Via Afrika

Tourism

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

We work with minds, feelings and emotions. This is a Grade 12 Study Guides
special job.

T. Holomisa, E.M.J.C Schaller, D.J. Brown, B. de Klerk,

— Cornelia Gerber, Teacher M.J. Ohloff, V. Govender, R.J. Schubotz, K.J. Sibiya

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

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realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See pages 4-7 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible Annual Teaching Plan has been included. See page 5–7 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each unit starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 27 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 38 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 27–28 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 28–29 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at tourism@[Link]? Alternatively,
visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

SAMPLE COPY
[Link] THIS IS NOT THE FINAL BOOK
AND THERE MAY STILL BE SOME
ERRORS IN IT. THESE ERRORS
WILL BE CORRECTED BEFORE
WE SELL THE BOOK.
D.J. Brown, V. Govender, T. Holomisa, B. Meyer, J.H.S.
Ohlhoff, E.M.J.C. Schaller, R.J. Schubotz, K.J. Sibiya

St udy Guide

Via Afrika Tourism

Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-344-4
Term 1

Topic 1 Domestic, regional and international tourism

Overview

This topic introduces you to tourism and the impact of global events on the tourism industry as well
as the positive and negative effects for a country of hosting an event of global significance.

In this topic you will learn about:

• Global events of international significance

• The positive and negative impact of global events on international tourism
• The impact of hosting a global event on domestic tourism in the host country
• The impact of hosting a global event on the economy of the host country
• The advantages and disadvantages of hosting global events for the host country
• Political situations and unforeseen occurrences of international significance
• The impact of these situations and occurrences on international tourism and the economy of
the affected country.

Global events of international significance

• Definition of a global event
• Types of events
• The impact of global events on international
tourism
• The impact of hosting a global event on the host Political situations and unforeseen occurrences
country of international significance
• The advantages and disadvantages for the host The concepts
country Examples of recent political situations
Examples of unforeseen occurrences
The impact of political situations and unforeseen
occurrences on international tourism and the
economy of the affected country

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Unit 1 Global events of international significance

1. What is a global event?

A global event is an organised event involving people from countries from around the world. There
are many different types of global events and they can attract a lot of media attention.

1.1 Sporting events

Sports tourism refers to travel which involves either viewing or participating in a sporting event
staying apart from their usual environment. Sport tourism is a fast growing sector of the global travel
industry and equates to 600 billion dollars a year. Sport event tourism refers to the visitors who visit
a city to watch events. An example of this would be during the Olympics. Each Olympic host city
receives an immense amount of tourism.

Examples of major international sporting events include:

• The Olympic Games is the largest sporting event in the world.

• The FIFA Soccer World Cup is the second largest sporting event in the world.
• The Tour de France cycling event is the third largest sporting event in the world and is held
mainly in France.
• Wimbledon is a prestigious annual international tennis championship played in the London
suburb of Wimbledon.
• The Comrades Marathon is the world’s largest ultra-marathon. It takes place annually in May
or June between Pietermaritzburg and Durban in KwaZulu-Natal.

1.2 Other events

The G8 Summit: This forum is for the governments of eight of the world's largest economies France,
the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada (It
excludes, however, two of the actual eight : China, 2nd, and Brazil, 7th). In recent years the ‘Plus
Five’ countries Brazil, the People’s Republic of China, India, Mexico, and South Africa, have
participated as guests.

Summits on climate change: Summits on climate change try to find ways to cut down on global
carbon emissions and pollution. In 2000 the Southern African Economic Summit was held in Durban.
In 2011 the UN Climate Change Summit was also held in Durban.

Tourism Indaba: The word indaba is an isiZulu word meaning ‘a meeting of elders’ but is used as a
general term for meetings, exhibitions, and conferences. The Tourism Indaba is South Africa’s
tourism showcase. It is the largest incoming travel trade exhibition in Africa and is held annually.

2. The impact of global events on international tourism

2.1 Positive impacts

• Short term economic benefits include higher spending at hotels,

restaurants and shops, and the creation of temporary jobs.

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 • Longer-term economic benefits include increased international tourism and increased
investment resulting from improved global name recognition due to media coverage.
• Creates a positive impact on the long term association people have with the host.

