Fluid and Thermal Physics

Tutorial
1. Explain basic principles of fluid dynamics
What is fluid mechanics?
 Fluid mechanics is branch of physics that study about mechanics of
fluids and the forces on them. Or it is study of fluid behavior (liquids,
gases, blood and plasmas) at rest and in motion.
 First, consider the mechanics of a fluid at rest—that is, fluid statics.
Then treat the mechanics of fluids in motion— that is, fluid dynamics.
This all is called Fluid mechanics.
Fluid is substance that flows. Both gases and liquids are fluids.
 A gas is compressible. The molecules move freely with few interactions.
Compressible means when volume changes when pressure is applied to it.
 A liquid is incompressible. The molecules are weakly bound to one another.

Figure 1:molecules in liquid and gas

 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We
speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart
of pressure in solids is normal stress.
 Pressure in liquids, called hydrostatic pressure, is due to gravity. Pressure
increases with depth.
 Pressure in gases is primarily thermal.
 Pressure is constant in a container.

 The pressure unit Pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice.
Fluid statics (also called hydrostatics) is the branch of fluid mechanics
that studies incompressible(material with constant density) fluids at
rest.
Pressure in fluids at rest
 Due to the inability to resist deformation, fluids exert pressure normal to
any contacting surface.
 In addition, when the fluid is at rest that pressure is isotropic, i.e. it acts
with equal magnitude in all directions.
 If the forces are not balanced, the fluid will move in the direction of the
resulting force.
1. Hydrostatic pressure
 The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the
fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in
proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the
increasing weight of fluid exerting downward force from above.

2. Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure due to the weight of the
atmosphere exerted on the surface of the Earth.
 Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in altitude as a result of
decrease in the density of the air.
Variation of pressure with depth
 Water pressure increases with depth.
 Likewise, atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude; for this
reason, aircraft flying at high altitudes must have pressurized cabins.
 We now show how the pressure in a liquid increases with depth. According
the equation of density i.e. , the densities of various substances
values varies slightly with temperature because the volume of a substance is
temperature-dependent.
 If your ears have ever popped on a plane flight or ached during a deep
dive in a
swimming pool, you have experienced the effect of depth on pressure
in a fluid. At the Earth’s surface, the air pressure exerted on you is a
result of the weight of air above you. This pressure is reduced as you
climb up in altitude and the weight of air above you decreases. Under
water, the pressure exerted on you increases with increasing depth. In
this case, the pressure being exerted upon you is a result of both the
weight of water above you and that of the atmosphere above you. You
may notice an air pressure change on an elevator ride that transports
you many stories, but you need only dive a meter or so below the
surface of a pool to feel a pressure increase. The difference is that
water is much denser than air, about 775 times as dense.

 This value is the pressure due to the weight of a fluid.

Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’ Principle
 Pascal’s Principle - states that pressure applied to a confined fluid in a
container is transmitted equally to all regions of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
According to Pascal‘s principle, these two pressures are equal implying:

Figure 8: hydraulic press

Archimedes’ principle
 Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is fully or partially submerged in
a fluid, the fluid pushes upward with a buoyant force with magnitude. That is
why a rock appears to weight less when it is submerged in liquid, or why it is
very difficult to push a beach ball under water.
 When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fb of the (upward) buoyant force
on the body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the (downward) gravitational force
on the body.

 Where mf is the mass of the fluid that has been pushed out of the way by the
body.
Fluid Dynamics
 The branch of physics concerned with the description and study of the flow of liquids
and gases or fluids in motion.
 When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one of two main types.
 The flow is said to be steady, or laminar, if each particle of the fluid slide smoothly
past each other. A regular flow
 In steady flow, the velocity of the fluid particles at any point is constant as time goes
by(flowing at the same rate).
 And fluid flow becomes turbulent; turbulent flow is irregular flow characterized by
small whirlpool-like regions, and the flow is not smooth.
 Turbulent flow is the irregular movement of particles in a fluid and results in loss of
energy due to internal friction between neighboring layers of the fluid, called viscosity.
 There is disruption to the layers of fluid; the speed of the fluid at any point is
continuously changing both in magnitude and direction.
Factors affecting fluid flow
Factors affecting laminar flow are
 density,
 compressibility,
 temperature and
 viscosity of the fluid.
Assumptions made in the ideal fluid flow to understand the complex motions
of real fluids:
 The fluid is non-viscous, i.e there is no internal friction between adjacent
layers.
 The flow is steady; the velocity of the fluid at each point remains constant.
 The fluid is incompressible; density of the fluid is constant.
 The flow is irrotational; the fluid has no angular momentum about any point.
 Equation of continuity expresses conservation of mass for an incompressible
fluid flowing in a tube. It says: “the amount (either mass or volume) of fluid
flowing through a cross section of the tube in a given time interval must be
the same for all cross sections”, or “the product of the area and the fluid
speed at all points along a tube is constant for an incompressible fluid”.

