PADMA SESHADRI BALA BHAVAN SR. SEC.

SCHOOL
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
STD XII CURRENT ELECTRICITY NOTES

What is electric current?

Charges in motion constitute an electric current.
DEFINITION OF CURRENT:
The amount of charge flowing through a given cross-section of a conductor in
unit time is electric current.
𝐪
I =
𝐭
Since currents are not always steady, the current at time t across the cross-
section of a conductor is defined as the value of the ratio of ∆q to ∆t in the limit
of ∆t tending to zero,
∆𝐪
i.e. I (t) = lim
∆𝐭
∆t → 0
SI unit of electric current is coulomb/second or ampere denoted by A.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CONDUCTORS

• An electric charge will experience a force if an electric field is applied. If it
is free to move, it will thus move contributing to a current.
• In atoms and molecules, the negatively charged electrons and the positively
charged nuclei are bound to each other and are thus not free to move.
• In materials like insulators, the electrons will still be bound, i.e., they will not
accelerate even if an electric field is applied.
• In materials like conductors, some of the electrons are practically free
to move within the bulk material. These materials develop electric
currents in them when an electric field is applied.
• In electrolytic solutions both positive and negative charges can move but in
solid conductor’s current is carried by the negatively charged electrons in
the background of fixed positive ions.

DRIFT VELOCITY
• A conductor has a large number of free electrons which are in a state of
random thermal motion.
• If ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u3 … are their thermal velocities, then average thermal velocity is
u1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ u2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u3 ….
uavg = =0
n

• Thus, on the average, the number of electrons travelling in any direction

will be equal to the number of electrons travelling in the opposite
direction. So, there will be no net electric current.
• When an electric field is set up across the conductor by connecting it to a
cell or a battery, each electron experiences a force in a direction opposite
to that of the external field.
• Force on each electron is
• 𝐅 = -e𝐄 ⃗
• If m is the mass of the electron, then acceleration of each electron is

Page 1 of 18
 𝐅 -e𝐄
⃗
• 𝐚⃗ = =
𝐦 𝐦
• Thus, in addition to thermal velocity, each electron has another velocity in
the direction opposite to the electric field.

• But the electrons are not continuously accelerated as they are constantly
colliding with the positive ions.
• If τ1, τ2, τ3 ... is the time between two successive collisions then
v1 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ u1 + a⃗τ1
v⃗⃗⃗2 = ⃗⃗⃗
u2 + a⃗τ2
.
.
vn = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ un + a⃗τn

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 +v
v ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 +v
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 …v
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗n u1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ u2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u3 …. τ1 +τ2 +τ3 …….τn
Now = + a⃗ ( )
n n n
-eE
⃗
Where a⃗ = is the same for all electrons.
m
u1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ u2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u3 ….
But =0
n
⃗⃗⃗⃗
v1 +v ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 +v
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 …v
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗n τ1 +τ2 +τ3 …….τn
Thus, we have = a⃗ ( )
n n
τ1 +τ2 +τ3 …….τn
= τ, called the average relaxation time or the average time between
n
two collisions for the free electrons.

⃗⃗⃗⃗
v1 +v⃗⃗⃗⃗2 +v
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 …v
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗n
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐯𝐝 is the drift velocity which is the average velocity with which
n
the free electrons move in a direction opposite to the direction of electric
field.
We get
vd = a⃗τ
⃗⃗⃗⃗
-eE
⃗
But 𝑎 =
m

-e𝐄
⃗
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐯𝐝 = τ
𝐦

• The negative sign in the expression is because the drift velocity of the free
electrons is in a direction opposite to the direction of electric field.
• The net effect of applying an electric field across a conductor is that the
free electrons gain a small velocity called drift velocity in a direction
opposite to the direction of electric field.
• The order of thermal velocity is about 100m/s and that of the drift velocity
is a few mm/s. Thus, the ratio of thermal velocity to drift velocity is
about 105.
-e𝐄
⃗
𝐯𝐝 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗ τ
𝐦
• This last result is surprising. It tells us that the electrons move with an
average velocity which is independent of time, although electrons are
accelerated. This is because the electrons are not continuously accelerated
as they are continuously colliding with the positive ions.
Page 2 of 18
 • Because of the drift, there will be net transport of charges across any area
perpendicular to E.

