In electrical and electronic systems, the electrical transformer is one of the

most useful electrical machine. An electrical transformer can increase or

decrease the magnitude of alternating voltage or current. It is the major
reason behind the widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct
current. A transformer does not have any moving part. Therefore, it has very
high efficiency up to 99% and very strong and durable construction.

Electrical transformer

A transformer or electrical transformer is a static AC electrical machine

which changes the level of alternating voltage or alternating current without
changing in the frequency of the supply.

A typical transformer consists of two windings namely primary

winding and secondary winding. These two windings are interlinked by a
common magnetic circuit for transferring electrical energy between them.

PRINCIPLE

The operation of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual

inductance, which states that when a changing magnetic field of one coil
links to another coil, an EMF is induced in the second coil.

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, an

alternating current flows through it and produces an alternating magnetic flux.
This changing magnetic flux flows through the core of the transformer and
links to the secondary winding. According to Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, an EMF E2 is induced in the secondary winding due to the linkage
of changing magnetic flux of the primary winding. If the secondary winding
circuit is closed by connecting a load, then this induced EMF E2 in the
secondary winding causes a secondary current I2 to flow through the load.

Although the changing magnetic flux of primary winding is also linked with the
primary winding itself. Hence, an EMF E1 is induced in the primary winding
due to its own inductance effect. The value of E1 and E2 can be given by the
following formulae,

E1=−N1dϕdt

E2=−N2dϕdt
Where N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the primary winding and
secondary winding respectively.

On taking the ratio of E2 and E1, we get,

E2E1=N2N1

This expression is known as transformation ratio of the transformer. The

transformation ratio depends on the number of turns in primary and secondary
windings. Which means the magnitude of output voltage depends on the
relative number of turns in primary and secondary windings.

If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, i.e., the output voltage of the transformer is more
than the input voltage, and such a transformer is known as set-up
transformer. On the other hand, if N1 > N2, then E1 > E2 i.e., the output
voltage is less than input voltage, such a transformer is called step-down
transformer.

From the circuit diagram of the transformer, we can see that there is no
electrical connection between the primary and secondary instead they are
linked with the help of a magnetic field. Thus, a transformer enables us to
transfer AC electrical power magnetically from one circuit to another which a
change in the voltage and current level.

Types

Transformers come in various types, each serving specific purposes:

 Step-Up Transformer:Increases voltage from primary to secondary.

 Step-Down Transformer:Decreases voltage from primary to
secondary.
 Isolation Transformer:Used to isolate electrical equipment from the
power source for safety.
 Auto Transformer:Has a single winding that acts as both primary and
secondary, allowing variable voltage output.
 Three-Phase Transformer:Used in three-phase systems to manage
power distribution effectively.

Emf equation

The mathematical expression that gives the value of induced EMF in windings
of the transformer is known as emf equation of the transformer.

The EMF equation for primary winding is given by,

E1=4.44fϕmN1=4.44fBmAN1

The EMF equation for secondary winding is given by,

E2=4.44fϕmN2=4.44fBmAN2
Where, f is the supply frequency, m is the maximum flux in the core, Bm is the
maximum flux density in the core, A is the area of cross-section of the
core, 1 and 2 are the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.

The ratio of number of turns in the primary winding to the number of turns in
the secondary winding of a transformer is referred to as turns ratio of the
transformer. It is usually denoted by the symbol a.

TurnsRatio,a=Primarywindingturns(N1)Secondarywindingturns(N2)

The ratio of the output AC voltage to the input AC voltage of a transformer is

known as the voltage transformer ratio of the transformer. It is usually denoted
by the symbol K.

VoltageTransformationRatio,K=OutputVoltage(V2)InputVoltage(V1)

The ratio of the output current (secondary winding current) to the input current
(primary winding current) of a transformer is known as current
transformation ratio of the transformer.

CurrentTransformationRatio,K=Secondarywindingcurrent(I2)Primarywin
dingcurrent(I1)

The relationship among turns ratio, voltage transformation ratio, and

current transformation ratio is given by the following expression,

TurnsRatio,a=N1N2=V1V2=I2I1=1K

Here, we can see that the current transformation is the reciprocal of the
voltage transformation ratio. This is due to the fact that when a transformer
increases the voltage, it reduces the current in the same proportion to
maintain the constant MMF in the core.