 We see that if the cross sectional area is decreased, and then the flow rate
increases. This is demonstrated when you hold your finger over part of the
outlet of a garden hose. Because you decrease the cross sectional area, the
water velocity increases.
Bernoulli’s Equation
 Is relationship between the velocity of a fluid and the pressure it exerts.
Qualitatively,
 Bernoulli‘s principle states that swiftly moving fluids exert less pressure than
slowly moving fluids. Bernoulli‘s principle is extremely important in our
everyday life. It is the primary principle which leads to lift on an airplane wing
and allows the plane to fly. It is the primary reason a sailboat can sail into the
wind. It is the primary reason a baseball can curve.
Bernoulli‘s equation is really a consequence of a fundamental principle of
physics: the conservation of energy. It can be derived using energy principles.
Consider a fluid moving through a pipe. The pipe‘s cross sectional area
changes, and the pipe changes elevation. At one point the pipe has a cross
sectional area of A1, a height of y1, a pressure of P1, a velocity of v1 and moves
a distance of in a time of t . At another point P1along the pipe these
quantities are given by A2, y2, P2, v2, and . Conservation of energy gives the
following equation, called Bernoulli‘s equation,
Figure 9: A fluid moving with steady flow through a pipe with varying cross-
sectional area.
2. Hydrodynamics and Aerodynamics
 Hydrodynamics: is a branch of physics that deals with the motion of fluids
and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids and in motion
relative to them.
 So the science that studies the dynamics of liquids is referred to as
hydrodynamics, while the science that studies the dynamics of gases is
referred to as Aerodynamics.
Similarities between hydrodynamics and aerodynamics:
 Both fall under the field of fluid dynamics, because air and water are both
fluids.
 The difference in density is important and designers have to allow for it,
but air and water are both fluids, so they share similarities in the way they
behave.
Aerodynamics “A branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of air and other
gaseous fluids, and with the forces acting on bodies in motion relative to such
fluids”.
 Aerodynamics is the way air moves around things. The rules of aerodynamics
explain how an airplane is able to fly.
 Anything that moves through air reacts to aerodynamics.
 A rocket blasting off the launch pad and a kite in the sky react to
aerodynamics. Aerodynamics even acts on cars, since air flows around cars.
What Are the Four Forces of Flight?
The four forces of flight are lift, weight, thrust and drag. These forces make an
object move up and down, and faster or slower. How much of each force there is
changes how the object moves through the air.
Applications of aerodynamics
 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Sports
 Internal flows: HVAC and ductwork(Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning)
 Wind load on buildings and urban aerodynamics
 Wind turbines
3. Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work,
temperature, and energy.
 In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one
system to another and from one form to another. In thermodynamics, one
usually considers both thermodynamic systems and their environments.
 Also which is the study and application of the thermal energy (often called
the internal energy) of systems.
Heat and Temperature
 Heat is defined as the flow of energy from one object to another.
 This flow of energy is caused by a difference in temperature.
 As a form of energy, heat is conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or
destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one place to another.
 Heat can also be converted to and from other forms of energy.
 For example, a steam turbine can convert heat to kinetic energy to run a
generator that converts kinetic energy to electrical energy. A light bulb
can convert this electrical energy to electromagnetic radiation (light),
which, when absorbed by a surface, is converted back into heat. cyclic
 Temperature is one of the seven SI base quantities.
 Temperature is "a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or
degrees designated on a standard scale,"
 The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower
temperature region. When a high temperature object is placed in
contact with a low temperature object, then energy will flow from
the high temperature object to the lower temperature object, and
they will approach an equilibrium temperature.
 The faster the atoms or molecules move, the higher the
temperature, and the more atoms or molecules that are in motion,
the greater the quantity of heat they transfer.
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

