Transformers

A transformer is a static electrical machine that converts ac electric

power at one frequency and voltage level to ac electrical power at the
same frequency and another voltage level. When the voltage level is
changed to higher level the current level will be changed to lower level
an vice versa. It is used in power system to reduce the cost and increase
the efficiency of power transmission.

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 Transformers types
Transformer Classification according to application:
Power transformer for transmission network.•
•Distribution transformer for distribution network.
•Power supply transformers.
•Electronic transformers.
•Isolation transformers.
•Potential transformers.
•Current transformers.
Transformer Classification according to number of phases:
•Single-phase transformer.
•Three-phase transformer.
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Transformer Classification according to method of cooling:
•Dry type transformer.
•Oil immersed type transformer.
Transformer Classification according to voltage transformation
ratio:
•Step-up transformers.
•Step-down transformer.
Transformer Classification according to type of frequency:
•Low-frequency transformers.
•High-frequency transformers.

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Transformer Classification according to number of windings:
•One-winding transformers (autotransformer).
•Two-winding transformers.
•Multi-winding transformers.

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 Transformers Construction
The two winding transformer basic parts:
Iron Core.
Primary winding.
Secondary winding.

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 Transformers Core
It consists of laminations which are made from silicon steel. These
laminations are stacked together. The thickness of laminations varies
from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25
Hz. There are two types of transformer cores. These are:
•Core type.
•Shell type.

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Transformer Laminations Arrangements
In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual laminations are
cut in the form of long strips of L’s, E’s and I’s as shown in Fig. (a). The
assembly of the complete core for the two types of transformers are
shown in Figs (b) and (c)

Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)

Fig. (c) 7
Core-Type Transformer
The coils used are form-wound and are of the cylindrical type. The
general form of these coils may be circular or oval or rectangular. The
winding surround the core. The following figure shows the core type
arrangement. There are two limbs. The flux is equally distributed on the
side limbs of the core.

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Shell-Type Transformer
In this case also, the coils used are form-wound. The cross section is
rectangular in shape. There are three limbs. The core surround the
winding. Shell type transformers requires less insulation compared with
core type. Central limb carry the whole flux and side limbs carries the
half of the flux. The leakage losses are less than core type because the
core surrounding the coils. The following figure shows the shell type
arrangement.

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 Transformers windings
Either the primary or secondary winding are made from conducting
material such as copper. The conductor are insulated by using suitable
insulation such as varnish. These winding are wrapped around the core.
the winding are wrapped one on top of the other with low voltage
winding innermost. Such an arrangement serves two purposes:
• it is easy to insulate the low voltage winding from the core.
•It reduces the leakage flux compared to that when they are separated by
a distance on the core.

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 Ideal Transformer Principle of Operation
The ideal transformer is a lossless transformer. In which the copper
losses, iron losses and leakage flux are neglected. When an ac supply
voltage is applied on the primary winding, an electric current will
produce time varying magnetic field which in turn produces time varying
magnetic flux in the core.
The time varying flux cuts
the primary and secondary
windings and an electromotive
force is produced according to
faraday's law.
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 Transformer electromotive force (E.M.F) equation
Assuming the time varying flux is given by:
  m cos(t ) (1)
According to faraday’s law the induced electromotive force in the
secondary winding is given by:
d
es   N s (2)
dt
Substitution of equation (1) into equation (2) gives:
es  N s m sin(t )  2fN sm cos(t  90) (3)
Similarly for primary winding we have:
e p  N p m sin(t )  2fN pm cos(t  90) (4)

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The effective values of the primary and secondary voltages
They can be obtained from equations (3) and (4) as:
2fm N p
Ep   4.44 fm N p (5)
2
2fm N s
Es   4.44 fm N s (6)
2

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Voltage Transformation Ratio
Dividing eqns (5) by (6) we have
Ep N p
 a (7)
Es N s
Where a is called the transformation ratio.
Since the transformer is ideal
Vp Ep N p
  a (8)
Vs Es N s
As in ideal transformer the input power equals the output power, hence:
I p Vp  I s Vs (9)
Vp Is (10)
 a
Vs I p

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Secondary Voltage Polarity and Current Direction
The dot convention is used to indicate the secondary voltage polarity as
shown in the following figure. Voltage polarities are the same with
respect to dots on each side of the core. If the primary current of the
transformer flows into the dotted end of the primary winding, the
secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary
winding.

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Power in an Ideal Transformer
The active power supplied to transformer is given by:
Pin  V p I p cos p (11)
Where θp is the angle between primary voltage and primary current.
The active power supplied to load from the secondary is given by:
Pout  Vs I s cos s (12)
Where θs is the angle between secondary voltage and secondary current.
In ideal transformer θp = θs = θ.
Thus for reactive and apparent powers we have
Qin  V p I p sin   Vs I s sin   Qout (13)
Sin  V p I p  Vs I s  S out (14)

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Impedance Transformation Through Transformer
The load impedance is given by:
Vs
ZL  (15)
Is
The apparent impedance of the primary circuit is given by:
Vp
ZL 
'
(16)
Ip
Since V p  aVs & I p  I s / a thus
aVs 2 Vs
ZL 
'
a (17)
Is / a Is
(18)
Z L'  a 2 Z L
The impedance Z L' is called load impedance referred to primary side.

