By

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela. 1
1. Measurement Systems, Application and Design - E.O Doebelin ;
McGraw Hill International Edition.

2. Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation - Allan S. Morris;

Prentice Hall of India.

3. Principles of Industrial Instrumentation - D. Patranabis; Tata McGraw

Hill.

4. Principles of Measurement Systems - J.P. Bentley; Pearson Education.

5. Instrumentation Devices and Systems - C.S Rangan, G.R. Sharma ,

V.S.V Mani; Tata McGraw Hill.

6. Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics - R.P. Khare; Oxford University

Press.
2
3
 Absolute Pressure : It is the difference between the
pressure of the fluid and the absolute zero of pressure.

 Gauge Pressure : It is the difference between the

pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

 Differential Pressure: It is the difference between two

absolute pressure values.

4
 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/ m2

 1 Bar = 105 Pascal

 1 Torr = 1m Bar

 The range of pressures for which measurement is

commonly required is the span from 1 bar to 7000 bar.

5
 The U-tube manometer consists of a glass vessel in the
shape of letter U.

 One end of the U-tube is open and the other end is

sealed as well as evacuated.

 U-tube contains a fluid and the unknown pressure is

applied to the open end of the tube.

6
 To measure the absolute pressure, unknown pressure is
applied to the open end of the tube.

 The pressure is measured in terms of the difference

between the fluid levels in the two halves of the tube.

𝑃 = ρ𝑔ℎ
P = Unknown Pressure
ρ = Density of manometer fluid
h = Difference in fluid levels

7
 Limitations:

• Difficulty of judging exactly the meniscus levels.

• Can not give a perfect measurement because of the

impossibility of achieving a total vacuum at the sealed
end of the tube.

8
 When the manometer is used for measuring gauge
pressure, both ends of the tube are open, with an
unknown pressure being applied at one end and the other
end being open to the atmosphere.

𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ρgh

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = Atmospheric Pressure

9
 Each open end of the tube is connected to different
unknown pressures 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .

 U-tube manometer is used to measure gauge and

differential pressures up to 2 bar.

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ρgh

10
 Well-type manometer is effectively a U-tube manometer in
which one half of the tube is made very large and takes the
form of a well.
 The change in the level of the well as the measured pressure
varies is negligible.
 Therefore, the liquid level in only one tube has to be
measured, which makes the instrument much easier to use
than U-tube manometer.
 The gauge pressure is given by

𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ρgh

11
 The inclined manometer is a variation on the well-type
manometer in which one leg of the tube is inclined to
increase the measurement sensitivity.

𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ρgh

12
 The type of liquid used in the instrument depends on the
pressure and characteristics of the fluid being measured.

 Water is a convenient and certainly cheap choice, but it

evaporates easily and is difficulty to see.

 It is nevertheless used extensively, with the major obstacles

being overcome by using coloured water and regularly
topping up the tube to counteract evaporation.

 Situations where water is not used include the measurement

of fluids which react with or dissolve in water.

 In such circumstances, liquids such as Aniline, Carbon

tetrachloride, Bromoform or Mercury are used. 13
 The U-tube manometer is a commonly used instrument in
industry to give visual measurement of pressure which can
be acted upon by a human operator.

 It is not normally possible to transform the output of U-tube

manometer into an electrical signal. Hence, this instrument
is not suitable for use as part of automatic control systems.

14
 The dead-weight gauge is a null-reading type of
measuring instrument.

W
P=
A

P = Fluid pressure
W = Weight of the platform
A = Area of piston

 Weights are added to the piston platform until the piston

is adjacent to a fixed reference mark, at which time the
downward force of the weights on top of the piston is
balanced by the pressure exerted by the fluid beneath the
piston. 15
 The fluid pressure is calculated in terms of the weight
added to the platform and the known area of the piston.

 The instrument offers the ability to measure pressures to a

high degree of accuracy.

 Its major application is as a reference instrument against

which other pressure measuring devices are calibrated.

 It allows measurement of pressures up to 7000 bar.