Relation between current and drift velocity

Consider a conductor of length l and area of cross-section A. Let n be the number
density of the free electrons i.e. the number of free electrons per unit volume.
• Consider a planar area A, located inside the conductor such that the normal
to the area is parallel to E as shown in the figure.
• Then because of the drift, in an infinitesimal amount of time Δt, all electrons
to the left of the area at distances upto |vd|Δt would have crossed the area.

• If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume in the metal, then there
are nA|vd|Δt such electrons.
• Since each electron carries a charge -e, the total charge transported across
this area A to the right in time Δt is -neA|vd|Δt.
• E is directed towards the left and hence the total charge transported along
E across the area is negative of this. Direction of current is the direction
of flow of positive charges.
• The amount of charge crossing the area A in time Δt is by definition IΔt,
where I is the magnitude of the current. Hence, I∆t = neA|vd|Δt
I = neAvd

OHM’S LAW
From I = neAvd
-e𝐄
⃗ e𝐄
we know ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐯𝐝 = τ or |vd| = τ
𝐦 𝐦
eE ne2 AEτ
So, I = neA( τ) =
𝑚 m
If the conductor is connected to a battery of potential difference V
V
and ℓ is the length of the conductor, then E =
ℓ
ne2 AVτ 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝐀𝛕
I= =( )V
mℓ 𝐦𝓵

Page 3 of 18
OHM’S LAW: For a given conductor (n constant), under constant physical
conditions like temperature (τ constant), mechanical strain (A, 𝓵 constant) etc.
the potential difference across the ends of the conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it.

ne2 Aτ
I=( )V ……………. (1)
mℓ
IαV
𝐕
Or = constant = R called the resistance of the conductor.
𝐈
Resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered by a conductor to the flow
of current through it. Its SI unit is ohm and it is denoted by the symbol Ω.
From equation (1) we get
𝐕 𝐦𝓵
R = = 𝟐
𝐈 𝐧𝐞 𝐀𝛕

The resistance of a conductor depends on

1) Nature of the material of the conductor: Different materials have
different n and arrangement of the positive ions and hence resistance will be
different.
2) Length of the conductor: R α ℓ, as the length of the conductor increases,
its resistance increases.
1
3) Area of cross-section: R α , as the area of cross-section of the conductor
A
increases, its resistance decreases.
4) Temperature: As the temperature increases, the thermal velocity of the
free electrons increases and thus the frequency of collision with the
positive ions increases. Thus, relaxation time τ decreases or resistance
1
increases as R α . Thus, R α T (Temperature)
τ

Limitations of Ohm’s law

Although Ohm’s law has been found valid over a large class of materials, there do
exist materials and devices used in electric circuits where the proportionality of V
and I does not hold.
Substances that do obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors and those that do
not obey Ohm’s law are non-ohmic conductors.
For non-ohmic conductors:
1) V ceases to be proportional to I i.e. V Vs I graph is not linear.

Page 4 of 18
2) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. In other words, if I is
the current for a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its
magnitude fixed, does not produce a current of the same magnitude as I in the
opposite direction. Example: Diode.

3) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of
V for the same current I. A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.

Mobility
Conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In metals, these mobile charge
carriers are electrons; in an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged
ions; in an electrolyte, these can be both positive and negative ions.
An important quantity is the mobility μ defined as the magnitude of the drift
velocity per unit electric field:
|𝐯𝐝 |
μ =
𝐄
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is 104 of the mobility in practical units
(cm2/Vs). Mobility is positive.
e𝐄
|vd| = τ
𝐦
|𝐯𝐝 | e𝛕
Thus μ = = , where τ is the average relaxation time.
𝐄 𝐦

RESISTIVITY OF MATERIALS
We know that resistance of a conductor is
V mℓ
R= =
I ne2 Aτ
𝛒𝓵
R = , where ρ is called the resistivity of the material.
𝐀
𝐦
Here ρ =
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
𝐑𝐀
Thus ρ =
𝓵
SI unit is ohm-m OR Ω-m.

Page 5 of 18
For ℓ = 1m and A = 1m2
We get ρ = R
Resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of a conductor
of unit length and unit area of cross-section.