2.2 Negative impacts

• It might take a long time for the country to pay off the debt incurred in hosting the event.
• Facilities, such as sports stadiums, that are especially built for the event may not be suitable
for domestic use after the event.
• Other facilities built to host the international tourists who attended the event may stand
empty if the number of tourists declines after the event.

3. The impact of hosting a global event on the host country

The legacy left behind after the event can improve the long-term well-being and lifestyle of citizens
in the host country. This contributes enormously to nation building as we saw in South Africa when
we hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup.

3.1 Impact on domestic tourism in the host country

Domestic tourism slows down in the host country during a major global event such as the Olympic
Games, FIFA World Cup or Tour de France because during a global event foreign tourists displace
local tourists from the most popular tourist attractions.

3.2 The impact on the economy of the host country

Hosting global events can have the following positive impacts:

• Generation of foreign exchange income

• Investment
• The multiplier effect as money spent by a tourist circulates through the economy
• Development of infrastructure in the host country
• Job creation
• Future growth in international tourism.

Hosting global events can have the following negative impacts:

• Facilities built for the event, may not be suitable for domestic use after the event
• During the event, domestic tourism in the host country normally slows down
• Pollution of areas in and around the places used during the event
• Possible security risks
• It might take a long time for the country to pay off this debt
• Construction workers involved in building roads and other facilities in preparation for the
event could lose their jobs once the construction work is completed.

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Unit 2 Political situations and unforeseen occurrences of
international significance

1. Concepts

1.1 Political situations

Political situations are events that are linked to the political circumstances within a country or region
for example civil war or terrorism.

1.2 Unforeseen occurrences

Unforeseen occurrences are events that happen without any warning such as earthquakes and
natural disasters.

2. Examples of recent political situations

A tourists perceptions of political instability and safety in a country will affect their decisions about
whether or not to travel there.

2.1 Civil war

A civil war is a war between opposing groups of citizens of the same country. Civil wars have recently
occurred in Libya, Egypt, Somalia and Kenya.

2.2 Terrorism

Terrorism is the use of violent acts to achieve a political goal. One of the most significant terrorist
attacks in recent years was the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York.

2.3 General unrest

Unrest is an uneasy or troubled condition. General unrest in Zimbabwe has stopped almost all of the
tourism into that country.

3. Examples of unforeseen occurrences

3.1 Tsunamis

A tsunami is a series of very large ocean waves caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic
eruption which damage infrastructure, buildings, attractions, ports, coastlines and beaches.

3.2 Earthquakes

An earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground caused by

movements within the earth’s crust or volcanic activity, and can cause great
destruction.

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3.3 Natural disasters

A natural disaster is an event caused by the forces of nature such as a tornado and can cause great
destruction.

3.4 Global recession

A global recession is a period of general economic decline around the world and has a direct impact
on tourism demand because people have less disposable income to spend.

3.5 Diseases

A disease is an abnormal condition which interrupts the normal bodily functions leading to feelings
of pain and weakness. Diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, and more recently bird flu and swine
flu, not only make travelling fearful of visiting certain areas.

3.6 Accidents

Transport accidents can have a negative impact on tourist numbers as they affect the safety image
of a destination.

3.7 Economic upsets

Tourism establishments such as hotels and tourist attractions can experience economic upsets when
they have financial trouble or difficulty as a result of low visitor numbers.

4. The impact of political situations and unforeseen occurrences on international tourism and the
economy of the affected country

The impact of reduced tourism on a country’s economy can be disastrous: it may lead to increased
unemployment, homelessness, deflation, crime, and other social and economic problems. Examples
include:

• Travellers who have already booked will may cancel their trips
• Tourists who haven’t yet booked trips to affected areas delay their bookings or may go
elsewhere
• Tour operators avoid booking trips to affected countries
• Airlines suspend their flights to affected areas.