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• Diaphragm

• Bellows

• Bourdon Tube

17
 Applied pressure causes displacement of the diaphragm
and this movement is measured by a displacement
transducer.

18
 The movement of diaphragm is a convenient way of
sensing pressure.

 The unknown pressure is applied to one side of the

diaphragm.

 The edge of the diaphragm is rigidly fixed and this causes

a deflection with its center deflecting the most.

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 The relation between pressure difference and deflection is
given by
16Et 4 y y 3
P = c
+ 0.488( c
)
3R (1−  )
4 2
t t

yc = Deflection at the center.

P = Pressure difference across diaphragm.
E = Modulus of elasticity.
t = Diaphragm thickness.
 = Poisson’s ratio.
R = Diaphragm radius to clamped edge.
20
 For a linear relationship, ‘t’ can be made more than 𝒚𝒄 so that
3
(ycΤ𝑡) is a fraction. Then, 0.488(𝑦𝑐Τt) ≪ (ycΤt)

 In this case, as other terms are constant, P ∝ yc

 Absolute Pressure, gauge pressure and differential pressure

can be measured by different versions of diaphragm.

21
 The magnitude of the displacement is typically 0.1mm.

 The displacement created is converted to change in

electrical parameters.

• Capacitive Transducer

• Strain Gauge

• Fotonic Sensor

22
 Metallic strain gauges have low gauge factor, which means
that the low output from the strain gauge bridge has to be
amplified by an expensive D.C amplifier.

 Semiconductor strain gauges provide a solution to the low-

output problem, as they have gauge factors up to 100
times greater than metallic gauges.

23
 In this device, light travels from a light source down an optical
fiber.

 It is reflected back from the diaphragm and travels back along a

second fiber to a photo detector.

 There is a characteristic relationship between the light reflected

and the distance from the fiber ends to the diaphragm, thus
making the amount of reflected light dependent upon the
measured pressure.

24
 Most commonly used materials for diaphragm are

• Phosphor Bronze
• Stainless Steel
• Beryllium Copper
• Inconel
• Monel
• Nickel

 Diaphragm-type instruments measure pressure up to 10 bar.

 It can also be used to measure dynamic pressure.

 It is compatible with automatic control schemes.

25
 The bellows is a device which operates on a very similar
principle to the diaphragm, but the sensitivity is greater than
diaphragm.

 The bellows is one piece which is expansible, collapsible and

axially flexible. It consists of several folds or capsules.

 Pressure changes within the bellows produce translational

motion at the end of the bellows which can be measured by
capacitive, inductive (LVDT) or potentiometric transducers.

26
 𝒅 = 𝑲𝑵(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )𝑫𝒏 𝒕𝒎

d = Total amount of deflection

D = Diameter
t = Thickness
N = Number of capsules
(P1-P2) = Differential Pressure
n = 4
m = - 3/2

The term K is a constant of the shell material and

design.

 The measuring range of bellows is 0 to 1 bar.

27
 The bellows is rarely used because of its high
manufacturing cost and proneness to failure.

 The general criteria for choosing a specific material for

a bellows are

• Range of Pressure
• Hysteresis
• Fatigue on dynamic operation
• Corrosion
• Fabrication ease

28
 Most commonly used materials for bellows are

• Phosphor bronze

• Beryllium Copper

• Trumpet brass

• Silicon bronze

• Stainless Steel

29
 Bourdon tube is a very common industrial measuring
instrument used for measuring the pressure of both
gaseous and liquid fluids.

 It consists of a specially shaped piece of oval-section

flexible tube which is fixed at one end and free to move at
the other.

 The free end is sealed and is known as the Tip.

 When the pressure is applied at the open, fixed end of

the tube, the oval cross-section becomes more circular.
30
31
 As the cross-section of the tube tends towards a circular shape,
a deflection of the closed, free end of the tube is caused.

 Actual tip travel is nonlinear in nature.

 But the tip travel can be considered to be linear for a small

travel of the tip.

 The linear motion of the tip is converted to circular motion of the

pointer with the mechanical arrangements.