MMF stands for Magnetomotive Force. The mmf is also referred to as

ampere-turn rating of a transformer. The mmf is the driving force that
establishes a magnetic flux in the core of a transformer. It is given by the
product of number of turn in the winding and current through the winding.

For primary winding,

MMF=N1I1

For secondary winding,

MMF=N2I2

Where, I1 and I2 are the currents in primary and secondary windings of the
transformer respectively.
The primary and secondary windings of a transformer are generally made up
of copper wire. Thus, they have a finite resistance, although it is very small.
The primary winding resistance is represented by R1 and the secondary
winding resistance is represented by R2.

The equivalent resistance of transformer windings is given by referring the

whole circuit of the transformer either on primary side or secondary side.

Thus, the equivalent resistance of transformer windings referred to primary

side is given by,

R01=R1+R′2=R1+R2K2

The equivalent resistance of transformer windings referred to secondary side

is given by,

R02=R2+R′1=R2+R1K2

Where, R1' is the primary winding resistance referred to secondary side, R2'
is the resistance of secondary winding referred to primary side, R1 is the
primary winding resistance, R2 is the secondary winding resistance, R01 is
the equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary side, and R02 is
the equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary side.

Leakage reactance

The inductive reactance caused by the leakage magnetic flux in the

transformer is referred to as the leakage reactance of the transformer
windings.

For primary winding,

X1=E1I1

For secondary winding

X2=E2I2

Where, X1 is the primary winding leakage reactance, X2 is the secondary

winding leakage reactance, E1 is the self-induced emf in primary winding, and
E2 is the self-induced EMF in the secondary winding.

The equivalent reactance is the total reactance offered by both the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer.

The equivalent reactance of transformer referred to primary side is,

X01=X1+X′2=X1+X2K2

The equivalent reactance of transformer referred to secondary side is,

X02=X2+X′1=X2+K2X1

Where, X1' is the leakage reactance of primary winding on secondary side,

X2' is the leakage reactance of secondary winding on primary side.

Total impedence

The combined opposition offered by the winding resistances and leakage

reactances is referred to as the total impedance of the transformer windings.

The impedance of the primary winding of transformer is,

Z1=R21+X21−−−−−−−−√

The impedance of the secondary winding of transformer is,

Z2=R22+X22−−−−−−−−√

The equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary side is given by,

Z01=R201+X201−−−−−−−−−√

The equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary side is given

by,

Z02=R202+X202−−−−−−−−−√

The input and output voltage equations of a transformer are found using
KVL in the equivalent circuit of the transformer.

The input voltage equation of a transformer is given by,

V1=E1+I1R1+jI1X1=E1+I1(R1+jX1)=E1+I1Z1

The output voltage equation of a transformer is given by,

V2=E2−I2R2−jI2X2=E2−I2(R2+jX2)=E2−I2Z2

losses

There are two types of losses occur in a transformer − core loss and copper
loss.

The total core loss of the transformer is the sum of hysteresis loss and eddy
current loss, i.e.,

Coreloss=Ph+Pe

Where, the hysteresis loss is caused due to magnetic reversal in the core.
Hysteresisloss,Ph=ηB1.6maxfV

And, the eddy current occurs due to eddy currents flowing in the core.

Eddycurrentloss,Pe=keB2mf2t2

Where, η is the Steinmetz coefficient, Bm is the maximum flux density in the

core, Ke is the eddy current constant, f is the frequency of magnetic flux
reversal, V is the volume of core.

The copper loss occurs due to resistance of the transformer windings.

Copperloss=I21R1+I22R2

Regulation

Regulation in transformers refers to the ability of a transformer to maintain a

constant output voltage despite changes in load conditions. It is expressed as
the difference between the no-load voltage and the full-load voltage, typically
presented as a percentage. Good regulation is essential for ensuring that
electrical devices receive stable power, which is critical for sensitive
applications.

The voltage regulation of transformer is defined as the change in output

voltage from no-load to full load with respect to the no-load voltage.