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Questions

1. What do you understand by the phrase global event? (4)

2. Name two of the biggest sporting events in the world? (4)

3. What do you understand by the phrase tourism indaba? (6)

4. List six positive effects for a country hosting a global event? (12)

5. List six possible negative impacts for a country hosting a global event? (12)

6. Name three examples of political instability and safety in a country which might affect a
tourists decisions about whether or not to travel there? (6)

7. Give an example of an unforeseen circumstance that could affect tourism? (2)

8. Give 4 examples of the impact of political situations and unforeseen occurrences on tourism?
(8)

9. Give 4 examples of diseases that may make people fearful of travelling to certain areas? (4)

10. Explain what the phrase tsunami means? (4)

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Topic 2 Map work and tour planning

Overview

Planning is very important in any industry and more so in the tourism industry than most because
attention to detail makes the difference between a successfully planned our and an unsuccessful
one.
In this topic you will learn about:

• Tour plans and route planning

• Compiling a day-by-day itinerary
• Compiling a tour budget
• The concepts World Health Organisation, health certificates, travel clinics, compulsory and
recommended vaccinations
• Health and safety precautions for tourists travelling to high-risk destinations
• Required travel documentation for tourists travelling between countries
• Customs regulations when departing from or arriving in South Africa
• The concepts duty free goods, prohibited goods, green channel, red channel, to declare,
travel allowances
• World time zones and daylight saving time
• The impact of time zones and daylight saving on travel planning
• Calculating arrival and departure times with and without daylight saving time
• Jet lag and jet fatigue.

Compiling a day by day itinerary

Health and Safety
Tour plans and route planning • The main aspects of an itinerary
1. Health
• Developing tour plans • Requirements of logical itinerary planning
• Concepts related to health
• Routeaplanning
Compiling tour budget • Drawing up itineraries according to different
• Precautions to take when travelling to high-
• Choice of
Factors transport the
influencing anddevelopment
accommodationof a scenarios
risk destinations
to suit customers’ needs and preferences
budget
• Vaccinations required for entering/leaving
• Choice
A basic of tourist
tour attractions and activities to
budget
areas of high risk
suit tourists’ profiles
• TB and HIV and AIDS risks for inbound
Travel documentation tourists
• Required travel documents • Recommended health precautions when
• An international driver’s permit (IDP) visiting health risk areas
• Passports 2. Safety of tourists
• Visas • Reasons why the safety of tourists in South
• Completing an application form Africa is important
• Concepts • General safety precautions for tourists
• Customs regulations

World time zones Calculations of world times when travelling

between countries
• Concepts • Calculating arrival, departure and flying
• Introduction to a world time zone map time
• Daylight saving time (DST) • Jet lag and jet fatigue
• The impact of time zones and DST on
• travel planning and travelling

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Unit 1 Tour plans and route planning

1. Developing tour plans

People travel for many different reasons. Whatever the reason if it is well planned it is more likely to
be successful.

1.1 What is a tour plan?

A good tour plan should indicate:

• The route the tour will follow

• The length of the tour
• The mode of transport
• The type of accommodation
• The meals and drinks offered
• The places of interest and attractions visited
• Leisure time for the tourist
• The dates of the tour
• Cost of the tour (budget).

1.1.1 Types of tours

Packaged tour: Is also known as an inclusive tour because the price is all-inclusive. The itinerary for a
packaged tour is planned in advance.

Escorted packaged tour: A tour guide escorts the tour and takes care of all services from the
beginning to the end of the tour.

Group packaged tour: These tours are popular with first time travellers and for tourists who prefer
to travel in a group. The itinerary is set and cannot be changed and because the tour was organised
for large groups of tourists makes the tour more affordable.

Independent packaged tour: These tours are planned to meet the individual
needs of the tourist and are flexible and can be changed if necessary.

Scheduled tours: Scheduled tours have a timetable with set departure and arrival times.

1.3 Tourists profiles

A tourist profile is a summary of personal information and facts relevant to the tourist’s wants and
expectations. The tourist profile helps the travel agent plan a tour and make sure that the needs of
the tourist are met.

1.4 Available budget

A tour budget is calculated using the costs of the different tour components. They
include:

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 • Transport
• Accommodation
• Meals included in the tour
• Attractions, including entrance fees, permits and optional extras
• Additional costs, including airport tax, service charge, etc...

1.5 Available time

When developing a tour plan, it is important to consider how much time a tourist has available.
Steps need to be taken to avoid wasting time while also ensuring tourists have adequate leisure and
relaxation time.