𝐦
Resistivity ρ =
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
Resistivity is independent of the length and area of cross-section of the
conductor.
Resistivity of a conductor depends on
a) Nature of material of the conductor
b) Temperature: As the temperature increases, the thermal velocity of the
free electrons increases and thus the frequency of collision with the
positive ions increases. Thus, relaxation time τ decreases or resistance
1
increases as ρ α 𝜏 . Thus, ρ α T (Temperature)

Dependence of resistivity on temperature

The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature.
Different materials do not exhibit the same dependence on temperatures.
1) Conductors
a) Over a limited range of temperatures, that is not too large, the resistivity of a
metallic conductor is approximately given by,
ρT = ρ0 [1 + α (T–T0)]
where ρT is the resistivity at a temperature T and ρ0 is the same at a reference
temperature T0. α is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
This implies that the variation of resistivity with temperature is linear. This
relation can be used approximately over a limited range of T around any
reference temperature T0, where the graph can be approximated as a straight
line.
b) At temperatures much lower than 0°C, the graph, however, deviates
considerably from a straight line

Note:
ρT - ρ0
Here α =
ρ0(T–T0)
Temperature coefficient of resistivity/resistance is defined as the increase in
resistivity/resistance per unit resistance/resistivity per degree rise in
temperature.
The dimension of α is (Temperature)–1 and SI unit is 0C-1 or K-1

2) Alloys
Some materials like Nichrome (which is an alloy of nickel, iron and
chromium) exhibit a very weak dependence of resistivity with temperature
Manganin and constantan have similar properties. These materials are thus widely
used in wire bound standard resistors since i) their resistance values would change

Page 6 of 18
very little with temperatures i.e. low temperature coefficient of resistance or low
α ii) their resistivity values are high of order 10-6Ωm.

3) Semiconductors
Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity is between conductors
and insulators.
Unlike metals, the resistivities of semiconductors decrease with increasing
temperatures. We can qualitatively understand the temperature dependence of
resistivity, in the light of the equation,
𝐦
Resistivity ρ =
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
• ρ thus depends inversely both on the number n of free electrons per unit
volume and on the average time τ between collisions.
• As we increase temperature, average speed of the electrons increases
resulting in more frequent collisions. The average time of collisions τ, thus
decreases with increase in temperature.
• In a metal, n is not dependent on temperature to any appreciable extent and
thus the decrease in the value of τ with rise in temperature causes ρ to
increase as we have observed.
• For semiconductors, however, n increases with temperature. This increase
more than compensates any decrease in τ, so that for such materials, ρ
decreases with temperature. Thus semiconductors have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance (α).

CURRENT DENSITY
Current per unit area (taken normal to the current), is called
current density and is denoted by j. The SI units of the current density
are A/m2.
𝐈
j = 𝐀
Current density is a vector quantity and the direction I the same as the direction
of current.
I = neAvd
neAvd
Thus j = = nevd
A
eE
From |vd| = τ
m
eE ne2 Eτ ne2 τ
j = ne( τ) = =( )E
𝑚 m m

Page 7 of 18
 ne2 τ
j=( )E
m
m
Resistivity ρ =
ne2 τ
1 ne2 τ
Thus =σ= and it is called conductivity.
ρ m
SI unit of conductivity if Ω-1m-1 or mho-m-1.
We get j = σE.
In vector form we get
𝐣 = σ𝐄
⃗
The direction of the current density vector is the same as the direction of electric
field.

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Series:
Two resistors are said to be in series if only one of their end points is joined If a third
resistor is joined with the series combination of the two then all three are said to be in
series. This can be extended to any number of resistors.
For two resistors in series:

Since current measures the rate of flow of charge, the same current I flows through R 1
and R2. By Ohm’s law:
Potential difference across R1 = V1 = I R1, and
Potential difference across R2 = V2 = I R2.
The potential difference V across the combination is V1+V2.
Hence,
V = V1+ V2 = I (R1 + R2)
This is as if the combination had an equivalent resistance Req, which by Ohm’s law is
V
Req = I
= (R1 + R2)
If we had three resistors connected in series, then similarly

V = I R1 + I R2 + I R3 = I (R1+ R2+ R3).