VoltageRegualation=Noloadvoltage−FullloadvoltageNoloadvoltage

Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is a measure of how effectively it converts

input power into output power, with minimal losses. Efficiency is influenced by
factors such as core material, design, and winding resistance. High-quality
transformers typically achieve efficiencies greater than 95%, making them
highly effective for power transmission and distribution. Reducing losses—
such as copper losses (due to resistance in the windings) and iron losses
(due to magnetizing the core)—is essential for improving overall performance.

The ratio of the output power to the input power is called the efficiency of the
transformer.

Efficiency,η=Outputpower(Po)Inputpower(Pi)

Efficiency,η=OutputpowerOutputpower+Losses
The efficiency of transformer at an actual load is calculated using the
following formula,

η=x×fullloadkVA×powerfactor(x×fullloadkVA×powerfactor)+Losses

Where, x is the fraction of loading.

The all-day efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output

energy in kWh to the input energy in kWh recorded for 24 hours

ηallday=OutputenergyinkWhInputenergyinkWh

Condition for max. efficiency

When the core losses and copper losses of a transformer are equal, the
transformer efficiency is maximum.

Thus, for maximum efficiency of transformer,

Copperloss=Coreloss

Load Current Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency of Transformer

The load current or secondary winding current for the maximum efficiency of a
transformer is given by,

I2=PiR02−−−−√

Regulation

Regulation in transformers refers to the ability of a transformer to maintain a

constant output voltage despite changes in load conditions. It is expressed as
the difference between the no-load voltage and the full-load voltage, typically
presented as a percentage. Good regulation is essential for ensuring that
electrical devices receive stable power, which is critical for sensitive
applications.

Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is a measure of how effectively it converts

input power into output power, with minimal losses. Efficiency is influenced by
factors such as core material, design, and winding resistance. High-quality
transformers typically achieve efficiencies greater than 95%, making them
highly effective for power transmission and distribution. Reducing losses—
such as copper losses (due to resistance in the windings) and iron losses
(due to magnetizing the core)—is essential for improving overall performance.

Note the following important points about transformers −

 The operation of transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
 The transformer does not change the frequency, i.e. the frequency of input
supply and output supply remains the same.
 Transformer is a static electrical machine, which means it does not have any
moving part. Hence, it has very high efficiency.
 Transformer cannot work with direct current because it is an electromagnetic
induction machine.
 There is no direct electrical connection between primary and secondary
windings. The AC power is transferred from primary to secondary through
magnetic flux.

Rotating DC Machines

Rotating DC machines, including both DC motors and DC generators, are

crucial components used in conjunction with transformers in electrical
systems. These machines convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
(motors) or mechanical energy to electrical energy (generators). DC motors
are widely utilized in applications where precise speed control is necessary,
while DC generators are employed to provide stable DC voltage for various
applications. The integration of rotating DC machines with transformers allows
for efficient energy conversion and distribution, making them essential in
industries such as manufacturing, transportation, and power generation.
Transformers are essential components in power systems, enabling efficient
transmission of electricity over long distances by adjusting voltage to minimize
energy losses. They are also commonly found in various applications,
including power supplies for electrical devices, audio systems, and industrial
equipment. Their ability to adapt voltage levels plays a crucial role in ensuring
the safe and effective operation of electrical circuits.

ROTATING MACHINES
Almost all electrical machines have several similar properties and features.
The following discussion will explain the basic common features of rotating
electrical machines. Where, a rotating electrical machine is one which has
a moving (rotating) part, called rotor. The common examples of rotating
electrical machines motors and generators.

In a rotating electrical machine, the torque produced can be considered in

terms of the instantaneous flux pattern. According to this concept, a torque is
produced in an electrical machine when the net magnetic field has asymmetry
or distortion.

In any rotating electrical machine, the mechanical forces (torques) are

produced due to the following two magnetic field effects −

 Alignment of magnetic field lines

 Interaction between magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors

In practical electrical machine, magnetic fields are produced by energizing a

coil system. It is because, this method of magnetic field production relatively
versatile and economic.

The basic construction and structure of all rotating electrical machines is

similar. A typical rotating electrical machine consists of two main parts
namely,

 Stator
 Rotor

The stator and rotor are separated by an air gap. As the name implies, the
stator is the stationary (non-movable) part of the electrical machine. In
general, the stator is the outer frame of the machine. The rotor is the rotating
(movable) part of the machine. Both stator and rotor are constructed by using
laminated ferromagnetic materials to reduce the reluctance in the path of
magnetic flux.

