4504 CVQR – Geotechnics I
Week 1 – Geology
Rock Types & Rock Cycle
Soil Formation
• Identify the three major rock groups.
• Explain the rock cycle and its significance.
• Describe how rocks weather into soils used in engineering.
Geology and Interior of Earth
• Geology is the study of the Earth, the
materials of which it is made, the structure
of those materials, and the processes acting
upon them.
• Crust
• Mantle
• Core
MINERALS and ROCKS
MINERALS: are naturally forming elements or
compounds with specific structures and chemical
compositions.
Feldspar, quartz, ferromagnesian minerals, iron
oxides, calcite, dolomite, mica and gypsum.
Minerals are the basic constituents of rocks
therefore minerals control much of the rock
behavior.
ROCK: Any naturally formed aggregate or mass of
mineral matter, constituting an essential and
appreciable part of the earth’s crust.
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SOIL
ROCKS break down into SOIL and many of the
minerals remain in their original form.
• SOIL any uncemented or weakly cemented
accumulation of mineral particles formed by
the weathering of rocks the void space between
the particles containing water and/or air. Weak
cementation can be due to carbonates or oxides
precipitated between the particles or due to
organic matter.
• Soil also can acquire other materials, including
organic matter, man made materials and water.
SOIL FORMATION
Rocks break down into soil by weathering.
ROCKS SOIL results in varying sizes of soil particles.
The physical properties of soils mainly determined by these
• Particle size
• Particle shape and
• compositon of soil solid particles.
and these engineering characteristics also have a significant effect on its
engineering behavior.
In order to understand these first one should consider the following issues.
• The rock types and the rock cycle
• Rock forming minerals
• Weathering and transportation processes
MINERALS: Definition
Minerals must be
1. A crystalIine solid
2. Occur naturally
3. Inorganic,
4. Definite chemical composition
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid that has a specific chemical composition.
In order to understand how rocks vary in composition and properties it is necessary to know the
variety of minerals that commonly occur in them.
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Chemical Composition of the Earth’s Crust
The most abundant elements on the Earth’s crust.
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Chemical Composition of the
Earth’s Crust
• Of particular importance in this respect are the crystal structures derived from the two
most common elements in the Earth’s crust—oxygen and silicon.
• Silica is a term for oxygen combined with silicon.
• Because silicon is the second most abundant element in the crust, most minerals
contain silica.
• The common mineral quartz (SiO2) is pure silica that has crystallized. It is one of many
minerals that are silicates, substances that contain silica
• Most silicate minerals also contain one or more other elements.
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Rock Forming Minerals
• Rock is naturally formed,
consolidated material composed of
grains of one or more minerals.
• Rocks are composed of minerals and
minerals are composed of atoms of
elements bonded together in an orderly
crystalline structure.
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Rock Forming Minerals
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Rock Cycle
• The geologic theories are organized around a
framework known as rock cycle which
includes many processes acting
simultaneously.
• The most important of these begin with
molten magma from within the earth forming
into rock, then continue with the rocks being
broken down into soil, and that soil being
converted back into rock.
• Rocks are classified according to their place
in the geologic cycle with three major
categories.
Rock Cycle
• The rock cycle is the process
that describes the gradual
transformation between the
three main types of rocks:
• Igneous
• sedimentary
• metamorphic
They are occurring continuously
in nature through geologic time.
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Steps of the Rock Cycle
1) Formation of Igneous Rock – Melting, Cooling, and
Crystallization
Magma, the molten rock present deep inside the earth,
solidifies due to cooling and crystallizes to form a type
of rock called igneous rocks. Cooling of igneous rocks
can occur slowly beneath the surface of the earth or
rapidly at its surface
2) Formation of Sedimentary Rock – Weathering, Erosion,
Sedimentation, and Compaction
Due to weathering and erosional activities, the igneous
rocks are broken down to form sediments in the form of
gravel, sand, silt, and clay, which gets mixed and pressed
together for extended periods to form sedimentary rocks.