 Figure 3.1: If thermometer A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and B is in

thermal equilibrium with C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with C. Therefore, the
reading on A stays the same when A is moved over to make contact with C.
• To understand the this, it is useful to define two often-used phrases: thermal
contact and thermal equilibrium.
Thermal contact, imagine that two objects are placed in an insulated container
such that they interact with each other but not with the environment. If the objects
are at different temperatures, energy is exchanged between them, even if they are
initially not in physical contact with each other.
We assume that two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can
be exchanged between them by these processes due to a temperature difference.
• Where as, Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not
exchange energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in
thermal contact. But they are in close contact that allows either to gain energy
from the other, but nevertheless, no net energy is transferred between them.
• Temperature Scales
• The three most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.
Temperature scales are created by identifying two reproducible temperatures.
• Thermal Expansion-If the liquid thermometer makes use of one of the best-
known changes in a substance: as its temperature increases, its volume
increases. This phenomenon, known as thermal expansion.
 Thermal expansion, the change in size or volume of a given mass with
temperature. Hot air rises because its volume increases, which causes the hot
air’s density to be smaller than the density of surrounding air, causing a buoyant
(upward) force on the hot air.
 The same happens in all liquids and gases, driving natural heat transfer
upwards in homes, oceans, and weather systems.
 Solids also undergo thermal expansion. Railroad tracks and bridges, for
example, have expansion joints to allow them to freely expand and contract
with temperature changes.
What are the basic properties of thermal expansion?
First, thermal expansion is clearly related to temperature change. The
greater the temperature change, the more a bimetallic strip will bend.
Second, it depends on the material. In a thermometer, for example, the
expansion of alcohol is much greater than the expansion of the glass
containing it.
What is the underlying cause of thermal expansion?
An increase in temperature implies an increase in the kinetic energy of the
individual atoms. In a solid, unlike in a gas, the atoms or molecules are
closely packed together, but their kinetic energy (in the form of small, rapid
vibrations) pushes neighboring atoms or molecules apart from each other.
This neighbor-to-neighbor pushing results in a slightly greater distance, on
average, between neighbors, and adds up to a larger size for the whole body.
For most substances under ordinary conditions, there is no preferred
direction, and an increase in temperature will increase the solid’s size by a
certain fraction in each dimension.

Table 2. Thermal Expansion Coefficients at 200C
Example 1: Calculating Linear Thermal Expansion: The Golden Gate Bridge
The main span of San Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge is 1275 m long at its
coldest. The bridge is exposed to temperatures ranging from−15∘C to 40∘C. What
is its change in length between these temperatures? Assume that the bridge is
made entirely of steel.
Solution
Plug all of the known values into the equation to solve forΔL.

Discussion
 Although not large compared with the length of the bridge, this change in length
is observable. It is generally spread over many expansion joints so that the
expansion at each joint is small.

 In general, objects will expand with increasing temperature. Water is the most
important exception to this rule. Water expands with increasing temperature (its
density decreases) when it is at temperatures greater than4∘C (40∘F). However,
it expands with decreasing temperature when it is between +4∘C and 0∘C
(40∘F0∘C to 32∘F).
 Water is densest at+4∘C.

 Figure 3.4. The density of water as a function of temperature. Note that the
thermal expansion is actually very small. The maximum density at +40C is only
0.0075% greater than the density at 20C, and 0.012% greater than that at 00C.
Example 2: Calculating Thermal Expansion: Gas vs. Gas Tank
Suppose your 60.0-L (15.9-gal) steel gasoline tank is full of gas, so both the tank
and the gasoline have a temperature of 15.0∘[Link] much gasoline has spilled by
the time they warm to 35.0∘C?
Strategy
The tank and gasoline increase in volume, but the gasoline increases more, so the
amount spilled is the difference in their volume changes. (The gasoline tank can
be treated as solid steel.) We can use the equation for volume expansion to
calculate the change in volume of the gasoline and of the tank.
Solution
1. Use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the increase in volume of
the steel tank:

Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
 The volume expansion equation is based on the assumption that the
material has an initial volume Vi before the temperature change occurs. This is
the case for solids and liquids because they have a fixed volume at a given
temperature.
 As a result, we cannot express changes in volume ΔV in a process on a gas
with Equation (3) because we have no defined volume Vi at the beginning of
the process.
 For a gas, the volume is entirely determined by the container holding the gas.
Thus, equations involving gases will contain the volume V as a variable, rather
than focusing on a change in the volume from an initial value, a fixed volume
at a given temperature.
 For a gas, it is useful to know how the quantities volume V, pressure P, and
temperature T are related for a sample of gas of mass m .
 In general, the equation that interrelates these quantities, called the equation
of state, is very complicated.
 However, if the gas is maintained at a very low pressure (or low density), the
equation of state is quite simple and can be found experimentally. Such a
low-density gas is commonly referred to as an ideal gas.
 The concept of an ideal gas implies that the gas molecules do not interact
except upon collision, and that the molecular volume is negligible compared
with the volume of the container.
 It is convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in terms of
the number of moles n.
 One mole of any substance is that amount of the substance that contains
Avogadro’s number NA= of constituent particles (atoms or
molecules).
 The number of moles n of a substance is related to its mass m through the
expression

(4)
 Where M is the molar mass of the substance. The molar mass of each chemical
element is the atomic mass expressed in g/mol. For example, the mass of one He
atom is 4.00 u (atomic mass units), so the molar mass of He is 4.00 g/mol.
 Now suppose that an ideal gas is confined to a cylindrical container whose volume
can be varied by means of a movable piston, as in Figure 3.5. If we assume that the
cylinder does not leak, the mass (or the number of moles) of the gas remains
constant.
Figure 3.5. An ideal gas confined to a cylinder whose volume can be varied by means of a movable piston.

For such a system, experiments provide the following information. First, when the gas is kept at a constant
temperature, its pressure is inversely proportional to its volume (Boyle’s law).
Second, when the pressure of the gas is kept constant, its volume is directly proportional to its temperature (the
law of Charles and Gay-Lussac). These observations are summarized by the equation of state for an ideal gas:

(5)
 In this expression, known as the ideal gas law, R is a constant and n is the
number of moles of gas in the sample. Experiments on numerous gases show
that as the pressure approaches zero, the quantity PV/nT approaches the same
value R for all gases.
 For this reason, R is called the universal gas constant. In SI units, in which
pressure is expressed in pascals (1 Pa =1 N/m2) and volume in cubic meters,
the product PV has units of newton*meters, or joules, and R has the value

If the pressure is expressed in atmospheres and the volume in liters (1 L = 103

cm3 = 10-3 m3), then R has the value

 Using this value of R and Equation 5, we find that the volume occupied by 1 mol
of any gas at atmospheric pressure and at 0°C (273 K) is 22.4 L. The ideal gas
law states that if the volume and temperature of a fixed amount of gas do not
change, then the pressure also remains constant.
 4. Heat and Internal Energy
 Heat, symbol Q and unit Joule (J), is ), is the spontaneous flow of energy across the
boundary of a system due to a temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings.
 When you heat a substance, you are transferring energy into it by placing it in contact
with surroundings that have a higher temperature.
 This is the case, for example, when you place a pan of cold water on a stove
burner—the burner is at a higher temperature than the water, and so the water gains
energy.
 Heat is a microscopic form of energy transfer involving large number of
particles; the exchange of energy occurs due to the individual interactions of
the particles.
 No macroscopic displacement occurs when heat flows and no macroscopic
force is exerted by one object on the other.
 A system cannot possess heat or work; these two are energies that flow into
or out of a system. Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation of energy (if
no heat is lost to the surroundings):
 Internal Energy, symbol U, is defined as the energy associated with the random,
disordered motion of the microscopic components-atoms and molecules.
 Any bulk kinetic energy of the system due to its motion through space is not
included in its internal energy.
 Internal energy includes kinetic energy of translation, rotation, and vibration of
molecules, potential energy within molecules, and potential energy between
molecules.
Specific Heats: Heat flowing into or out of a body (or system) changes the
temperature of the body (or system) except during phase changes the
temperature remains constant.
 The specific heat capacity(C) is defined as the amount of heat energy required
to raise the temperature of a substance by 10C.
 Mathematically:
Similarly:
 The amount of heat required to change the temperature of n moles of a
substance, usually for gases, by ΔT is:

Latent Heat
 Latent Heat the heat required per unit mass of a substance to produce a phase
change at constant temperature. The latent heat, required to change the
phase of “m” mass of a body at constant temperature is calculated as,

 Where L is the specific latent heat required to change the phase of 1 kg of a

substance at constant temperature.
 The following table shows specific heat and specific latent heat of some
substances
 Types of Latent Heat Transfer
There are two types of latent heat transfers between an object and its
environment.
 Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): is the heat absorbed or released when matter
melts, changing phase from solid to liquid form at constant temperature. For
example, 333.7 kJ of heat is required to change 1 kg of ice to water at 00C, so
for water Lf= 333.7kJ/kg.
 Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV): is the heat absorbed or released when
matter vaporizes, changing phase from liquid to gas phase at constant
temperature. To change 1 kg of water to steam at 1000C, 2256 kJ of heat is
required and so LV = 2256 kJ.
The First Law of Thermodynamics and its applications
 The first law of thermodynamics: The total change in internal energy of a
system is the sum of the heat added to it and the work done on it.

