VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Jnana Sangama. Belagavi-590018

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SAMBHRAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
M. S. Palya, Bengaluru-560097
2025-2026

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION
On

Operational Amplifiers
Submitted by
Muruleshwara Gowda V
Roll no.CSB0019
Submitted To
Prof. Bharath Gowda
Operational Amplifiers
Introduction
Operational amplifiers, commonly called op-amps, are among the most versatile and widely
used components in modern electronics. Despite their complex internal circuitry containing
dozens of transistors, resistors, and capacitors, op-amps are incredibly easy to use and can
perform a remarkable variety of functions. From simple signal amplification to complex
mathematical operations, operational amplifiers have become indispensable in countless
electronic applications.

The term "operational amplifier" originated from their early use in analog computers, where
they performed mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation. Today, op-amps are found in audio equipment, medical instruments, industrial
control systems, communication devices, and virtually every piece of electronic equipment
that processes analog signals.

What makes operational amplifiers so special is their extremely high gain, very high input
resistance, and very low output resistance. These characteristics, combined with the use of
negative feedback, allow designers to create circuits with precisely controlled behavior. In
this document, we will explore the fundamental principles of operational amplifiers, their key
parameters, and their most common applications.

The Op-Amp Symbol and Structure

An operational amplifier is represented by a triangular symbol with two inputs and one
output. The two inputs are marked with '+' and '−' signs, which indicate their phase
relationship with the output:

 Inverting Input (−): Signals applied here appear inverted (180° phase shift) at the
output
 Non-Inverting Input (+): Signals applied here appear in-phase (0° phase shift) at the
output
Common Operational Amplifier Configurations
1. Inverting Amplifier

The inverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental and widely used op-amp
configurations. As its name suggests, the output signal is inverted (opposite polarity)
compared to the input.

Circuit Description:

In this configuration, the input signal is applied to the inverting input through an input
resistor (RIN). The non-inverting input is connected to ground. A feedback resistor (RF)
connects the output back to the inverting input.

How It Works:

Due to the op-amp's extremely high open-loop gain, the voltage difference between the two
inputs is virtually zero. Since the non-inverting input is grounded, the inverting input is also
held at virtually 0V (called a "virtual ground").

The input current flows through RIN into the virtual ground, and since no current flows into
the op-amp input itself, all this current must flow through the feedback resistor RF. This
creates the output voltage.

Gain Calculation:

The voltage gain is simply the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor:

Voltage Gain = −RF / RIN

The negative sign indicates the inversion. For example, if RF = 100 kΩ and RIN = 10 kΩ, the
gain is −10. An input of +1V produces an output of −10V.

2. Non-Inverting Amplifier

The non-inverting amplifier produces an output that has the same polarity as the input signal.
It offers the advantage of very high input impedance.

Circuit Description:

The input signal is applied directly to the non-inverting input. The feedback resistor connects
from the output to the inverting input, and another resistor connects the inverting input to
ground.

Gain Calculation:

Voltage Gain = 1 + (RF / RIN)

Notice that the minimum gain is 1 (when RF = 0), which is why this configuration is always
non-inverting and has gain equal to or greater than unity.

3. Voltage Follower (Buffer)

The voltage follower is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier with 100% feedback,
resulting in a gain of exactly 1.

Circuit Description:

The output is connected directly to the inverting input, and the signal is applied to the non-
inverting input. This creates unity gain (output voltage = input voltage).

Think of it as an electronic isolation buffer that allows a weak signal source to drive a
demanding load without degradation.

4. Summing Amplifier

A summing amplifier adds multiple input signals together to produce a single output. This is
incredibly useful in audio mixing, signal processing, and many other applications.

Circuit Description:

Multiple input signals are each connected through separate resistors to the inverting input. A
single feedback resistor connects the output to the inverting input.

Operation:

Each input contributes a current proportional to its voltage. These currents sum at the virtual
ground, and the total current flows through the feedback resistor, creating the output voltage.

Output Equation:

VOUT = −(V1 + V2 + V3 + ...)

(when all resistors have equal values)

5. Difference Amplifier

A difference amplifier (also called a differential amplifier) amplifies the difference between
two input signals while rejecting signals common to both inputs. This makes it excellent for
noise rejection.

Key Feature:

The circuit amplifies only the difference between inputs, which is valuable for extracting
small signals in noisy environments. For example, if both inputs have 1V of noise but one has
an additional 10 mV signal, the amplifier will amplify only that 10 mV difference.
Specialized Operational Amplifier
Comparator

When an op-amp is used without negative feedback, it operates as a comparator. The

extremely high open-loop gain causes the output to swing to one of the supply rails
depending on which input is more positive.

Operation:

 If the non-inverting input is more positive than the inverting input, the output goes
to +VCC
 If the inverting input is more positive, the output goes to −VCC

Integrator

An integrator performs the mathematical operation of integration. The output voltage is

proportional to the integral (area under the curve) of the input voltage over time.

Circuit Description:

Similar to an inverting amplifier but with a capacitor as the feedback element instead of a
resistor.

Behavior:

For a constant input voltage, the output ramps linearly. For a square wave input, the output
becomes a triangle wave. The output accumulates the input signal over time.

Differentiator

A differentiator performs the mathematical operation of differentiation. The output voltage is

proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage.

Circuit Description:

Similar to an inverting amplifier but with a capacitor as the input element instead of a
resistor.

Behavior:

For a slowly changing input, the output is small. For rapidly changing inputs, the output is
large. A triangle wave input produces a square wave output.