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Rock Cycle
3) Formation of Metamorphic Rocks – Metamorphism
Over a very long period of time, sedimentary and
igneous rocks end up being buried deep underground
the soil, usually because of the movement of tectonic
plates. Deep below the surface, these rocks are
exposed to high heat and pressure, which change
them into a different type of rock called metamorphic
rock.
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Rock Cycle
4) Weathering
Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks present on
the surface of the earth are constantly being broken down
by wind and water over a long time.
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by
physical and chemical process into smaller particles.
Depending on the soil-forming factors in an area,
weathering may proceed rapidly over a decade or slowly
over millions of years.
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Rock Cycle
4) Weathering (Continue)
Mechanical Weathering
Water, Glaciers, Wind, Thermal Expansion/Contraction
Freeze/Thaw, Gravity/ Landslide
Chemical Weathering
Acids and salts react with minerals to form smaller particles
and clay minerals
5) Transportation
Carrying away of broken rocks by wind, rain, streams,
rivers, and oceans to a distant place from their origin.
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Rock Cycle
6) Deposition
During the carriage of rocks by rivers, the rock particles
(mixed with soil) sink and become a layer of sediment.
Often the sediments build up and form small
accumulations, which over time and pressure turn into
sedimentary rock.
Melting of underground metamorphic rock forms magma,
which on crystallization forms igneous rock, thus continuing
the cycle.
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Igneous Rocks
• Magma is generated by heating and melting of rocks
within the earth’s crust at depths of 10 to 100km.
• Most rocks melt at temperatures of 800 - 1200°C
• When the Magma cools, it solidifies by crystallizing into a
mosaic of minerals to form igneous rock.
Classification of igneous rocks
Occurrence Form Cooling Grain Size
mm
Rhyolite Adesite Basalt Extrusions Lavas Fast Fine <0.1
Porphyry Dolerite Small Dykes Medium Medium 0.1 –
intrusions 0.2
Granite Diorite Gabbro Large Batholiths Slow Coarse >0.2
intrusions
Granite
Sedimentary Rocks
• Sediment is largely material derived from the weathering of rocks
on the earth’s surface (the remainder being organic material).
• All rocks weather on exposure to air and water, and eventually break down
to form soils.
• In most environments the soil material is transported away from its source
and then may be regarded as sediment.
• Natural transportation processes are dominated by water, which can sort
and selectively deposit the sediment.
Sedimentary Rocks
• Most sedimentary rocks are varieties of sandstone, or limestone.
Sandstone
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Sandstones Mineral grains: mostly quartz, also muscovite (the physically & chemically stable minerals)
rock fragments & volcanic debris (not yet broken down into their constituent minerals)
Clays Breakdown products, clay minerals (formed by reaction of water with feldspar or
mafic minerals)
Minor rocks Organic debris, plant material to form peat and coal (animal soft parts form oil)
Limestones Organic debris, dominated by calcite from marine shell debris.
Solutes, dominantly calcite precipitated from sea water largely due to biological activity
Minor rocks Solutes, including gypsum and salt, and other less abundant soluble compounds.
Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are created by changes induced at high temperature (@ 600°C) and/ or
high pressure (@ 500 Mpa at 20 km depth).
• The type of metamorphic rock produced depends on the original rock material and the
temperature and pressure imposed.
• Re-crystallization forms a strong mineral mosaic, notably in marble.
• Most important changes are clay minerals > micas > feldspars & mafics.
Metamorphic rocks- Appearance
Metamorphism of different rocks
• Limestone > marble
• Sandstone > quartzite
• Basalt > greenstone
• Clay (& rock mixtures) > hornfels, slate, schist or gneiss
(depending on type & grade of metamorphism).
• Granite shows little change: stable in metamorphic conditions
Rocks Comparison
Rock Category
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Example Photo
Crystallized from Altered by heat &/or
Material origin Debris from erosion
molten Magma. pressure.
Environment Underground, and as lava flows. Deposition basins, mainly sea. Mostly deep inside mountain chains.
Mosaic of interlocking Mosaic of interlocking
Rock Texture crystals. Mostly granular & cemented.
crystals.
Rock Structure Massive. Layered, bedded Crystal, orientation due to pressure.
