Understanding Sets and Functions
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pandyeg8Understanding Sets and Functions
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pandyeg8Chapter
2
Chapter
Summary
Sets
The
Language
of
Sets
Set
Operations
Set
Identities
Functions
Types
of
Functions
Operations
on
Functions
Computability
Sequences
and
Summations
Types
of
Sequences
Summation
Formulae
Set
Cardinality
Matrices
Matrix
Arithmetic
Section
2.1
[Link]
Summary
Definition
of
sets
Describing
Sets
Roster
Method
Set-‐Builder
Notation
Some
Important
Sets
in
Mathematics
Empty
Set
and
Universal
Set
Subsets
and
Set
Equality
Cardinality
of
Sets
Tuples
Cartesian
Product
[Link]
Sets
are
one
of
the
basic
building
blocks
for
the
types
of
objects
considered
in
discrete
mathematics.
Important
for
counting.
Programming
languages
have
set
operations.
Set
theory
is
an
important
branch
of
mathematics.
Many
different
systems
of
axioms
have
been
used
to
develop
set
theory.
Here
we
are
not
concerned
with
a
formal
set
of
axioms
for
set
theory.
Instead,
we
will
use
what
is
called
naïve
set
theory.
Sets
A
set
is
an
unordered
collection
of
objects.
the
students
in
this
class
the
chairs
in
this
room
The
objects
in
a
set
are
called
the
elements,
or
members
of
the
set.
A
set
is
said
to
contain
its
elements.
The
notation
a ∈ A denotes
that
a
is
an
element
of
the
set
A.
If
a
is
not
a
member
of
A,
write
a ∉ A
Describing
a
Set:
Roster
Method
S = {a,b,c,d}
Order
not
important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
Each
distinct
object
is
either
a
member
or
not;
listing
more
than
once
does
not
change
the
set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
Ellipsis (three-‐dots) may be used to describe a set
without listing all of the members when the pattern is
clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, … ,z }
Roster
Method
Set
of
all
vowels
in
the
English
alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
Set
of
all
odd
positive
integers
less
than
10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
Set
of
all
positive
integers
less
than
100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -‐3,-‐2,-‐1}
Some
Important
Sets
N
=
natural
numbers
=
{0,1,2,3….}
Z
=
integers
=
{…,-‐3,-‐2,-‐1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺
=
positive
integers
=
{1,2,3,…..}
R
=
set
of
real
numbers
R+
=
set
of
positive
real
numbers
C
=
set
of
complex
numbers.
Q
=
set
of
rational
numbers
Set-‐Builder
[Link]
Specify
the
property
or
properties
that
all
members
must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
A
predicate
may
be
used:
S = {x | P(x)}
Example:
S = {x | Prime(x)}
Positive
rational
numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
Interval
[Link]
[a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a,b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}
(a,b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}
(a,b) = {x | a < x < b}
closed interval [a,b]
open interval (a,b)
Universal Set and Empty Set
The universal set U is the set containing everything
currently under consideration.
Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
Sometimes explicitly stated.
Contents depend on the context. U
The empty set is the set with no V a e i
o u
elements. Symbolized by ∅.
John Venn (1834-‐1923)
Cambridge, UK
Russell’s Paradox
Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer
the question “Is S a member of itself?”
Related Paradox:
Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not
shave themselves. A paradox results from trying to
answer the question “Does Henry shave himself?”
Bertrand Russell (1872-‐1970)
Cambridge, UK
Nobel Prize Winner
Some things to remember
Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
The empty set is different from a set containing the
empty set.
∅ ≠ { ∅ }
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have
the same elements.
Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if
and only if .
We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if
every element of A is also an element of B.
The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset
of the set B.
A ⊆ B holds if and only if is true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
2. Because a ∈ S → a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.
Showing a Set is or is not a Subset
of Another Set
Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆
B, show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A
is not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with
x ∉ B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that
x ∈ A implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is
a subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
Another look at Equality of Sets
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by
A = B, iff
Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff
This is equivalent to
A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is a
proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, then
is true.
U
Venn
Diagram
B
A
Set
Cardinality
Definition:
If
there
are
exactly
n
distinct
elements
in
S
where
n
is
a
nonnegative
integer,
we
say
that
S
is
finite.
Otherwise
it
is
infinite.
Definition:
The
cardinality
of
a
finite
set
A,
denoted
by
|A|,
is
the
number
of
(distinct)
elements
of
A.
Examples:
1. |ø|
=
0
2. Let
S
be
the
letters
of
the
English
alphabet.
Then
|S|
=
26
3. |{1,2,3}|
=
3
4. |{ø}|
=
1
5. The
set
of
integers
is
infinite.
Power
Sets
Definition:
The
set
of
all
subsets
of
a
set
A,
denoted
P(A),
is
called
the
power
set
of
A.
Example:
If
A
=
{a,b}
then
P(A)
=
{ø,
{a},{b},{a,b}}
If
a
set
has
n
elements,
then
the
cardinality
of
the
power
set
is
2ⁿ.
(In
Chapters
5
and
6,
we
will
discuss
different
ways
to
show
this.)
Tuples
The
ordered
n-‐tuple
(a1,a2,…..,an)
is
the
ordered
collection
that
has
a1
as
its
first
element
and
a2
as
its
second
element
and
so
on
until
an
as
its
last
element.
Two
n-‐tuples
are
equal
if
and
only
if
their
corresponding
elements
are
equal.