 Main requirements in the design of the gauge are

• Whenever the same pressure is applied, movement of tip

should be same.

• Tip should return to initial position after withdrawal of the

pressure. 32
 Three common types of Bourdon Tube are

• C-type

• Spiral type

• Helical type

 Bourdon tube is compatible with automatic control schemes.

33
 The maximum possible deflection of the free end of the
tube is proportional to the angle subtended by the arc
through which the tube is bent.

34
 For a C-type tube, the maximum value for this arc is less
than 360 degrees.

 C-type tubes can measure pressure up to 6000 bar.

35
 For greater sensitivity and resolution, spiral and helical
tubes are used.

36
 This increased measurement performance is gained at the
expense of a substantial increase in manufacturing
difficulty and cost compared with C-type tubes.

 It is also associated with large decrease in maximum

pressure which can be measured.

 The maximum measurable pressure is only 700 bar.

37
 The displacement at the free end can be used to move a
pointer on a scale calibrated in terms of a pressure .

 The displacement is applied to a electrical displacement

transducer whose output can be calibrated in terms of the
applied pressure.

 The commonly used displacement transducers are

• Potentiometer
• LVDT
• Capacitive sensor
• Optical sensor 38
Intensity Modulation
39
 Bourdon tube materials should have good elastic and
spring characteristics for adequate repeatability.

 The materials used are

• Phosphor-bronze

• Silicon-bronze

• Beryllium copper

• Inconel
40
 The sources of error is related to the fluid being
measured and the fluid used for calibration.

 The pointer of bourdon tube is normally set at zero during

manufacture, using air as the calibration medium.

 If a different fluid is subsequently used with a bourdon

tube for pressure measurement, the fluid in the tube will
cause a non-zero deflection according to its weight
compared with air resulting in a error.

41
 Solutions

• By calibrating the bourdon tube with the fluid to be

measured instead of with air.

• Correction can be made according to the calculated

weight of the fluid in the tube.

 Unfortunately, difficulties arise with both of these solutions

if air is trapped in the tube, since this will prevent the tube
being filled completely by the fluid.

42
 Bourdon tube have guaranteed accuracy when
measuring gaseous pressures.

 The use of Bourdon tube for accurate measurement of

liquid pressures poses great difficulty unless the gauge
can be totally filled with liquid during both calibration and
measurement.

43
 There are factors which suggest that the measuring
medium (gas, fluid) should not come in direct contact with
the measuring element (elastic transducers).

 Factors

• The direct impact of the medium on the measuring

element may produce error in response.

• Direct touch of the medium on the measuring element

may cause corrosion.

• High viscosity fluid may cause response error.

44
 Factors

• External materials in the medium may clog on the

elastic transducers.

• In food processing and pharmaceutical industries,

cleaning of the measuring element is generally
necessary.

• Removal of the measuring element for servicing

should be convenient.
45
 To avoid these problems, a seal should be there
between the measuring medium and the measuring
element.

46
 A diaphragm seal made of corrosion resistive material is
mostly used.

 It is sealed within a chamber that can connect the

medium on one side and the measuring element on the
other side.

 On the measuring element side, a filling/ seal fluid is

generally used for easy pressure transmission.

 Complete filling of seal fluid is essential for accurate

measurement.
47
 The filling fluid should have

• Low viscosity.
• Good chemical stability at the operating temperature
range.
• Low thermal expansion coefficient.

 The commonly used filling fluids are

• Silicone oil
• Mercury
• Mineral oil
• Glycerine
48
 Less than 1 Bar.

 There are two methods for low pressure measurement.

• Direct Method
• Indirect Method

 Direct Method – Special forms of

• Bourdon Tube - 10 Torr

• Manometer and Bellows - 10−1 Torr

• Diaphragm - 10−3 Torr

49
 Indirect Method (Inferential Method)

• It involves the measurement of pressure through

measurement of other properties which depend upon the
pressure to be measured.

• These are specialized instruments at higher cost but

offering high sensitivity and accuracy.