Rock Uniform high Variable, low Variable, high.
Strength strength.
Major types Granite & Basalt Sandstone & Limestone Schist & Slate
Principal Geological Factors for
Engineering Projects
• Stability of slopes and cuttings (Joints, faults, rock structure, weathering of rock, ground water condition,
erosion of slope by water, change in water content, human activity such as adding fresh load or vibration, shear strength
of materials forming cutting)
• Impounded surface water: geology of reservoir and dam (the suitability of a reservoir site is that the
rocks and soils around and below it form an impervious basin naturally, without need of excessive and expensive
grouting of potential leakage paths)
• Geology of tunnels (the feasibility, the planning, the costing, the design, the techniques used and the risk of
serious accidents during construction so dependent on the geology of the site as in tunnelling)
Soils vs. Rocks
Geotechnical engineers work with both rock and soil, and need to be familiar with both.
Neverthless, we focus more on the engineering behavior of soil because:
• More civil engineering projects are built on soil
• Soil, being generally weaker and compressible than rock, is more often a source of problems.
Therefore, we are especially interested in those portions of the geologic cycle that produce and
transport soils.
A clear understanding of these processes helps geotechnical engineers interpret data gained
from exploratory borings and thus supports the very important function of engineering judgment.
Soil Composition
SOLID : Particles
LIQUID : Water, between the interparticular voids
GAS : Air , between the inter particular voids
Soil is a civil engineering material which the properties and behavior must be determined.
SOIL as three phase systems
• Soil can contain all three phases of matter which are SOLID, LIQUID and GAS.
These three phases can be present in varying proportions.
• When all the voids are filled with air: soil is DRY
• When all the voids are filled with water: soil is FULLY SATURATED
• When voids are partially filled with water and partially filled with air :
soil is PARTIALLY SATURATED / UNSATURATED
Soil Formation: Rock cycle
The rock passes through various stages of
weathering, eventually being broken down
into small particles, the material we call
SOIL.
Weathering processes
The individual solid particles in a soil can have different sizes and shapes and these characteristics
also have a significant effect on its engineering behavior.
These mainly controlled by weathering and transportation processes.
Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are immidiately subjected to
1. Physical
2. Chemical, and biological breakdown through weathering.
Weathering processes continue even after the rock becomes a soil. As soil become older, they change
due to continued weathering.
Physical and Chemical Weathering
• Mechanical weathering increases the surface areas of rocks making them
more susceptible to chemical weathering.
Soil formation: particle size and shape
• Depending on particle size and composition soils are classified into four broad types:
1. GRAVEL are primarily the result of mechanical and mild
chemical weathering processes and retain much of
2. SAND the chemical structure of their parent rocks.
3. SILT
4. CLAY
are primarily the result of chemical weathering
• The particles occur in a wide range of sizes, from boulders down to the fine rock flour
formed by the grinding action.
Engineering properties of soils
• The physical properties of soils mainly determined by the
• Particle size
• Particle shape and
• Compositon of soil solid particles.
and these characteristics also have a significant effect on its
engineering behavior.
Mechanical weathering
• Soils that consists of Gravel, Sand, Silt are primarily the result of mechanical and mild
chemical weathering processes and retain much of the chemical structure of their parent rocks.
• Particles of this type are described as being of ‘bulky’ form.
• They have the same chemical composition with the parent rock.
• Their shape can be indicated by terms such as angular, rounded, flat and elongated. Angular particles are
most often found near the rock from which they formed while rounden particles are most often found
farther away where the soil experienced more abrasion. Angular particles has higher shear strength than
smooth ones.
Particle shapes
• Particles of this type are described as being of
‘bulky’ form.
Structural arrangement
• The structural arrangement of bulky particles is described
as single grain structure.
• each particle being in direct contact with adjoining
particles without there being any bond between them.
• The state of the particles can be described as dense,
medium dense or loose, depending on how they are packed
together.
Physical and Chemical Weathering
Gravel –Sand - Silt Clay
Bulky spherical form
of grains
Sheet or plate like
flaky shape particles
Clay Soils
• SOILS having specific type of CLAY MINERALS* in civil
engineering often called as a CLAY SOIL or CLAYEY SOIL.