 Note that
Q is positive if W done on the system, to increase internal energy, where as
Q is negative if W done by the system to decrease the internal energy of the
system.
Thermodynamic processes
 An adiabatic process-In this process, the system does not exchange heat with its
surroundings; that is, Q = 0. The first law for an adiabatic process takes the form

 Isobaric process- In an isobaric process the expansion or compression occurs at

constant pressure. Any work done by the system will result in an increase in
volume.

 Isochoric process -In a constant volume process, the volume of the system stays
constant. Consequently, W=0. From the first law we see that
 Isothermal Process- It is a process which involves no change in the temperature
of the system. If the process occurs at constant temperature then there is no
change in the internal energy of the system so ΔU . The first law for an isothermal
process takes the form
 The law of Heat exchange
Heat may be transferred from one place to another in different ways:
Conduction
 Conduction is most obvious in solids. All liquids (except mercury) and gases are
very poor conductors of heat. When a solid heats up, its particles gain kinetic
energy and increase the energy with which they vibrate.
Convection
 Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of the heated particles
themselves.
 This can only take place in liquids and gases because in solids the particles are
not able to move from their fixed positions.
 When a liquid or gas is heated, it expands and becomes less dense.
Radiation
 Radiation is the way we receive heat energy from the sun. It does not require a
medium for its transmission (i.e. it can travel through empty space) and is in the
form of electromagnetic energy waves which travel in the same way as light or radio
waves.
 When these energy waves fall on a body, the energy may be: absorbed, transmitted or
reflected.
Note that
 When radiant energy is absorbed the body will rise in temperature.
 Black and dull surfaces absorb (and radiate) heat much more efficiently than white
shiny surface.
 The amount of heat energy received decreases with the square of the distance from
a radiant source
 Radiant energy is transmitted through clear materials such as glass. The glass does
not heat up.
 Shiny, silver surfaces will reflect radiant energy and not heat up. This is the reason
for the silver coating on a fire-fighter‘s jacket.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
 We have seen first law of thermodynamics, which is a statement of conservation
of energy. This law states that a change in internal energy in a system can occur
as a result of energy transfer by heat or by work, or by both. But according
second law of thermodynamics this statement is wrong, it is impossible to
design a device that, operating in a cyclic fashion, takes in energy by heat and
expels an equal amount of energy by work.
 The second law of thermodynamics is about the quality of energy.
 It states that energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted.
 Or it states that there is a natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate
into a more disordered state.
 Simply when energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves
freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases.
 A cyclic device that takes in energy by heat and expels a fraction of this energy
by work is possible and is called a heat engine.
 Although the first law of thermodynamics is very important, it makes no distinction between
processes that occur spontaneously and those that do not.
 The following are examples of processes that do not violate the principle of conservation
of energy if they proceed in either direction, but are observed to proceed in only one
direction, governed by the second law:
When two objects at different temperatures are placed in thermal contact with each other,
the net transfer of energy by heat is always from the warmer object to the cooler object,
never from the cooler to the warmer.
A rubber ball dropped to the ground bounces several times and eventually comes to rest,
but a ball lying on the ground never gathers internal energy from the ground and begins
bouncing on its own.
An oscillating pendulum eventually comes to rest because of collisions with air molecules
and friction at the point of suspension. The mechanical energy of the system is converted
to internal energy in the air, the pendulum, and the suspension; the reverse conversion of
energy never occurs.
All these processes are irreversible—that is, they are processes that occur naturally in one
direction only.
5. The Kinetic Theory of Gases
 The Kinetic Theory of Gases is a theory based on a simplified molecular or particle
description of a gas, from which many gross properties of the gas can be derived.
Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas
 The model shows that the pressure that a gas exerts on the walls of its container is a
consequence of the collisions of the gas molecules with the walls. In developing this
model, we make the following assumptions:
1. The gas is composed of a large number of identical molecules
2. The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole they move randomly. By
“randomly” we mean that any molecule can move in any direction with any speed. At
any given moment, a certain percentage of molecules move at high speeds, and a
certain percentage move at low speeds.
3. The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic collisions. This is
consistent with the ideal gas model, in which the molecules exert no long range
forces on each other.
4. The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls. No energy loss
5. The gas under consideration is a pure substance; that is, all molecules are identical
Cont…
 For our first application of kinetic theory, let us derive an expression for the
pressure of N molecules of an ideal gas in a container of volume V in terms
of microscopic quantities. The container is a cube with edges of length d
(fig.1)