This obviously can be extended to a series combination of any number
n of resistors R1, R2 ....., Rn. The equivalent resistance Req is
Req = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn

Parallel:
Two or more resistors are said to be in parallel if one end of all the resistors is
joined together and similarly the other ends joined together.

Here the current I flows partly through R1 and partly through R2.
Thus I = I1 + I2

Page 8 of 18
The potential difference between the two resistors is the same in parallel
combination
Hence V = I1R1 = I2R2
V V
I1 = and I2 =
R1 R2
I = I1 + I2
V V
= +
R1 R2
If this combination is replaced by an equivalent resistance Req, then
V V V
I= = +
Req R1 R2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Hence = +
𝐑𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Extending it to three resistors we get
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝐑𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

EMF AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

• To maintain a steady current in the circuit, a potential difference has to be
maintained between the ends of a conductor.
• This is achieved by using a cell or a battery.
• In a closed circuit, current is flow of positive charge from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal in the external circuit.

• Inside the cell, the positive charge flows from the negative to the positive
terminal of the battery, from lower to higher potential.
Work has to be inside the cell to transfer the positive charge from lower to
higher potential and this work done per unit charge is emf of the cell.
𝐖
Thus emf E = and its SI unit is J/C or volt V
𝐪
This work done on the charge is spent by the charge in two ways:
a) A part of this work is spent in the external resistor and it is equal to the
potential difference V = IR
b) The rest is spent inside the cell itself due to internal resistance of the cell.(r)
This work spent is equal to Ir.
Thus E = V + Ir
Or E = IR + Ir

From E = V + Ir, when the cell is not connected to an external resistor we have I
= 0 and E = V.

Page 9 of 18
Thus emf of a cell is the potential difference across the terminals of a cell
when the cell is in an open circuit i.e. when no current is drawn from the cell.
Terminal voltage or terminal potential difference is the potential difference
between the terminals of the cell when the cell is in a closed circuit.
V = E – Ir
When the cell is connected to a resistor R,
V = IR
Terminal voltage is always less than the emf of the cell when current is drawn
from the cell and it is equal to the emf for an ideal cell (r=0).

V = E – Ir -------(1)
When the cell is connected to a resistor R,
V = IR --------(2)
From (1) and (2) we get
IR = E – Ir
𝐄
I =
𝐑+𝐫
The maximum current that can be drawn from a cell is for R = 0 i.e. when there is
no external resistor and
𝐄
Imax =
𝐫
However, in most cells the maximum allowed current is much lower than this to
prevent permanent damage to the cell.

Comparison between Emf & Terminal Potential Difference

EMF Potential difference

 Emf is the potential difference  Terminal potential difference is
between the terminals of a cell the potential difference
when the cell is in an open between the terminal of the cell
circuit. in a closed circuit.
 It is independent of the  It depends on the resistance of
resistance of the circuit and the circuit and the current
depends on the nature of the flowing through the cell.
electrode and electrolyte.
 It is greater than the potential  It is greater than the emf of
difference when current is the cell when the cell is being
drawn from the cell. charged.

Page 10 of 18
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Electric circuits generally consist of a number of resistors and cells
interconnected sometimes in a complicated way. The formulae we have derived
earlier for series and parallel combinations of resistors are not always sufficient
to determine all the currents and potential differences in the circuit. Two rules,
called Kirchhoff’s rules, are very useful for analysis of electric circuits.
(a) Junction rule: At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction
is equal to the sum of currents leaving the junction.

I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5

I1 +I4 - I2 - I3 - I5 = 0

OR ∑ 𝐈 = 0

Note:
The proof of this rule follows from the fact that when currents are steady, there
is no accumulation of charges at any junction. Thus, the total current flowing in,
(which is the rate at which charge flows into the junction), must equal the total
current flowing out. This rule is based on conservation of charge.

(b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
OR ∑ 𝐕 = 0
This rule is based on conservation of energy.

Consider a simple circuit of a cell and two resistors R1 and R2.