2-‐tuples
are
called
ordered
pairs.
The
ordered
pairs
(a,b)
and
(c,d)
are
equal
if
and
only
if
a = c and
b = d.
René Descartes
(1596-‐1650)
Cartesian
Product
Definition:
The
Cartesian
Product
of
two
sets
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A
×
B
is
the
set
of
ordered
pairs
(a,b)
where
a
∈
A
and
b
∈
B
.
Example:
A
=
{a,b}
B
=
{1,2,3}
A
×
B
=
{(a,1),(a,2),(a,3),
(b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
Definition:
A
subset
R
of
the
Cartesian
product
A
×
B
is
called
a
relation
from
the
set
A
to
the
set
B.
(Relations
will
be
covered
in
depth
in
Chapter
9.
)
Cartesian
Product
Definition:
The
cartesian
products
of
the
sets
A1,A2,……,An,
denoted
by
A1 × A2 × …… × An , is
the
set
of
ordered
n-‐tuples
(a1,a2,……,an)
where
ai
belongs
to
Ai
for
i
=
1,
…
n.
Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and
C = {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1),
(0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,1,2)}
Section 2.2
[Link] Summary
Set Operations
Union
Intersection
Complementation
Difference
More on Set Cardinality
Set Identities
Proving Identities
Membership Tables
Boolean Algebra
Propositional calculus and set theory are both
instances of an algebraic system called a Boolean
Algebra. This is discussed in CS2209.
The operators in set theory are analogous to the
corresponding operator in propositional calculus.
As always there must be a universal set U. All sets are
assumed to be subsets of U.
Union
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets
A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set:
Example: What is {1,2,3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}?
Venn Diagram for A ∪ B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} U
A B
[Link]
Definition:
The
intersection
of
sets
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A
∩ B,
is
Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are
said to be disjoint.
Example: What is {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ?
Venn Diagram for A ∩B
Solution: {3}
Example:What is U
A
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ? B
Solution: ∅
Complement
Definition:
If
A
is
a
set,
then
the
complement
of
the
A
(with
respect
to
U),
denoted
by
Ā
is
the
set
U -‐ A
Ā
= {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
(The
complement
of
A
is
sometimes
denoted
by
Ac
.)
Example:
If
U
is
the
positive
integers
less
than
100,
what
is
the
complement
of
{x | x > 70}
Venn
Diagram
for
Complement
U
Ā
A
Complement
Definition:
If
A
is
a
set,
then
the
complement
of
the
A
(with
respect
to
U),
denoted
by
Ā
is
the
set
U -‐ A
Ā
= {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
(The
complement
of
A
is
sometimes
denoted
by
Ac
.)
Example:
If
U
is
the
positive
integers
less
than
100,
what
is
the
complement
of
{x | x > 70}
Solution: {x
| x ≤ 70} Venn
Diagram
for
Complement
U
Ā
A
Difference
Definition:
Let
A
and
B
be
sets.
The
difference
of
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A
–
B,
is
the
set
containing
the
elements
of
A
that
are
not
in
B.
The
difference
of
A
and
B
is
also
called
the
complement
of
B
with
respect
to
A.
A
–
B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} = A ∩ Bc
U Venn Diagram for A − B
A
B
The Cardinality of the Union of Two
Sets
• Inclusion-‐Exclusion
U
|A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| -‐ |A ∩ B|
A B
Venn Diagram for A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B
• Example:
Let
A
be
the
math
majors
in
your
class
and
B
be
the
CS
majors.
To
count
the
number
of
students
who
are
either
math
majors
or
CS
majors,
add
the
number
of
math
majors
and
the
number
of
CS
majors,
and
subtract
the
number
of
joint
CS/math
majors.
• We
will
return
to
this
principle
in
Chapter
6
and
Chapter
8
where
we
will
derive
a
formula
for
the
cardinality
of
the
union
of
n
sets,
where
n
is
a
positive
integer.
Review
[Link]
Example:
U
=
{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A
=
{1,2,3,4,5},
B
={4,5,6,7,8}
1. A ∪ B
2. A ∩ B
3. Ā
4.
5. A – B
6. B – A
Review
[Link]
Example:
U
=
{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A
=
{1,2,3,4,5},
B
={4,5,6,7,8}
1. A ∪ B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
2. A ∩ B
Solution: {4,5}
3. Ā
Solution: {0,6,7,8,9,10}
4.
Solution:
{0,1,2,3,9,10}
5. A – B
Solution: {1,2,3}
6. B – A
Solution: {6,7,8}
Set
Iden..es
Identity
laws
Domination
laws
Idempotent
laws
Complementation
law
Continued on next slide à
Set Iden..es
Commutative laws
Associative laws
Distributive laws
Continued on next slide à
Set Iden..es
De Morgan’s laws
Absorption
laws
Complement
laws
Proving
Set
Iden..es
Prove
that
each
set
(side
of
the
identity)
is
a
subset
of
the
other.
Use
definitions
and
propositional
logic
Proof
of
Second
De
Morgan
Law
Example:
Prove
that
Solution:
We
prove
this
identity
by
showing
that:
1)
and
2)
Continued on next slide à
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:
Continued on next slide à
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:
Generalized Unions and
[Link]
Let A1, A2 ,…, An be an indexed collection of sets.
We define:
These are well defined, since union and intersection
are associative.
