment.
3. Ensures stability of species and variation which is essential for evolution.
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13. In an animal cell, what structure forms the asters of the spindle?
Ans: In animal cells, centrioles (present inside the centrosome) form the asters.
Each centriole organizes microtubules that radiate outward like a star, forming aster fibers.
These asters help in spindle formation and proper orientation of the mitotic spindle during cell division.
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14. Explain the importance of DNA replication during interphase.
Ans:
DNA replication occurs in the S-phase of interphase and is essential because:
1. It ensures that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of genetic material.
2. It maintains genetic continuity, so the chromosome number and hereditary information remain
constant after cell division.
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15. What is the difference between homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids?
Homologous Chromosomes: Occur in pairs, one from each parent. Similar in size, shape, and gene loci
but may have different alleles.
Sister Chromatids: Formed after DNA replication from the same chromosome. Genetically identical
copies.
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17. What is the significance of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
Ans:
1. Growth and development: Mitosis increases the number of cells.
2. Repair and regeneration: Damaged or dead cells are replaced by new, identical cells.
3. Maintains genetic stability: Daughter cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell.
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18. Explain the importance of chromosome replication during interphase.
Ans:
1. Chromosome replication ensures that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes
after cell division.
2. It maintains genetic stability and continuity across generations of cells, enabling proper functioning
and development of the organism.
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19. What is the primary purpose of the cell cycle?
Ans: To ensure cell growth and produce genetically identical daughter cells through cell division.
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20. Which phase of the cell cycle involves DNA replication?
Ans: S phase (Synthesis phase) of Interphase.
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21. During which phase do chromosomes become visible?
Ans: Prophase of M phase (mitosis).
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22. What is the first stable product of CO■ fixation in C■ plants?
Ans: 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
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23. What are the products of the light reaction that are used in the dark reaction?
Ans: ATP and NADPH.
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24. What metal ion is at the center of the chlorophyll molecule?
Ans: Magnesium (Mg²■).
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25. Range of PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation):
Correct answer: b) 400–700 nm
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26. Which color of light is least effective in photosynthesis?
Correct answer: d) Violet
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27. What is the correct order of events in the cell cycle?
Correct answer: a) G1 → G2 → S → M
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28. Meiosis II is equational division.
Answer: A and R both true, and R is the correct explanation.
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29. C■ plants: Bundle sheath chloroplasts are agranal.
Answer: A and R both true, but R is NOT the correct explanation.
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30. Calvin cycle as a “dark reaction” is a misnomer.
Answer: A and R both true, and R is the correct explanation.