50
 The principle of McLeod gauge is the compression of a
sample of the low-pressure gas to a pressure sufficiently
high to read with a simple manometer.

51
 Steps
• By withdrawing the plunger, the mercury level is
lowered to the position as shown in Fig. (a) admitting
the gas at unknown pressure 𝑃𝑖 .

Fig. (a)

52
• When the plunger is pushed in, the mercury level goes
up, sealing off a gas sample of known volume (V) in the
bulb and capillary tube A as shown in Fig. (b).

Fig. (b)

53
• Further motion of the plunger causes compression of the
sample gas and the motion is continued until the mercury
level in capillary B is at zero mark as shown in Fig. (c).

Fig. (c)

54
 By using Boyle’s law

𝑃𝑖 𝑉 = 𝑃𝐴𝑡 ℎ (i)
𝑃𝑖 = Initial Pressure
𝑉 = Initial Volume
𝑃 = Compressed Pressure
𝐴𝑡 = Crossectional area of limb A
h = Height of the compressed gas.
ρ = Density of mercury

 Applying the normal manometer equation,

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 + ℎρ𝑔 (ii)
55
 Putting equation (ii) in (i)

𝑃𝑖 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑖 + ℎρ𝑔 𝐴𝑡 ℎ
or, 𝑃𝑖 𝑉 − 𝐴𝑡 ℎ = 𝐴𝑡 ℎ2 ρ𝑔

𝐴𝑡 ℎ2 ρ 𝑔
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉−𝐴𝑡 ℎ
(iii)

 The compressed volume (𝐴𝑡ℎ) is often very much smaller than

the original volume 𝑉.

𝑉 ≫ 𝐴𝑡 ℎ

Equation (iii) approximates to

𝐴𝑡 ℎ2 ρ 𝑔
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉
(iv)

56
 Advantages

• Reading of the McLeod gauge is not influenced by the

composition of the gas.

• Although the best accuracy achievable with McLeod

gauge is ±1%, this is still better than most other gauges
for measuring pressures in this range.

• Minimum pressure measurable by McLeod gauge

is 10−4 Torr.

57
 Disadvantages

• If the measured gas contains any vapours that are

condensed by the compression process, then there will
be error in the measurement of pressure.

• Lack of continuous output.

• McLeod gauge is not compatible with automatic control

schemes as there is no electrical output.

58
 At low pressure, the kinetic theory of gases predicts a
linear relationship between pressure and thermal
conductivity.

 The application of the thermal conductivity principle is

complicated by the simultaneous presence of another
mode of heat transfer between the hot and cold surfaces
that is radiation.

 Most gauges utilize a heated element supplied with a

constant energy input.

59
 The heated element assumes an equilibrium temperature
when heat input and losses (by conduction and radiation)
are just balanced.

 The conduction losses vary with composition and gas

pressure.

 Hence, for a given gas, the equilibrium temperature of the

heated element becomes a measure of pressure, and this
temperature is measured.

 If the radiation losses are a major part of the total, then

pressure-induced conductivity changes will cause only a
slight temperature change, giving poor sensitivity. 60
 Radiation losses can be minimize by using surfaces of low
emissivity.

 A further source of error is in the heat conduction loss

through any solid supports by which the heated element is
mounted. Suitable insulated support can be used to
minimize the loss.

 Generally, the cold surface is maintained at a known

constant temperature for better accuracy.

61
 The common types of conductivity gauges are

• Thermocouple Gauge

• Resistance Thermometer (Pirani) Gauge

• Thermistor Gauge

62
Fig. (a) 63
Fig. (b)
64
 The hot surface is a thin metal strip whose temperature
may be varied by changing the current passing through it.

 The cold surface is the glass tube, which usually is room

temperature.

 For a given heating current and gas, the temperature

assumed by the hot surface depends on pressure.

 This temperature is measured by a thermocouple welded to

the hot surface.

65
 As the pressure increases, thermal conductivity of the gas
increases.

 Hence, more heat get dissipated and the temperature goes

down. Subsequently, thermocouple output decreases.