For i = 1,2,…, let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, ….}. Then,
Computer [Link] of Sets
Assume the universal set U is finite (not larger than the memory size of the
computer being used)
First specify an arbitrary ordering of the elements in U, for instance a1, a2,…,
an
Represent a subset A of U with the bit string of length n, where the ith bit is 1
if ai belongs to A and is 0 if ai does not belong to A
Example:
Let
U
={1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10},
and
the
ordering
of
U
has
the
elements
in
the
increasing
order.
What
bit
strings
represent
the
subset
of
all
odd
integers?
What
bit
string
represents
the
set
of
all
even
integers?
What
bit
string
represents
the
subset
of
integers
not
exceeding
5
in
U?
What
is
the
bit
string
that
represents
the
complement
of
a
subset?
What
is
the
bit
string
that
represents
the
union
of
two
subsets?
What
is
the
bit
string
that
represents
the
intersection
of
two
subsets?
Section
2.3
[Link]
Summary
Definition
of
a
Function.
Domain,
Codomain
Image,
Preimage
Injection,
Surjection,
Bijection
Inverse
Function
Function
Composition
Graphing
Functions
Floor,
Ceiling,
Factorial
Partial
functions
[Link]
Definition:
Let
A
and
B
be
nonempty
sets.
A
function
f
from
A
to
B,
denoted
f: A → B is an assignment of each
element of A to exactly one element of B. We write
f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the
function f to the element a of A. Students
Grades
Functions are sometimes A
Carlota
Rodriguez
called mappings or B
transformations. Sandeep
Patel
C
Jalen
Williams
D
F
Kathy
Scott
[Link]
A
function
f: A → B can
also
be
defined
as
a
subset
of
A×B
(a
relation).
This
subset
is
restricted
to
be
a
relation
where
no
two
elements
of
the
relation
have
the
same
first
element.
Specifically,
a
function
f
from
A
to
B
contains
one,
and
only
one
ordered
pair
(a,
b)
for
every
element
a∈
A.
and
[Link]
Given
a
function
f: A → B:
We
say
f maps
A
to
B
or
f
is
a
mapping
from
A
to
B.
A
is
called
the
domain
of
f.
B
is
called
the
codomain
of
f.
If
f(a)
=
b,
then
b is
called
the
image
of
a under
f.
a
is
called
the
preimage
of
b.
The
range
of
f
is
the
set
of
all
images
of
points
in
A
under
f.
We
denote
it
by
f(A).
Two
functions
are
equal
when
they
have
the
same
domain,
the
same
codomain
and
map
each
element
of
the
domain
to
the
same
element
of
the
codomain.
[Link]
[Link]
Functions
may
be
specified
in
different
ways:
An
explicit
statement
of
the
assignment.
Students
and
grades
example.
A
formula.
f(x) = x + 1
A
computer
program.
A
Java
program
that
when
given
an
integer
n,
produces
the
nth
Fibonacci
Number
(covered
in
the
next
section
and
also
in
Chapter
5).
[Link]
f(a)
=
?
A
B
a
The
image
of
d
is
?
x
b
The
domain
of
f
is
?
y
c
The
codomain
of
f
is
?
d z
The preimage of y is ?
f(A) = ?
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ?
[Link]
f(a) = ? z A B
a
The image of d is ? z x
b
The
domain
of
f
is
?
A
y
c
The
codomain
of
f
is
?
B
d z
The
preimage
of
y
is
?
b
f(A)
=
?
{y,
z}
The
preimage(s)
of
z
is
(are)
?
{a,c,d}
[Link]
on
[Link]
and
Sets
If
and
S
is
a
subset
of
A,
then
A
B
f
{a,b,c,}
is
?
a
x
b
f
{c,d}
is
?
y
c
d z
[Link]
on
[Link]
and
Sets
If
and
S
is
a
subset
of
A,
then
A
B
f
{a,b,c,}
is
?
{y,z}
a
x
b
f
{c,d}
is
?
{z}
y
c
d z
[Link]
Definition:
A
function
f
is
said
to
be
one-‐to-‐one
,
or
injective,
if
and
only
if
f(a)
=
f(b)
implies
that
a
=
b
for
all
a
and
b
in
the
domain
of
f.
A
function
is
said
to
be
an
injection
if
it
is
one-‐to-‐one.
A B
a x
v
b
y
c
z
d
w
[Link]
Definition:
A
function
f
from
A
to
B
is
called
onto
or
surjective,
if
and
only
if
for
every
element
there
is
an
element
with
.
A
function
f
is
called
a
surjection
if
it
is
onto.
A
B
a x
b
y
c
z
d
[Link]
Definition:
A
function
f
is
a
one-‐to-‐one
correspondence,
or
a
bijection,
if
it
is
both
one-‐to-‐one
and
onto
(surjective
and
injective).
A
B
a x
b
y
c
d z
w
Showing
that
f
is
one-‐to-‐one
or
onto
Showing
that
f
is
one-‐to-‐one
or
onto
Example
1:
Let
f
be
the
function
from
{a,b,c,d}
to
{1,2,3}
defined
by
f(a)
=
3,
f(b)
=
2,
f(c)
=
1,
and
f(d)
=
3.
Is
f
an
onto
function?
Example
2:
Is
the
function
f(x)
=
x2
from
the
set
of
integers
onto?