To apply loop rule, we should understand the following
The first step is to label the loop.
1) We can go around the loop either in the clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
2) We can take potential gain as negative and drop as positive or vice-versa
3) Potential gain is when
a) We move opposite to the direction of current
b) We move from negative to positive terminal of the battery
4) Potential drop is when
a) We move in the direction of current
b) We move from positive to negative terminal of the battery

Page 11 of 18
Going around the loop in the clockwise direction ABCDA,
• In AB, it is in the direction of current and hence potential drop is +IR1
• In BC, there is no resistor and hence no change in potential
• In CD, we are moving from the negative terminal of the battery to the
positive terminal and hence it is potential gain –E
• In DA, it is again in the direction of current and hence potential drop is +IR2
Thus applying loop rule we get IR1 – E +IR2 =0
IR1 + IR2 = E ------(1)
If we had taken gain as positive and drop as negative we will get
-IR1 + E - IR2 =0 or IR1 + IR2 = E which is same as (1)

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The Wheatstone bridge has four resistors P, Q, R and S. Across one pair of
diagonally opposite points (A and C in the figure) a source is connected. This (i.e.,
AC) is called the battery arm. Between the other two vertices, B and D, a
galvanometer G (which is a device to detect currents) is connected. This line,
shown as BD in the figure, is called the galvanometer arm.
For simplicity, we assume that the cell has no internal resistance.

Wheatstone principle
Wheatstone principle states that the bridge will be balanced when no current flows
through the galvanometer. This happens when the ratio of the resistance in the
two arms of the bridge are equal.
𝐏 𝐑 𝐏 𝐐
Ig = 0 when = or =
𝐐 𝐒 𝐑 𝐒

The direction of currents in the

various branches is marked using
junction rule.

In loop ABDA

I1P + IgG – (I-I1)R = 0

If Ig = 0 we get

I1P– (I-I1)R = 0

I1P = (I-I1)R -------(1)

Page 12 of 18
In loop BCDB
(I1-Ig)Q – (I-I1+Ig)S –IgG = 0
If Ig = 0, we get
I1Q – (I-I1)S = 0
I1Q = (I-I1)S -------(2)
Dividing (1) and (2)
I1P (I-I1)R
=
I1Q (I-I1)S
𝐏 𝐑 𝐏 𝐐
OR = =
𝐐 𝐒 𝐑 𝐒

The Wheatstone bridge and its balance condition provide a practical method for
determination of an unknown resistance.

METRE BRIDGE
It is a practical application of Wheatstone principle.

Construction
It consists of a wire of manganin or nichrome length 1m and of uniform cross
sectional area stretched taut and clamped between two thick metallic strips bent
at right angles on a wooden board as shown. The metallic strip has two gaps across
which resistors can be connected. The end points where the wire is clamped are
connected to a cell through a key. One end of a galvanometer is connected to the
metallic strip midway between the two gaps. The other end of the galvanometer is
connected to a ‘jockey’ or a slider. The jockey is essentially a metallic rod whose
one end has a knife-edge which can slide over the wire to make electrical
connection.
Metre Bridge-Working
R is an unknown resistance whose value we want to determine. It is connected
across one of the gaps. Across the other gap, we connect a standard known
resistance S. The jockey is connected to some point D on the wire, a distance lcm
from the end A. The jockey can be moved along the wire. The portion AD of the
𝛒𝐥
wire has a resistance . The portion DC of the wire similarly has a resistance
𝐀
𝛒(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥)
.
𝐀

Page 13 of 18
 𝛒𝐥 𝛒(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥)
The four arms AB, BC, DA and CD with resistances R, S, and obviously
𝐀 𝐀
form a Wheatstone bridge with AC as the battery arm and BD the galvanometer
arm. If the jockey is moved along the wire, then there will be one position where
the galvanometer will show no current. Let the distance of the jockey from the end
A at the balance point be l = l1. The four resistances of the bridge at the balance
𝛒𝐥𝟏 𝛒(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥𝟏 )
point then are R, S, and .
𝐀 𝐀
Applying Wheatstone balance condition we get
R S
𝛒𝐥𝟏 = 𝛒(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥𝟏 )
𝐀 𝐀
𝐥𝟏
Or R = S
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥𝟏

Note:
• If the galvanometer and battery are interchanged there will be no change in
the balance length.
• If R and S are interchanged, the balance length will be interchanged.
• The metal strips are made thick to offer negligible resistance.
• The metre bridge is most sensitive around the 50cm mark. This is because
of end resistance.