All rotating electrical machines consist of two windings, one placed on the
stator part and another on the rotor part. The winding of the machine in which
voltage is induced is known as armature winding. The winding which is used
to produce the main working magnetic flux in the machine is known as field
winding. Sometimes, instead of field winding, permanent magnets are used
to produce the main magnetic flux.

The resultant magnetic field which revolve in the space and is produced by a
system of windings (coils) symmetrically placed and supplied with poly-phase
currents is known as rotating magnetic field (RMF).

The rotating magnetic field is such as that its magnetic poles do not remain in
a fixed position, but go on shifting their positions. The speed of rotation of the
magnetic field is known as synchronous speed and is denoted by NS.
Mathematically, the synchronous speed is given by,

Ns=120fP
Where, f is the supply frequency in Hz and P is the number of poles. It is
measured in RPM (Revolution per Minute).

Torque is defined as the turning movement of force. The torque is the main
factor which rotates the rotor of the machine. In electromechanical devices,
there are two types of torques developed −

 Electromagnetic Torque
 Reluctance Torque

The electromagnetic torque is one which produced due to interaction of the

magnetic fields produced by the currents in two coils which may move relative
to each other. In a rotating electrical machine, under normal operating
conditions, there are two magnetic fields present a magnetic field from the
stator circuit and another magnetic field from the rotor circuit. The interaction
between these two magnetic fields produces the torque in the machine. This
torque is known as electromagnetic torque. The electromagnetic torque is
also known as induced torque.

When an object made up of a ferromagnetic material is placed in an external

magnetic field experiences a force (torque) which causes the object to align it
with the external magnetic field, it is known as reluctance torque.

The reluctance torque occurs because the external magnetic field induced an
internal magnetic field in the ferromagnetic object, and a torque is produced
by interaction of the two magnetic fields moving the object to align with the
external magnetic field. Since, the reluctance torque on the object tries to
position it to give minimum reluctance (or saliency) for the magnetic flux.
Therefore, the reluctance torque is also known as alignment
torque or saliency torque.

DC Motor
DC motor is a machine that converts electrical energy of direct current into
mechanical energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical energy is direct current
which is converted into mechanical rotation.
In this article, we will learn what is DC motor, its Diagram, Construction,
Working, types, and applications. We will also compare DC and AC Motors
based on various parameters.

What is DC Motor?
DC Motor is an electrical machine which, when provided with direct current
electrical energy, converts it into mechanical energy. It is based on
electromagnetic induction, where a conductor carrying current (normally a
 coil of wire) placed in a magnetic field experiences force to rotate. This
rotation is used to perform mechanical work.
There are many applications for DC motors, they can be used in robotics;
electric vehicles, and some industrial machinery as well as household
devices. DC motor can be used at such places where speed control is
required. That is why DC motors are often used in trolleys, electric train
production systems, elevators, etc.

DC Motor Definition

DC motor, also known as a direct current motor, is an electric

motor that converts mechanical energy from the electrical
energy of direct current.

DC Motor Diagram

Diagram of Direct Current Motor is shown below:

Construction of DC Motor
DC motor has such basic components, as a stator (stationary part of the
element producing magnetic field) and a rotor part that rotates carrying
winding or coil. When a DC voltage is connected to the coil, current flows
through it and generates an electromagnetic field. When the magnetic field of
this rotor interacts with that produced by the stator, a torque is induced which
causes this piece to start spinning.

DC Motor Parts

DC achine has the following main parts:

 Field System or Stator
 Armature
 Commutator
 Brushes

Field Coil or Stator

As the name suggests, the field coil or stator is the non moving or the
stationary part of the DC motor around which coil is wounded and produce
magnetic field
The stator consists of various parts:
 Yoke
 Pole Core
 Pole Body
 Shoe for the pole
 Field Winding
 End Plates
Yoke: The structure of a DC machine works to create the magnetic circuit
between the poles.
Pole Core: Pole Core is usually of laminated iron or other magnetic material.
Its function is to serve as a passage for the magnetic flux generated by the
field winding.
Pole Body: Pole body works with the pole core. When an electric
current passes through the field winding, a magnetic flux is established not
only in the pole core but also around it. The poles and their bearings are
known as the pole body.
Shoe: Shoe is a synonym for one of the brushes inside an electric motor. DC
motors have brushes to make contact with the rotating armature, and
typically they are sodded.
Field Winding: Field winding is on the pole core next to the stator. Field
winding uses insulated copper wire. An insulated copper coil is wound round
the pole core. If this coil on the pole core is excited with direct current, we get
magnetic flux.
End Plates: End plates encapsulate the entire motor. They provide a casing
for all of the internal parts--the armature, commutator and brushes as well
sometimes also including field windings