Showing
that
f
is
one-‐to-‐one
or
onto
Example
1:
Let
f
be
the
function
from
{a,b,c,d}
to
{1,2,3}
defined
by
f(a)
=
3,
f(b)
=
2,
f(c)
=
1,
and
f(d)
=
3.
Is
f
an
onto
function?
Solution:
Yes,
f
is
onto
since
all
three
elements
of
the
codomain
are
images
of
elements
in
the
domain.
If
the
codomain
were
changed
to
{1,2,3,4},
f
would
not
be
onto.
Example
2:
Is
the
function
f(x)
=
x2
from
the
set
of
integers
onto?
Solution:
No,
f
is
not
onto
because
there
is
no
integer
x
with
x2
=
−1, for example.
Inverse
[Link]
Definition:
Let
f
be
a
bijection
from
A
to
B.
Then
the
inverse
of
f,
denoted
,
is
the
function
from
B
to
A
defined
as
No
inverse
exists
unless
f
is
a
bijection.
Why?
Inverse
[Link]
A
f
B
A
B
a
V V
a
b b
W W
c
c
d X X
d
Y Y
[Link]
Example
1:
Let
f
be
the
function
from
{a,b,c}
to
{1,2,3}
such
that
f(a)
=
2,
f(b)
=
3,
and
f(c)
=
1.
Is
f
invertible
and
if
so
what
is
its
inverse?
[Link]
Example
1:
Let
f
be
the
function
from
{a,b,c}
to
{1,2,3}
such
that
f(a)
=
2,
f(b)
=
3,
and
f(c)
=
1.
Is
f
invertible
and
if
so
what
is
its
inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a
one-‐to-‐one correspondence. The inverse function f-‐1
reverses the correspondence given by f, so f-‐1 (1) = c,
f-‐1 (2) = a, and f-‐1 (3) = b.
[Link]
Example 2: Let f: Z à Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
[Link]
Example 2: Let f: Z à Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-‐
to-‐one correspondence. The inverse function f-‐1 reverses
the correspondence so f-‐1 (y) = y – 1.
[Link]
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that . Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
[Link]
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that . Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is not invertible because it
is not one-‐to-‐one .
[Link]
Definition: Let f: B → C, g: A → B. The composition of
f with g, denoted is the function from A to C
defined by
[Link]
g f
A B C A C
V a
a h h
b i b
W i
c
c
X j
d
d j
Y
[Link]
Example 1: If and ,
then
and
[Link]
[Link]
Example
2:
Let
g
be
the
function
from
the
set
{a,b,c}
to
itself
such
that
g(a)
=
b,
g(b)
=
c,
and
g(c)
=
a.
Let
f
be
the
function
from
the
set
{a,b,c}
to
the
set
{1,2,3}
such
that
f(a)
=
3,
f(b)
=
2,
and
f(c)
= 1.
What
is
the
composition
of
f
and
g,
and
what
is
the
composition
of
g
and
f.
[Link]
[Link]
Example
2:
Let
g
be
the
function
from
the
set
{a,b,c}
to
itself
such
that
g(a)
=
b,
g(b)
=
c,
and
g(c)
=
a.
Let
f
be
the
function
from
the
set
{a,b,c}
to
the
set
{1,2,3}
such
that
f(a)
=
3,
f(b)
=
2,
and
f(c)
= 1.
What
is
the
composition
of
f
and
g,
and
what
is
the
composition
of
g
and
f.
Solution:
The
composition
f∘g
is
defined
by
f∘g (a)= f(g(a)) = f(b) = 2.
f∘g (b)= f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1.
f∘g (c)= f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3.
Note
that
g∘f is not deuined, because the range of f is not a
subset of the domain of g.
[Link]
[Link]
Example
2:
Let
f
and
g
be
functions
from
the
set
of
integers
to
the
set
of
integers
defined
by
f(x)
=
2x
+
3
and
g(x)
=
3x
+
2.
What
is
the
composition
of
f
and
g,
and
also
the
composition
of
g
and
f
?
[Link]
[Link]
Example
2:
Let
f
and
g
be
functions
from
the
set
of
integers
to
the
set
of
integers
defined
by
f(x)
=
2x
+
3
and
g(x)
=
3x
+
2.
What
is
the
composition
of
f
and
g,
and
also
the
composition
of
g
and
f
?
Solution:
f∘g (x)= f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g∘f (x)= g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x
+ 3) + 2 = 6x + 11
Graphs
of
[Link]
Let
f
be
a
function
from
the
set
A
to
the
set
B.
The
graph
of
the
function
f
is
the
set
of
ordered
pairs
{(a,b) | a ∈A and f(a) = b}.
Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2
from Z to Z from Z to Z
Some Important [Link]
The floor function, denoted
is the largest integer less than or equal to x.
The ceiling function, denoted
is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x
Example:
Floor
and
Ceiling
[Link]
Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions
Floor and Ceiling [Link]
Computer [Link] of Floor
and Ceiling [Link]
Example: Data stored on a computer or transmitted
over a network are represented as a string of bytes.
Each byte consists of 8 bits. How many bytes are
required to encode 100 bits of data?
Example: In asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
(a communication protocol used in backbone
networks), data are organized into cells of 53 bytes.
How many ATM cells can be transmitted in 1 minute
over a connection that transmits data at a rate of 500
kilobits per second?
Proving [Link] of [Link]
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + ½⌋
Proving [Link] of [Link]
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε ≥ ½
2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1,
since 0 ≤ 2 ε -‐ 1< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since
0 ≤ ε – 1/2< 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1.