2. Route planning

Route planning involves choosing the best way to travel to all the destinations identified in the tour
plan. The distances between the places visited en route must be taken into account.
The following will help to develop a logical route plan:

• Knowledge of the geography of the region

• A variety of maps
• Distance tables to determine distances between major cities
• GPS
• Computers or smart phones
• Tour brochures, travel guidebooks, and travel magazines.

3. Choice of transport and accommodation to suit customers needs and preferences

3.1 Transport

Tour plans use a variety of transport options for each leg of a tour. Examples include cars, buses,
planes, etc...

A customer’s choice of transport may also be influenced by how environment friendly they are. They
might take into account by these facts:

• Fuel emissions from motorised vehicles are harmful to the environment

• Aircraft emit CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the upper atmosphere
• Oil, black water, greywater, rubbish, hazardous waste, ballast water,
diesel and CO2 from cruise liners pollute the sea and harm coral reefs and
marine life.

3.2 Accommodation

Most countries offer a wide range of accommodation options ranging from luxury safari lodges to
backpackers hostels. The type of establishment chosen by the tourist is influenced by a combination
of factors, including:

• The type of accommodation required

• The quality of accommodation required
• The desired location

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 • The availability of the accommodation
• Their budget.

4. Choice of tourist attractions and activities to suit tourists profiles

4.1 Attractions

When planning a tour the interests and preferences of the customers will determine the choice of
attractions. The attractions offered on a tour plan are often one of the main reasons why a customer
will select one tour plan above another.

4.2 Activities
The popularity of a tour plan depends on the activities that are available at the attraction sites and
destinations. Tourists enjoy and remember a tour if they participate in and experience these
activities.

Unit 2 Compiling a day-by-day itinerary

A tour plan gives general information about a tour. The specific, detailed information is presented in
an itinerary which is a written day-by-day schedule of the dates, times, transport, accommodation,
and activities that will make up the trip.

There are three different types of itineraries:

• Specific itineraries are drawn up with a target market in mind

• A general itinerary appeals to the overall market
• A personal itinerary is drawn up for an individual tourist.

1. The main aspects of an itinerary

The main aspects to be considered in an itinerary are:

• Transport
• Accommodation
• Attractions (natural and human-made)
• Activities (at natural and human-made attractions)
• Stops for meals and refreshments.

2. Factors to consider when drawing up an itinerary

Factors to consider when drawing up an itinerary include:

• Time
• Tour objectives
• Tourists needs and preferences

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 • Tour information
• Tour route
• Tour sequence
• Tour budget.

3. Drawing up itineraries according to different scenarios

3.1 Presentation of an itinerary

• The layout of the itinerary must be neat, clear and interesting

• Use the 24-hour clock to indicate time
• Write the itinerary as if you were talking to the tourist
• Do not make promises you cannot guarantee
• Mention interesting facts
• Use adjectives to describe places.

3.2 Format of an itinerary

A general itinerary may be presented in paragraph form or in tabular form.

Unit 3 Compiling a tour budget

A tour budget is a document that specifies all the costs of a tour and helps you plan accordingly.
Establishing what the tour will cost is important as the cost will determine who will be able to afford
to go on it.

1. Factors influencing the development of a budget

The development of a tour budget is dependent on a combination of factors such as:

• The type of tour

• The tour group
• Transport
• Accommodation
• Sundry expenses.

2. A basic tour budget

A basic tour budget shows what the tour will cost, what this includes and excludes and the cost of
the optional extras.

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Unit 4 Health and safety

In order to reduce the risk of contracting a disease, tourists should obtain advice on the possible
health risks in the areas to which they are travelling. Other possible health risks include the effects of
unusual climatic conditions, contact with insects and animals, and physical injuries.

1. Concepts related to health

1.1 World Health Organisation (WHO)

The WHO is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international
public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Since its
creation, WHO has been responsible for playing a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. Its
current priorities include communicable diseases, in particular, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis;
the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases; sexual and reproductive health,
development, and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance
abuse; and drive the development of reporting, publications, and networking.

1.2 Health certificates

Global travel on this scale exposes tourists to a range of health risks. Many of these risks can be
reduced by taking precautions before the start of a journey.

A health certificate is an official document that is issued and signed by a health authority. It confirms
that an individual has received the vaccine or prophylactic as indicated on the certificate.