Armature

Armature is the rotating part of the motor which generates mechanical

energy. Armature core has windings. The armature core is made of 0.3 to 0.5
mm thick high magnetic strength (silicon steel lamination) and a thin layer of
varnish is applied on each sheet.

Commutator
Commutators are used in DC appliances such as DC Motors and DC
Generators. It periodically reverses the current between the armature and the
circuit and produces steady torque

Brushes

Brushes or often called Carbon Brushes are made up of graphite. In DC

Motors, brushes supplies current to the winding of the armature.

DC Motor Working Principle

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a
mechanical force acts on it, which can be determined by Fleming's left hand
rule. Due to this force the conductor becomes mobile in the direction of
the force.

DC Motor Working

Imagine that a current-free conductor (which is not connected to the supply)

is placed in the main magnetic field the and without the magnetic field flowing
through the conductor. Assume, there is an air gap from N pole to S pole.
Current is flowing in the conductor but the magnetic effect of N pole and S
pole has been removed. In this situation the conductor will maintain its own
magnetic field. The magnetic field lines of force of the conductor will be
clockwise according to the cork screw rule.
Current is flowing in the conductor and main magnetic field is also present.
The magnetic field produced due to the current in the conductor acts along
with the main field above the conductor but opposes the main field below the
conductor. The result is that flux accumulates in the region above the
conductor and flux density reduces in the region below.
From this it is clear that when the force is acting on the conductor, it works to
push the conductor downwards. If the direction of current in the conductor is
changed, the flux will accumulate downwards and will try to move the
conductor upwards.

DC Motor Characteristics
If length of conductor = L meter, field intensity = B weber per square meter
(Bwb/m2) and current flowing in the conductor = i ampere, then the force
experienced by the conductor will be F = iBL Newton.
F= [Link]θ
where,
 B = flux density (in Tesla).
 L = length of conductor (in meters).
 I = current flowing in the conductor.
 Sinθ = angle between the conductor and magnetic lines of
force.

DC Motor Torque Formula

Torque, also known as moment or moment of force, is the force that tends to
rotate or move an object around a central axis. A force is a push or pull,
similarly, torque creates twisting to an object. Mathematically, torque is given
as T = F × r. For DC Motor, the torque is given as
T = (0.159PΦNZ/A)Ia
where,
 T is Torque of Armature
 Ia is the armature current
 P is Number of Poles
 Ф is Flux per pole
 N is Speed of motor in (RPM)
 Z is Number of conductors
 A is Number of parallel paths

DC Motor EMF Equation

EMF or the electromotive force is responsible for flow of current in the

electrical appliances. EMF is not an force but the electric potential. In case of
DC Motor, a back EMF is produced which counters the armature current. The
direction of this back EMF is given by Lenz Law. The formula of back emf is
given as
Eb = PΦNZ/60A
where,
 P is Number of Poles
 Ф is Flux per pole
 N is Speed of motor in (RPM)
  Z is Number of conductors
 A is Number of parallel paths

DC Motor Speed

The formula for DC Motor speed is given as:

N = KEb/Φ
where,
 N is speed in RPM
 K is constant proportionality which is equal to 60A/ZP

Types of DC Motors
DC Motors can be classified into various categories based on the application
and winding connections. Based on the winding of armature DC Motor is of
two types
 Self Excited DC Motors
 Separately Excited DC Motors

Self Excited DC Motor

DC motors that excite themselves have a part and coil of field connected in
series or partly so, same for parallel connection. They can also have
combination of series and Parallel connections. They also get power from
only one place. Three types of self-excited DC motors exist:
 Series DC motor
 Shunt DC motor
 Compound DC Motor

Series DC Motor

It is a motor in which the field is in series with the armature and its starting
torque is very high. This means that the same flow of current goes through
both the coil and armature. Series motors always go in one direction and
their speed is affected by the physical load.