Factorial [Link]
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the
product of the first n positive integers when n is a
nonnegative integer.
f(n) = 1 ∙ 2 ∙∙∙ (n – 1) ∙ n, f(0) = 0! = 1
Examples:
f(1) = 1! = 1
f(2) = 2! = 1 ∙ 2 = 2
f(6) = 6! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3∙ 4∙ 5 ∙ 6 = 720
Stirling’s Formula:
f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.
[Link] [Link]
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is
an assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called
the domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively.
We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are not in
the domain of definition of f.
When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that f
is a total function.
Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial function
from Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of
nonnegative integers. Note that f is undefined for negative
integers.
Section 2.4
[Link] Summary
Sequences.
Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic
Progression
Recurrence Relations
Example: Fibonacci Sequence
Summations
[Link]
Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
1, 2, 3, 5, 8
1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….
Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer
science, and in many other disciplines, ranging from
botany to music.
We will introduce the terminology to represent
sequences and sums of the terms in the sequences.
Sequences
Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of
the integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..} or
{1, 2, 3, 4, ….} ) to a set S.
The notation an is used to denote the image of the
integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of
f(n) where f is a function from {0,1,2,…..} to S. We
call an a term of the sequence.
Sequences
Example: Consider the sequence where
Geometric
Progression
Definition:
A
geometric
progression
is
a
sequence
of
the
form:
where
the
initial
term
a
and
the
common
ratio
r
are
real
numbers.
Examples:
1. Let
a
=
1
and
r
=
−1.
Then:
2. Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then:
3. Let a = 6 and r = 1/3. Then:
Arithme.c
Progression
Definition:
A
arithmetic
progression
is
a
sequence
of
the
form:
where
the
initial
term
a
and
the
common
difference
d
are
real
numbers.
Examples:
1. Let
a
=
−1
and
d
=
4:
2. Let a = 7 and d = −3:
3. Let a = 1 and d = 2:
Sequences
Used
in
Computer
Science:
Strings
Definition:
A
string
is
a
finite
sequence
of
characters
from
a
finite
set
(an
alphabet).
Sequences
of
characters
or
bits
are
important
in
computer
science.
The
empty
string
is
represented
by
λ.
The
string
abcde
has
length
5.
The
(bit)
string
0011
1100
has
length
8.
Recurrence
[Link]
Definition:
A
recurrence
relation
for
the
sequence
{an}
is
an
equation
that
expresses
an
in
terms
of
one
or
more
of
the
previous
terms
of
the
sequence,
namely,
a0,
a1,
…,
an-‐1,
for
all
integers
n
with
n
≥
n0,
where
n0
is
a
nonnegative
integer.
A
sequence
is
called
a
solution
of
a
recurrence
relation
if
its
terms
satisfy
the
recurrence
relation.
The
initial
conditions
for
a
sequence
specify
the
terms
that
precede
the
first
term
where
the
recurrence
relation
takes
effect.
[Link]
about
Recurrence
[Link]
Example
1:
Let
{an}
be
a
sequence
that
satisfies
the
recurrence
relation
an
=
an-‐1
+
3
for
n
=
1,2,3,4,….
and
suppose
that
a0
=
2.
What
are
a1
,
a2
and
a3?
[Here
a0
=
2
is
the
initial
condition.]
Solution:
We
see
from
the
recurrence
relation
that
a1
=
a0
+ 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2
=
5 + 3 = 8
a3
= 8 + 3 = 11
[Link]
about
Recurrence
[Link]
Example
2:
Let
{an}
be
a
sequence
that
satisfies
the
recurrence
relation
an
=
an-‐1
–
an-‐2
for
n
=
2,3,4,….
and
suppose
that
a0
=
3
and
a1
=
5.
What
are
a2
and
a3?
[Here
the
initial
conditions
are
a0
=
3
and
a1
=
5.
]
[Link]
about
Recurrence
[Link]
Example
2:
Let
{an}
be
a
sequence
that
satisfies
the
recurrence
relation
an
=
an-‐1
–
an-‐2
for
n
=
2,3,4,….
and
suppose
that
a0
=
3
and
a1
=
5.
What
are
a2
and
a3?
[Here
the
initial
conditions
are
a0
=
3
and
a1
=
5.
]
Solution:
We
see
from
the
recurrence
relation
that
a2
=
a1
-‐
a0
=
5
–
3 =
2
a3
=
a2
–
a1
=
2 –
5 = –3
Fibonacci
Sequence
Definition: Define
the
Fibonacci
sequence, f0
,f1
,f2,…,
by:
Initial
Conditions:
f0
=
0,
f1
= 1
Recurrence
Relation:
fn
=
fn-‐1
+
fn-‐2
Example:
Find
f2
,f3
,f4
,
f5
and
f6
.
Fibonacci
Sequence
Definition: Define
the
Fibonacci
sequence, f0
,f1
,f2,…,
by:
Initial
Conditions:
f0
=
0,
f1
= 1
Recurrence
Relation:
fn
=
fn-‐1
+
fn-‐2
Example:
Find
f2
,f3
,f4
,
f5
and
f6
.
Answer:
f2 = f1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1,
f3 = f2 + f1 = 1 + 1 = 2,
f4 = f3 + f2 = 2 + 1 = 3,
f5 = f4 + f3 = 3 + 2 = 5,
f6 = f5 + f4 = 5 + 3 = 8.