COMBINATION OF CELLS
Like resistors, cells can be combined together in an electric circuit. And like
resistors, one can, for calculating currents and voltages in a circuit, replace a
combination of cells by an equivalent cell.

Cells in Series

Two cells of emf ε1 and ε2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected in series
such that they send current in the same direction through an external circuit.
VA – VB = VAB is the potential difference between the positive and negative
terminals of the first cell and VB – VC = VBC is the potential difference between
the positive and negative terminals of the second cell.
VA – VB = ε1 – I r1-------(1)
VB – VC = ε2 – I r2------(2)
Adding (1) and (2) we get
VA – VB+ VB – VC = ε1 – I r1+ ε2 – I r2
VA – VC = ε1+ ε2 – I(r1+ r2) ------(3)
If we wish to replace the combination by a single cell between A and C of emf εeq
and internal resistance req, we would have
VAC = εeq– Ireq ------(4)
Comparing (3) and (4) we get
εeq = ε1 + ε2 and req = r1 + r2

If the negative of the two cells are connected as shown such that they send
currents in the opposite direction, then the current in the circuit will be from the
positive terminal of the cell of higher emf.
Here ε1 > ε2

Page 14 of 18
VA – VB = ε1 – I r1-------(1) VB – VC = -ε2 – I r2------(2)
Adding (1) and (2) we get
VA – VB + VB – VC = ε1 – I r1- ε2 – I r2
VA – VC = ε1- ε2 – I(r1+ r2)
If we wish to replace the combination by a single cell between A and C of emf εeq
and internal resistance req, we would have
VAC = εeq– Ireq
Comparing the last two equations, we get
εeq = ε1 - ε2 and
req = r1 + r2

Note:
The rule for series combination clearly can be extended to any number
of cells:
(i) The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of
their individual emfs
(ii) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n cells is
just the sum of their internal resistances
(iii) This is so, when the current leaves each cell from the positive electrode. If in
the combination, the current leaves any cell from the negative electrode, the emf
of the cell enters the expression for εeq with a negative sign.

Cells in parallel
Consider a parallel combination of the two cells of emf ε1 and ε2 and internal
resistance r1 and r2.
If I1 and I2 are the currents leaving the positive electrodes of the cells then at
the point B1, I1 and I2 flow in whereas the current I flows out. Since as much
charge flows in as out, we have
I = I1 + I2 ------------(1)

For the 1st cell

VA – VC = ε1 – I1r1 -------- (2)
For the 2nd cell
VA –VC = ε2 – I2r2 --------(3)
Let the potential difference VA - VC be V
So rewriting (2) and (3) we get

Page 15 of 18
V = ε1 – I1r1
𝛆𝟏 −𝐕
Or I1 = ----- (4)
𝐫𝟏
V = ε2 – I2r2
𝛆𝟐 −𝐕
Or I2 = ----- (5)
𝐫𝟐
Substituting (4) and (5) in
I = I1 + I2
I = I1 + I2
𝛆𝟏 −𝐕 𝛆𝟐 −𝐕 ε1 ε 1 1
I= + =( + 2) - V ( + )
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 r1 r 2 r r 1 2

1 1 ε1 r2 + ε2r1
V( + )=( )-I
r1 r 2 r1 r2
r2 + r1 ε1 r2 + ε2r1
V( ) =( )-I
r1 r2 r1 r2
r1 r2
Multiplying both sides by
r1 + r2
ε1 r2 + ε2r1 r1 r2 r1 r2
V=( )X (r ) -I( )
r1 r2 1 + r2 r1 + r2
𝛆 𝟏 𝐫 𝟐 + 𝛆 𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
V = ( ) - I (𝐫 )------ (6)
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
If we want to replace the combination by a single cell, between B1 and B2, of emf
εeq and internal resistance req, we would have
V = εeq – Ireq ----------(7)
Comparing (6) and (7)
ε1 r2 + ε2r1 r2 r1
V=( ) - I(r ) and
r1 + r2 1 + r2

V = εeq – Ireq
We get
𝛆𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝛆𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
εeq = and req =
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
εeq ε1 ε2
= +
req r𝟏 r2
εeq ε1 ε2 ε3 ε4
For n cells = + + + …………..
req r𝟏 r2 r𝟑 r𝟒