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Analysis of circuit Containing Ideal Transformer
In circuits contain ideal transformer the solution is obtained by referring
all quantities, voltage, current and impedance, to a certain transformer
side. The following example shows the procedures used to solve an
electrical system containing ideal transformer.
Example A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz
generator supplying a load Zload = 4 + j3 Ω through a transmission line of
impedance Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 Ω Answer the following questions about
this system.
(a) If the power system is exactly as described above, what will the
voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?, Fig(a)

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(b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end
of the transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at
the load end of the line. What will the load voltage be now? What will
the transmission
line losses be
now?, Fig(b)

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 Solution
a) From figure (a)

I G  I line  I load
V
I line 
Z line  Z load
4800o
I line   90.8  37.8o A
(0.18  j 0.24)  (4  j 3)
Vload  I line Z load  454  0.9o V
Ploss  I line
2
Rline  1484 W

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b) From figure (b)
Referring the load impedance to the high voltage side of T2 gives
'
Z load  a22 Z load  (10) 2 (4  j 3)  400  j 300 
Thus figure (b) becomes as follows:

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From the above figure the equivalent impedance across the secondary of
transformer (2) can be obtained from
Z eq  Z line  Z load
'
 400.18  j300.24  500.336.88o 

Referring the equivalent impedance to the low voltage side of T1 gives:

'
Z eq  a12 Z eq  (0.1) 2 (500.336.88o )  5.00336.88o 

Thus the generator current can be obtained from:

4800o
IG  '
 95 . 94  36. 88o
A
Z eq
Thus
I line  a1I G  (0.1)(95.94  36.88o )  9.594  36.88o A
I load  a2 I line  10(9.594  36.88o )  95.94  36.88o A
Vload  I load Z load  479.7  0.01o V
Ploss  I line
2
Rline  16.7 W
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 Real Transformer
Leakage Flux
Not all the flux produced in the primary coil passes through the
secondary coil. Some of the flux lines leave the iron core and pass
through the air instead as shown in the following figure.

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Therefore, the total flux in the primary coil can be divided into two
components. These are mutual flux and leakage flux. Thus:
 p  M  Lp (19)
Similarly for the secondary coil when transformer is loaded, the
secondary flux can be represented as:
s  M  Ls (20)
It should be noted that the leakage fluxes will causes voltage drops in the
primary and secondary circuits.

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Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
Either the transformer is loaded or not, when the primary is supplied by
an ac source a current is drawn from the supply known as no-load
current. This current is used to produce flux in a real ferromagnetic core
and to feed iron losses. It consists of two components:
• Magnetization current (Im) which is required to produce the flux in
the core.
• The core loss current which (Ih+e) is the current required to make up
for hysteresis and eddy current losses

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The following figure shows the magnetization current

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Features of magnetization current
• It is not sinusoidal due to the magnetic saturation of the transformer
core.
• At the point of saturation a small increase in the flux requires large in
crease in the magnetization current.
• The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the
voltage applied by 90o.
• The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current can
be quite large compared to the fundamental component as the
transformer operating point approaches to saturation region.

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Features of the core-loss current
This current is required for the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the
core. This current is shown in the following figure.
It can be noticed that:
• The core-loss current is
Nonlinear because of the
nonlinear effects of hysteresis.
• The fundamental component
of this current is in phase with the applied voltage.
The total no-load current is called excitation current of the transformer
and is given by: iex  im  ihe its value may be from 3% of rated
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The Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention
A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a positive
magnetomotive force, while a current flowing into the undotted end of
the winding produces a negative magnetomotive force. The net
magnetomotive force on the core must be:
mmf net  N pi p  N s is   (21)
Because the well designed transformer the reluctance should approaches
to zero thus:
N p i p  N s is
ip Ns 1 (20)
 
is Np a

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Transformer Equivalent Circuit
The main items to be considered in the construction of the transformer
equivalent circuit are:
1. Copper losses: the resistive heating losses in primary and secondary
windings.
2. Core losses; includes eddy current and hysteresis losses.
3. Leakage fluxes. These fluxes produce a leakage inductance in the
primary and secondary coils.

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Exact Equivalent Circuit of Real Transformer
The copper losses in the primary and secondary windings are
represented by placing a resistance Rp in the primary circuit and a
resistance Rs in the secondary circuit of the transformer.
The leakage flux in the primary winding produces a voltage given by
dLp
eLp  N p (22)
dt
And since N p i p  Lp  (23)
Substitution of (22) into (23) gives:
N 2p di p di p
eLp   Lp (24)
 dt dt
Simillarly for secondary we have
N s2 dis dis
eLs   Ls (25)
 dt dt
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From equations (24) and (25) the leakage fluxes will be modeled by
primary and secondary inductors.
The magnetizing current is proportional to the voltage applied and lags
by 90o, hence it can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the
primary voltage.
The core-loss current is proportional to the applied voltage and in phase
with the applied voltage, hence it can be modeled by a resistance RC
connected across the primary voltage.

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The resulting exact equivalent circuit is shown in the following figure.

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The exact equivalent circuit referred to primary side is shown in the
following figure.

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The equivalent circuit referred to secondary side is shown in the
following figure.

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The Approximate equivalent circuits referred to primary side (fig a) and
referred to secondary side (fig b) are shown in the following figures.

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The simplified equivalent circuits referred to primary side (fig c) and
referred to secondary side (fig d) are shown in the following figures.

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