Fibonacci
Sequence
and
the
Golden
Ra.o
Golden
Ratio
:
(a+b)/a
=
a/b
=
φ
Solution
φ
=
(1+
√5)/2
=
1.61...
lim
nà∞
(f
n+1
/f
n)
=
φ
Golden
Ra.o
in
Nature
Golden
Ra.o
in
Nature
Golden
Ra.o
in
Art
Golden
Ra.o
in
Architecture
Solving
Recurrence
[Link]
Finding
a
formula
for
the
nth
term
of
the
sequence
generated
by
a
recurrence
relation
is
called
solving
the
recurrence
relation.
Such
a
formula
is
called
a
closed
formula.
Various
methods
for
solving
recurrence
relations
are
covered
in
Chapter
8
where
recurrence
relations
are
studied
in
greater
depth.
Here
we
illustrate
by
example
the
method
of
iteration
in
which
we
need
to
guess
the
formula.
The
guess
can
be
proved
correct
by
the
method
of
induction
(Chapter
5).
[Link]
[Link]
Example
Method
1:
Working
upward,
forward
substitution
Let
{an} be
a
sequence
that
satisfies
the
recurrence
relation
an = an-‐1 + 3
for
n = 2,3,4,…. and
suppose
that
a1 = 2.
a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 2
a4 = (2 + 2 ∙ 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
an = an-‐1 + 3 = (2 + 3 ∙ (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n – 1)
[Link]
[Link]
Example
Method
2:
Working
downward,
backward
substitution
Let
{an} be
a
sequence
that
satisfies
the
recurrence
relation
an = an-‐1 + 3
for
n = 2,3,4,…. and
suppose
that
a1 = 2.
an = an-‐1 + 3
= (an-‐2 + 3) + 3 = an-‐2 + 3 ∙ 2
= (an-‐3 + 3 )+ 3 ∙ 2 = an-‐3 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
= a2 + 3(n – 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n – 2) = 2 + 3(n – 1)
Financial
[Link]
Example:
Suppose
that
a
person
deposits
$10,000.00
in
a
savings
account
at
a
bank
yielding
11%
per
year
with
interest
compounded
annually.
How
much
will
be
in
the
account
after
30
years?
Let
Pn
denote
the
amount
in
the
account
after
n years.
Pn
satisfies
the
following
recurrence
relation:
Pn
=
Pn-‐1
+
0.11Pn-‐1
=
(1.11)
Pn-‐1
with
the
initial
condition
P0
=
10,000
Continued
on
next
slide
à
Financial
[Link]
Pn
=
Pn-‐1
+
0.11Pn-‐1
=
(1.11)
Pn-‐1
with
the
initial
condition
P0
=
10,000
Solution:
Forward
Substitution
P1
=
(1.11)P0
P2
=
(1.11)P1
=
(1.11)2P0
P3
=
(1.11)P2
=
(1.11)3P0
:
Pn
=
(1.11)Pn-‐1
=
(1.11)nP0
=
(1.11)n
10,000
Pn
=
(1.11)n
10,000
(Can
prove
by
induction,
covered
in
Chapter
5)
P30
=
(1.11)30
10,000
=
$228,992.97
Useful
Sequences
[Link]
Sum
of
the
terms
from
the
sequence
The
notation:
represents
The
variable
j
is
called
the
index
of
summation.
It
runs
through
all
the
integers
starting
with
its
lower
limit
m
and
ending
with
its
upper
limit
n.
[Link]
More
generally
for
a
set
S:
Examples:
Product
[Link]
Product
of
the
terms
from
the
sequence
The
notation:
represents
Geometric
Series
Sums
of
terms
of
geometric
progressions
Continued on next slide à
Geometric Series
Sums of terms of geometric progressions
To compute Sn , first multiply both sides of the
Proof: Let equality by r and then manipulate the resulting
sum as follows:
Continued on next slide à
Geometric Series
From previous slide.
Shifting the index of summation with k = j + 1.
Removing k = n + 1 term and
adding k = 0 term.
Substituting S for summation formula
∴
if
r
≠1
if
r = 1
Some
Useful
[Link]
Formulae
Geometric
Series:
We
just
proved
this.
Later
we
will
prove
some
of
these
by
induction.
Proof in text
(requires calculus)
Section 2.5
[Link] Summary
Cardinality
Countable Sets
Computability
Cardinality
Definition: The cardinality of a set A is equal to the
cardinality of a set B, denoted
|A| = |B|,
if and only if there is a one-‐to-‐one correspondence (i.e., a
bijection) from A to B.
If there is a one-‐to-‐one function (i.e., an injection) from A
to B, the cardinality of A is less than or the same as the
cardinality of B and we write |A| ≤ |B|.
When |A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we
say that the cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of B
and write |A| < |B|.
Cardinality
Definition: A set that is either finite or has the same
cardinality as the set of positive integers (Z+) is called
countable. A set that is not countable is uncountable.
The set of real numbers R is an uncountable set.
When an infinite set is countable (countably infinite)
its cardinality is ℵ0 (where ℵ is aleph, the 1st letter of
the Hebrew alphabet). We write |S| = ℵ0 and say that
S has cardinality “aleph null.”
Showing that a Set is Countable
An infinite set is countable if and only if it is possible
to list the elements of the set in a sequence (indexed
by the positive integers).