Some important points

1) If two identical cells are connected in parallel, ε1 = ε2 and r1 = r2
𝛆𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝛆𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝛆𝟏 𝐫𝟏 + 𝛆 𝟏 𝐫𝟏
εeq = = = ε1 ( emf of either one of the cells)
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫 𝟏
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟏 𝐫
req = = = 𝟏
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟏 𝟐

2) For n identical cells in parallel

εeq = ε1 ( emf of any one of the cells)
𝐫𝟏
req =
𝐧

3) If the polarity of the second is reversed such that the two cells send current in
the opposite direction, then
I = I1 - I2
𝛆𝟏 𝐫𝟐 − 𝛆𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
εeq = and req =
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐

Page 16 of 18
 JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING
Consider a steady current I flowing through a circuit. Let V be the potential
difference between the ends A and B of the external circuit of resistor R.

If ∆q is the charge that flows through any cross-section in time ∆t, then
∆𝐪
I =
∆𝐭
Potential energy of the charge at A is = VA∆𝒒
Potential energy of the charge at B is = VB∆𝒒
Since VA > VB, decrease in potential energy when the charge moves from A to B is
(VA – VB)∆𝒒 = V∆𝒒
In order to maintain a steady current in the circuit, this energy must be supplied
by the cell or battery.
Thus work done is V∆q
𝐕∆𝐪
Power delivered by the battery is = VI
∆𝐭
Energy supplied by the source in time t is
E = Power x time = Vit

What happens to this energy?

Because of the potential difference, there is an electric field between A and B.
Left to themselves the charge would accelerate and the decrease in potential
energy would appear as increase in kinetic energy.
But since the electrons are continuously colliding with the positive ions, they lose
their gained kinetic energy to the positive ions.
The lattice ions receive energy at an average rate of IV per unit time. This
increase in random energy is nothing but the increase in thermal energy of the
lattice. Thus the energy supplied to the external circuit appears as HEAT.
The amount of heat produced in time t is
H = Power x time = VIt
Thus H = Power x time = VIt
We know V = IR
So H = IR x It = I2Rt
𝐕
From I = 𝐑 we get
V 𝐕𝟐𝐭
H=Vx xt=
R 𝐑

According to Joule’s law of heating the heat produced is

i) Directly proportional to the square of the current
ii) Directly proportional to resistance R for a given current I
iii) Inversely proportional to R for a given V
iv) Directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the
resistor.

Page 17 of 18
Some important points
V2
1) Power = VI = = I 2R
R
2) The power rating of an electrical appliance gives information of the
resistance of the appliance. For e.g. if it is a 100W-220 V electric bulb, its
V2 220 x 220
resistance is R = = = 484Ω.
P 100
3) The power rating also tells us about the current drawn by the appliance when
P
connected to a 220V supply. A 100W-220V bulb draws a current of I = =
V
100 5
= A.
220 11
4) When appliances are connected in series, I is a constant and H α R.
1
5) When appliances are connected in parallel, V is a constant and H α .
R
6) When a 20W and 100 W are connected in series, 20W glows brighter. When
the same two bulbs are connected in parallel, the 100W bulb glows brighter

Combination of heating elements

Two heating elements have resistance R1 and R2 operated at a constant voltage V
consume powers P1 and P2.
a) Series
V2 V2
P1 = and P2=
R1 R2
V2
When connected in series, Ps =
R1 + R2
1 R1 + R2 R1 R2 1 1
Thus = = + = +
Ps V2 V2 V2 P1 P2
So in series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐

b) Parallel
V2 V2 R1 R2
P1 = and P2= ; R|| =
R1 R2 R1 + R2
𝐕𝟐 V2
P|| = = (R1 + R2)
𝐑 || R1 R2

V2 V2
P|| = + = P1 + P2
R1 R2

Thus in parallel
P|| = P1 + P2

Maximum power transfer theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem states that, to obtain maximum
external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of
the load must equal the internal resistance of the source.
E
I=
R+r
E
Power = I2R = ( ) 2R
R+r
E2 R
Power =
(R−r)2 + 4Rr
Power dissipated is maximum when R = r
𝐄𝟐
Pmax =
𝟒𝐫

**************************************************************

Page 18 of 18