 Thermocouple gauge can measure pressures in the range

of 10−4 to 1 Torr. 66
 In this gauge, the functions of heating and temperature
measurement are combined in a single element.

Fig. (a)
Fig. (b) 67
 The heater element (resistance) is in the form of four
coiled tungsten or platinum wires connected in parallel
and supported inside a glass tube to which the gas is
admitted.

 The cold surface is the glass tube.

68
 Two identical tubes are connected in a bridge circuit.

 One of the tubes is evacuated to a very low pressure and

then sealed off while the other has the gas admitted to it.

 The evacuated tube acts as a compensator to reduce the

effect of

• Changes in bridge excitation voltage.

• Changes in temperature.

69
 Current flowing through the resistance element heats it to
a temperature depending on the gas pressure.

 The electrical resistance of the element changes with

temperature, and this resistance change causes a bridge
unbalance.

 Output of the bridge can be calibrated to read pressure

directly.

 Pirani Gauge can measure pressures in the range of 10−5

to 1 Torr.
70
 Thermistor Gauge operates on the same principle as the
Pirani Gauge except that the resistance element is
thermistor.

 Thermistor gauge can measure pressures in the range

of 10−4 to 1 Torr.

71
 Hot Cathode Ionization Gauge

72
 An electron passing through a potential difference
acquires kinetic energy proportional to the potential
difference.

 When this energy is large enough and the electron

strikes a gas molecule, there is a definite probability that
the electron will drive an electron out of the molecule,
leaving it a positively charged ion.

 In an ionization gauge, a stream of electrons is emitted

from a cathode. The emission of electrons is due to the
heating of the cathode.

73
 Some of these electrons strike gas molecules and
knockout secondary electrons, leaving the molecules as
positive ions.

 For normal operation of the gauge, the secondary

electrons are a negligible part of the total electron
current.

 Thus, for all practical purposes, electron current 𝒊𝒆 is the

same whether measured at the emitting point (Cathode)
or the collecting point (Anode).

74
 The number of positive ions formed is directly
proportional to 𝒊𝒆 and directly proportional to gas
pressure.

 If 𝒊𝒆 is held fixed, the rate of production of positive ions

(Ion current) is a direct measure of the number of gas
molecules per unit volume for a given gas, and thus of
the pressure.

 The positive ions are attracted to a negatively charged

electrode, which collects them and carries the ion
current. 75
 The Sensitivity S of an ionization gauge is defined by

𝑖𝑖
𝑆=
𝑃 𝑖𝑒

Where 𝑖𝑖 = Ion current ( Gauge output).

𝑖𝑒 = Electron current (Gauge input).

𝑃 = Gas pressure (Gauge input).

76
 Hot cathode gauges cover the range from 10−10 to 1 Torr.

 Disadvantages

• Filament burn out if exposed to air while hot.

• Decomposition of some gases by the hot filament.

• Contamination of measured gas by gases forced

out of the gas filament.

77
 Measurement of high pressures is carried out electrically
by monitoring the change of resistance of wires of special
materials.

 Materials having resistance-pressure characteristics

which are linear and sensitive are Gold-chromium alloys
and Manganin.

 A coil of such wire is enclosed in a sealed, oil filled flexible

bellows.
78
79
 The unknown pressure is applied to one end of the
bellows, which transmits the pressure to the coil.

 The magnitude of the applied pressure is determined by

measuring the change in resistance of the coil by Wheat-
stone bridge method.

80
81
 The motion is transmitted to a vane which progressively
shades one of two photodiodes that are exposed to
infrared radiation.

 The second photodiode acts as a reference. The output

signal is the ratio between output of measurement
photodiode and reference photodiode.

 The ratio signal is linearized and is available as either an

analog or digital measurement of pressure.

82
 The measurement accuracy is ± 0.1%.

 Advantages of Intelligent Pressure Transducers.

• Correction for ambient temperature and pressure

changes.

• Improved measurement sensitivity.

• Extended measurement range.

• Compensation for hysteresis and other non-linearities.

83