The reason for this is that a one-‐to-‐one
correspondence f from the set of positive integers to a
set S can be expressed in terms of a sequence
a1,a2,…, an ,… where a1 = f(1), a2 = f(2),…, an = f(n),…
Hilbert’s Grand Hotel David Hilbert
The
Grand
Hotel
(example
due
to
David
Hilbert)
has
countably
infinite
number
of
rooms,
each
occupied
by
a
guest.
We
can
always
accommodate
a
new
guest
at
this
hotel.
How
is
this
possible?
Hilbert’s
Grand
Hotel
David
Hilbert
The
Grand
Hotel
(example
due
to
David
Hilbert)
has
countably
infinite
number
of
rooms,
each
occupied
by
a
guest.
We
can
always
accommodate
a
new
guest
at
this
hotel.
How
is
this
possible?
Explanation: Because the number of rooms
of Grand Hotel is countable, we can list them
as Room 1, Room 2, Room 3, and so on.
When a new guest arrives, we move the guest
in Room 1 to Room 2, the guest in Room 2 to
Room 3, and in general the guest in Room n
to Room n + 1, for all positive integers n.
This frees up Room 1, which we assign to the
new guest, and all the current guests still have The hotel can also accommodate a
rooms. countable number of new guests, all the
guests on a countable number of buses
where each bus contains a countable
number of guests (see exercises).
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers
E is countable set.
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers E is
countable set.
Solution: Let f(x) = 2x.
1 2 3 4 5 6 …..
2 4 6 8 10 12 ……
Then f is a bijection from N to E since f is both one-‐to-‐one
and onto. To show that it is one-‐to-‐one, suppose that
f(n) = f(m). Then 2n = 2m, and so n = m. To see that it is
onto, suppose that t is an even positive integer. Then
t = 2k for some positive integer k and f(k) = t.
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 2: Show that the set of integers Z is
countable.
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 2: Show that the set of integers Z is
countable.
Solution: Can list in a sequence:
0, 1, − 1, 2, − 2, 3, − 3 ,………..
Or can define a bijection from N to Z:
When n is even: f(n) = n/2
When n is odd: f(n) = −(n−1)/2
The Set of [Link] [Link] Numbers is
Countable
Definition: A rational number can be expressed as
the ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
¾ is a rational number
√2 is not a rational number.
Example 3: Show that the set of positive rational
numbers is countable.
The Set of [Link] [Link] Numbers is
Countable
Definition: A rational number can be expressed as
the ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
¾ is a rational number
√2 is not a rational number.
Example 3: Show that the set of positive rational
numbers is countable.
Solution:The set positive rational numbers is
countable since they can be arranged in a sequence:
r1 , r2 , r3 ,…
The next slide shows how this is done. →
The Set of [Link] [Link] Numbers is
Countable
First row q = 1.
Second row q = 2.
etc.
Constructing the List
First list p/q with p + q = 2.
Next list p/q with p + q = 3
And so on.
1, ½, 2, 3, 1/3,1/4, 2/3, ….
Strings
Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a
finite alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Strings
Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a
finite alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Solution: Show that the strings can be listed in a
sequence. First list
1. All the strings of length 0 in alphabetical order.
2. Then all the strings of length 1 in lexicographic (as in a
dictionary) order.
3. Then all the strings of length 2 in lexicographic order.
4. And so on.
This implies a bijection from N to S, hence S is a countably
infinite set.
The set of all Java programs is
countable
Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is
countable.
The set of all Java programs is
countable.
Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is
countable.
Solution: Let S be the set of strings constructed from the
characters which can appear in a Java program. Use the
ordering from the previous example. Take each string in
turn:
Feed the string into a Java compiler. (A Java compiler will
determine if the input program is a syntactically correct Java
program.)
If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct Java
program, we add the program to the list.
We move on to the next string.
In this way we construct an implied bijection from N to
the set of Java programs. Hence, the set of Java programs is
countable.
The Set of Real Numbers is
Uncountable
Georg Cantor
(1845-‐1918)
Example: Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.
Solution: The method is called the Cantor diagonalization argument, and is a proof by
contradiction.
1. Suppose R is countable. Then the real numbers between 0 and 1 are also countable
(any subset of a countable set is countable -‐ an exercise in the text).
2. The real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in order r1 , r2 , r3 ,… .
3. Let the decimal representation of this listing be
4. Form
a
new
real
number
with
the
decimal
expansion
where
5. r
is
not
equal
to
any
of
the
r1
,
r2
,
r3
,...
Because
it
differs
from
ri
in
its
ith
position
after
the
decimal
point.
Therefore
there
is
a
real
number
between
0
and
1
that
is
not
on
the
list
since
every
real
number
has
a
unique
decimal
expansion.
Hence,
all
the
real
numbers
between
0
and
1
cannot
be
listed,
so
the
set
of
real
numbers
between
0
and
1
is
uncountable.
6. Since a set with an uncountable subset is uncountable (an exercise), the set of real
numbers is uncountable.
Computability
Definition:
We
say
that
a
function
is
computable
if
there
is
a
computer
program
in
some
programming
language
that
finds
the
values
of
this
function.
If
a
function
is
not
computable
we
say
it
is
uncomputable.
There
are
uncomputable
functions.
We
have
shown
that
the
set
of
Java
programs
is
countable.