Figure 1. A cubical box with sides of length d containing an ideal gas. The
molecule shown moves with velocity vi.
Cont…
 Let as consider on one of these molecules of mass m, and assume that it is
moving so that its component of velocity in the x direction is vxi as in Figure
1.
 As the molecule collides elastically with any wall (assumption 4), its velocity
component perpendicular to the wall is reversed because the mass of the
wall is far greater than the mass of the molecule.
 The change in the x component of the momentum of the molecule is
(1)
 Where i here refer to the ith molecule, not to an initial value.
 Because the molecules obey Newton’s laws (assumption 2), we can apply
the impulse momentum theorem to the molecule to give us
(2)
Cont…
 Where is the x component of the average force that the wall exerts on
the molecule during the collision and is the duration of the collision.
 In order for the molecule to make another collision with the same wall after this
first collision, it must travel a distance of 2d in the x direction (across the container
and back). Therefore, the time interval between two collisions with the same wall is
(3)

 we can rewrite the impulse-momentum theorem as

Cont…
(4)
 Then
(5)

 Now, by Newton’s third law, the average x component of the force exerted by
the molecule on the wall is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction:
(6)

 The total average force exerted by the gas on the wall is found by adding the
average forces exerted by the individual molecules. We add terms such as
that above for all molecules:
(7)
Cont…
(8)

 To proceed further, let us consider how to express the average value of the square
of the x component of the velocity for N molecules.

(9)
 Thus, combining the two expressions, the total force on the wall can be written

(10)
 Now let us focus again on one molecule with velocity components vxi , vyi , and vzi .
The Pythagorean Theorem relates the square of the speed of the molecule to the
squares of the velocity components:
Cont…
(11)
 Because the motion is completely random (assumption 2), the average values of
velocity are equal to each other. Using this fact we find that:

 Thus, from Equation 8, the total force exerted on the wall is

(12)

 Using this expression, we can find the total pressure exerted on the wall:

(13)

(14)
Cont…
 This result indicates that the pressure of a gas is proportional to the number of
molecules per unit volume and to the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules.
 Equation 14 shows increase the pressure inside a container is to increase the
number of molecules per unit volume N/V in the container. This is what you do
when you add air to a tire.
 This is why the pressure inside a tire increases as the tire warms up during long
trips.
 The continuous flexing of the tire as it moves along the road surface results in work
done as parts of the tire distort, causing an increase in internal energy of the rubber.
 The increased temperature of the rubber results in the transfer of energy by heat
into the air inside the tire. This transfer increases the air’s temperature, and this
increase in temperature in turn produces an increase in pressure.
Cont…
Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
 From equation 14,
 Let us now compare this with the equation of state for an ideal gas

 Equating these equations we get:

(15)
 This result tells us that temperature is a direct measure of average molecular
kinetic energy. By rearranging Equation 15, we can relate the translational
molecular kinetic energy to the temperature:
(16)
 That is, the average translational kinetic energy per molecule of each components
is then:
(17)
Cont…
 The total translational kinetic energy of N molecules of gas is simply N times the
average energy per molecule, which is given by Equation 16:
(18)
 Where we have used for Boltzmann’s constant and for the number of
moles of gas.
 If we consider a gas in which molecules possess only translational kinetic energy,
Equation 18 represents the internal energy of the gas.
 This result implies that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the
temperature.
Cont…
 The square root of is called the root-mean-square (rms) speed of the molecules.
From Equation 15 we find that the rms speed is
(19)
 Where M is the molar mass in kilograms per mole and is equal to . This
expression shows that, at a given temperature, lighter molecules move faster, on
the average, than do heavier molecules.
 For example, at a given temperature, hydrogen molecules, whose molar mass is
f have an average speed approximately four times that of oxygen
molecules, whose molar mass is .