• A soil which contains some clay minerals as well as other
mineral constituents has plasticity and is cohesive.
• These sheets are stacked over each other in specific ways to
form different clay minerals. (Kaolinite, Illite, Montmorillonite)
Plasticity and Cohesion
Plasticity and Cohesion
Clay Minerals
Clay minerals are:
• relatively small particles
• NOT spheres.
• have large negatively charged
surfaces.
• highly affected by surface forces.
Interlayers
Clay mineral
Inter particle
Layer particles
structure
Clay particles and water
• The interactions between water and clay minerals are
quite complex but the net effect is that engineering
behavior varies as the moisture content varies.
• Variation of water content has very little effect on the
bevior of coarse grained soils. They have smaller specific
surface and particles are inert.
• It needs to be well recognized that the presence of
clay minerals in a soil aggregate has a great influence
on the engineering properties of the soil as a whole.
• For all practical purposes when clay content is about %50 or
more, the sand and silt particles float in a clay matrix and the
clay minerals primarily dictate the engineering properties of
soil.
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Interaction of clay particles
• The clay particles are almost hydrated in nature that is there are layers of water surrounding each crystal of
clay. (adsorbed water).
• The structure and engineering properties depend on the nature of this adsorbed water layer.
This orientation of water around clay particles
give clay soils their plastic properties.
• The individual clay particles interact through their absorbed water layers and thus the presence of
different ions, organic materials, concentrations affect the soil structures found in natural soil deposits.
• Clay particles can repulse each other electrostaticaly or there can be attraction of the individual particles
due to hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces and other type of bondings. Cohesive soil behavior.
Clay minerals
• Common at the earth’s surface and they are the
major component of the soil.
• There are a number of different clay minerals.
• Montmorillonite is one of the most interesting clay
minerals.
also known as expansive or swelling clay.
• If water is added to the montmorillonite, the water molecules
are absorbed into the spaces between the silicate layers.
• Large increase in volume. The pressure generated can be can
be up to 50.000 kg/m2 which is sufficient to lift a building. Building
will lift up and break. Damage like an earthquake.
• Swelling characteristic can be good because when mixed with water can
be pumped into the fractured rock or concrete and fill cracks.
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Boulders
Cobbles Gravel
Sand Fine (Silt – clay)
Sand Silt
Clay
Clay sample Sand sample
[Link] [Link]
Soil material properties
Soil is a natural material not manufactured which makes them different from other
civil engineering materials. So What are these differences?
• Heterogenity: their properties vary significantly from place to place and even across a
single building site.
• Non-linear material: the stress and stress behavior is not linear.
• Non-conservative: Their behavior varies depending on the pressure, time and
environmental effects. They have a good memory and remember the stress histories
they have experienced.
• Anisotropy : Their engineering and material properties change with direction. It is not
the same in all directions.
• Any discontinuties : (joints/faults/weak layer or regions) affects the engineering
behaviors.
Engineering behavior of soils
• Soil is a particulate material, that consists of individual particles. It is not a continuous mass. It has
void between particles. It consists of individual particles. Its engineering properties depend largely
on the interaction between these particles and only secondarily on their internal properties.
• Soil can contain all three phases of matter which are SOLID, LIQUID and GAS. These three phases
can be present in varying proportions.
• Soil –water interaction
• Physical and chemical interactions with water and air
• Movement of water through the pores.
• Particle interactions
Makes the soil engineering behavior very complex to understand.
Physical-textural and
Engineering Behavior of Soils
Soil type Gravel - Sand Silt Clay
Grain Size Coarse grained, grains Fine grained, grains Fine grained, grains
can be seen with naked cannot be seen with naked cannot be seen with
eye eye. naked eye.
Characteristic Cohesionless, Cohesionless, Cohesive, plastic
nonplastic, granular nonplastic, granular
Effect of water on For static conditions it is Important Very important
the engineering relatively unimportant
behavior
Effect of grain size Important Partially important Unimportant
distribution on the
engineering
behavior
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