Shunt DC Motor

Shunt motor is a DC motor in which the field is jointed in parallel to the

armature and its starting torque is less than that of series motor. Inside the
shunt motor the field winding is connected parallel to the armature winding.
The field winding is made of more turns of thin wire. Shunt motors are used
in applications where continuous speed is required.

Compound DC Motor
 Compound Motor is a Motor in which both series and parallel fields are
added. Compound DC motors use both parallel and connected field windings.
In the armature winding, everything is in series. However, field coils can be
shunt or series types.

Separately Excited DC Motor

In DC motors with a separate excite, field coil to make permanent magnets.
But, the armature and field coils are not connected electrically to each other.
They work separately and do not bother the other. But, the result of the
engine is added up with both.

More Types of DC Motor

Some more types of DC Motor on the various parameters are discussed

below:
1. Based on Commutation:
 Brushed Motors: Use brushes and a commutator for current reversal.
 Brushless Motors: Switch currents in the windings by electronic
commutation.
2. Based on Application:
 DC Servo Motors: Exact control of position and speed. Applied in robotics,
CNC machine tools and automation.
 Stepper Motors: Take small steps, accurate position control. Widely
employed in printers and CNC machines.
 Hysteresis Motors: The materials 'motion makes use of their magnetic
hysteresis. Used in devices such as record players, rather simple.
 Brushed DC Gear Motors: Have a gearbox for high torque at low speeds.
Applied in robotics, electric vehicles and automation.
 DC Traction Motors: Intended for use in traction devices, including
electric vehicles and trains.
3. Based on Speed-Torque Characteristics:
 High-Speed DC Motors: Designed for uses involving high rotational
speeds. Examples include tools and appliances.
 Low-Speed DC Motors: Offer high torque at low speeds. Commonly used
in industrial machinery.
4. Based on Size and Shape:
 Micro DC Motors: Applications such as consumer electronics call for very
small motors.
 Large DC Motors: As used in industrial purposes such as steel mills,
paper industries and ship propulsion.
5. Based on Control System:
 Closed-Loop DC Motors: Feedback mechanisms can be employed for
more precise control. Applications where precision control is important.
 Open-Loop DC Motors: Control without feedback, simpler design. In
applications where control is not so critical.

AC and DC Motors
AC and DC Motors are two types of motors based on the input of the type of
current. As the name suggests AC Motor uses AC Current produce
mechanical energy while DC Motor produces mechanical energy from Direct
Current

Difference Between AC And DC Motor

The difference between AC and DC Motor are discussed below:

AC Motor vs DC Motor

AC Motor DC Motor

AC motor runs on alternating DC motors operate on direct

current. current.

There is no need for There is no need for

conversion of current in AC conversion of current in AC
motors. Like AC. motors. Like AC.

AC motors are used where

DC motors are used where the
power performance is
speed of the motor needs to
demanded for extended
be controlled externally.
periods of time.

AC motors can be single- All DC motors are single

phase or three-phase. phase.

In an AC motor the armature

In a DC motor, the armature
does not rotate while the
rotates while the magnetic
magnetic field keeps rotating
field rotates.
continuously.

Repairing AC motors is not DC motors are very expensive

expensive. to repair.

Brushes are not used in AC Brushes are used in DC

motor. motor.

AC motors have a very long DC motors do not have a very

life span long life span.
 AC Motor vs DC Motor

AC Motor DC Motor

The speed of AC motors can The speed of DC motors can

be controlled by simply be controlled by changing the
changing the frequency of the current of the armature
current. winding.

Application of DC Motor
'DC motor' is used to refer to any rotary electrical machine that converts
direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. DC motors can vary
in size and power, ranging from small motors in toys and appliances to large
mechanisms that power vehicles.
DC motor is used at the following places.
 DC motor is used in traction work, machine tools, industry, elevators etc.
 DC motors have the widest variation in speed (compared to other motors).
 DC series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used to
start high inertia loads such as trains, elevators or hoists.
 Shunt DC Motors are used in drilling machines, centrifugal machines etc.