Exercise
38
in
the
text
shows
that
there
are
uncountably
many
different
functions
from
a
particular
countably
infinite
set
(i.e.,
the
positive
integers)
to
itself.
Therefore
(Exercise
39)
there
must
be
uncomputable
functions.
Section
2.6
[Link]
Summary
Definition
of
a
Matrix
Matrix
Arithmetic
Transposes
and
Powers
Zero-‐One
matrices
Matrices
Matrices
are
useful
discrete
structures
that
can
be
used
in
many
ways.
For
example,
they
are
used
to:
Describe
certain
types
of
functions
known
as
linear
transformations.
Express
which
vertices
of
a
graph
are
connected
by
edges
(see
Chapter
10).
Here
we
cover
the
aspect
of
matrix
arithmetic
that
will
be
needed
later.
Matrix
Definition:
A
matrix
is
a
rectangular
array
of
numbers.
A
matrix
with
m
rows
and
n
columns
is
called
an
m n matrix.
The
plural
of
matrix
is
matrices.
A
matrix
with
the
same
number
of
rows
as
columns
is
called
square.
Two
matrices
are
equal
if
they
have
the
same
number
of
rows
and
the
same
number
of
columns
and
the
corresponding
entries
in
every
position
are
equal.
3 2 matrix
[Link]
Let
m
and
n
be
positive
integers
and
let
The
ith
row
of
A
is
the
1 n matrix [ai1,
ai2,…,ain]. The jth
column of A is the m
1 matrix:
The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the
element aij. We can use A = [aij ] to denote the matrix with
its (i,j)th element equal to aij.
Matrix Arithme.c: [Link]
Defintion: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m n matrices.
The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the m n
matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. In other
words, A + B = [aij + bij].
Example:
Note that matrices of different sizes can not be added.
Matrix
[Link]
Definition:
Let
A be
an
m k matrix
and
B
be
a
k n
matrix.
The
product
of
A
and
B,
denoted
by
AB,
is
the
m n matrix that has its (i,j)th element equal to the sum of
the products of the corresponding elements from the ith
row of A and the jth column of B. In other words, if AB
=
[cij] then cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + … + aikbkj.
Example:
The product of two matrices is undeuined when the number
of columns in the uirst matrix is not the same as the number
of rows in the second.
[Link]
of
Matrix
[Link]
The
Product
of
A
=
[aij] and B
=
[bij]
Matrix
[Link]
is
not
[Link]
Example:
Let
Does
AB
=
BA?
Matrix
[Link]
is
not
[Link]
Example:
Let
Does
AB
=
BA?
Solution:
AB
≠
BA
[Link]
Matrix
and
Powers
of
Matrices
Definition:
The
identity
matrix
of
order
n
is
the
n
n
matrix
In
=
[δij],
where
δij = 1 if i = j and δij = 0 if i≠j.
AIn
=
ImA = A
when A is an m n matrix
Powers of square matrices can be deuined. When A is an
n × n
matrix,
we
have:
A0 = In
Ar = AAA·∙·∙·∙A
r
times
Transposes
of
Matrices
Definition:
Let
A
=
[aij] be an m n matrix. The
transpose of A, denoted by At
,is
the
n m
matrix
obtained
by
interchanging
the
rows
and
columns
of
A.
If
At
=
[bij],
then
bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n
and j = 1,2, ...,m.
Transposes
of
Matrices
Definition:
A
square
matrix
A
is called symmetric if
A =
At.
Thus
A
=
[aij]
is
symmetric
if
aij = aji for i and j
with 1≤ i≤ n and 1≤ j≤ n.
Square matrices do not change when their rows and
columns are interchanged.
Zero-‐One Matrices
Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0
or 1 is called a zero-‐one matrix. (These will be used in
Chapters 9 and 10.)
Algorithms operating on discrete structures
represented by zero-‐one matrices are based on
Boolean arithmetic defined by the following Boolean
operations:
Zero-‐One Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be an m × n
zero-‐one matrices.
The join of A and B is the zero-‐one matrix with (i,j)th
entry aij ∨ bij. The join of A and B is denoted by A ∨ B.
The meet of of A and B is the zero-‐one matrix with
(i,j)th entry aij ∧ bij. The meet of A and B is denoted
by A ∧ B.
Joins and Meets of Zero-‐One Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-‐one
matrices
Joins and Meets of Zero-‐One Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-‐one
matrices
Solution: The join of A and B is
The meet of A and B is
Boolean Product of Zero-‐One Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m k zero-‐one
matrix and B = [bij] be a k n zero-‐one matrix. The
Boolean product of A and B, denoted by A ⊙ B, is the
m n zero-‐one matrix with(i,j)th entry
cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j)∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨ … ∨ (aik ∧ bkj).
Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B,
where
Continued on next slide à
Boolean Product of Zero-‐One Matrices
Solution: The Boolean product A ⊙ B is given by
Boolean Powers of Zero-‐One Matrices
Definition: Let A be a square zero-‐one matrix and
let r be a positive integer. The rth Boolean power
of A is the Boolean product of r factors of A,
denoted by A[r] . Hence,
We define A[r] to be In.
(The Boolean product is well deuined because the
Boolean product of matrices is associative.)
Boolean Powers of Zero-‐One Matrices
Example: Let
Find An for all positive integers n.
Boolean Powers of Zero-‐One Matrices
Example: Let
Find An for all positive integers n.
Solution:
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