1.3 Travel clinics

The spread of infectious diseases from one part of the world to another is not something new but it
remains a concern. Travel clinics providing up-to-date specialised international travel healthcare.

1.4 Vaccinations

Millions of deaths have been avoided because of worldwide immunisation programmes against
infectious diseases. For tourists this is important as safe and effective vaccines help to reduce the
possibility of contracting a disease when travelling to high-risk destinations.

Compulsory vaccinations: The WHO decides which vaccinations are compulsory.

Recommended vaccinations: These vaccinations are not enforced but are recommended as a
precaution.

2. Precautions to take when travelling to high-risk destinations

Destinations are considered high-risk if they are in regions that pose a threat to the health of the
tourist. Areas where malaria, bilharzia and cholera are found are high-risk
destinations.

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2.1 A region known to have malaria

Malaria is a potentially fatal disease transmitted by the bite of mosquitoes.

Precautions that can take when travelling in malaria-infested areas include:

• Taking anti-malarial prophylactics

• Avoiding being outdoors at night
• Wearing clothing that conceals as much of the body as practical
• Spraying sleeping areas with mosquito repellent
• Sleeping under a mosquito net
• Burning insecticide coils or using electronic vaporizing mats
• Avoiding still water areas and dark damp places.

2.2 A region known to have bilharzia

Bilharzia is also known as schistosomiasis and is caused by parasites that contaminate fresh water,
especially when infected people urinate or defecate in the water.

Precautions are necessary when travelling in areas known to have bilharzia:

• Avoid swimming or wading in dams and rivers

• Drink only boiled or filtered water
• Bath in hot water that is at least 65 °C, to destroy possible parasites on the skin
• Dry vigorously with a towel to prevent the parasite from penetrating the skin.

2.3 A region known to have cholera

Cholera is a bacterial disease transmitted mainly through contamination of food and water in areas
where there is poor sanitation and hygiene.

Tourists in areas where cholera has occurred should observe the following precautions:

• Drinking water should be boiled, sterilised or filtered

• Foods must be well cooked and eaten hot
• Avoid undercooked or raw fish and shellfish
• Avoid local salads as they may carry cholera-infected water
• Avoid foods and beverages from street vendors
• Swim only in chlorinated swimming pools.

3. Vaccinations required for entering/leaving areas of high risk

Proof of vaccination is often required for tourists travelling into or from countries with a high risk of
an infectious disease. An example is a yellow fever vaccination.

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4. TB and HIV and AIDS risks for inbound tourists

4.1 The risk of TB for inbound tourists

Tuberculosis (TB) is a preventable and curable infectious bacterial disease. It is prevalent in South
Africa. Examples of behaviours of inbound tourists that increase their likelihood of being exposed to
the risk of TB include:

• Traveling on a flight lasting longer than eight hours while being seated
within two rows of an infected passenger
• Using overcrowded, public transport and accommodation options
• Spending time in poorly ventilated and overcrowded environments, such as
indoor events and festivals.

4.2 The risk of HIV and AIDS for inbound tourists

Tourists must be aware of the risk of HIV and AIDS when they travel as there is no vaccine available
to prevent infection.

5. Recommended health precautions when visiting health risk areas

The WHO recommends six general health precautions for tourists visiting health risk areas. Their six
‘I’s’ are:

• Insects: Have repellents and medication available

• Ingestion: Drink bottled water and eat uncontaminated food
• Indiscretion: Prevent HIV
• Injury: Carry a traveller’s first aid kit. Apply sun block
• Immersion: Avoid swimming in fresh water rivers and dams
• Insurance: Use preventative medicine and have medical insurance.

The safety of tourists when they are in South Africa is important for the following reasons:

• Tourism generates income

• Tourism creates jobs
• Infrastructure development
• Community development.

Unit 5 Travel documentation

Tourists need travel documents to gain entry into a country for security, health,
safety, and identification. These documents change from country to country.

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1. Required travel documents

The following travel documents are required for entry into a country:

• Passport
• Visa
• Health certificates for certain countries.

1.1 Valid passport

A passport is an official government document that certifies one's identity and citizenship and
permits a citizen to travel abroad.

There are different kinds of passports:

• Tourist passports that consist of 32 pages

• Maxi tourist passports with 48 pages for frequent travellers
• Official passports
• Diplomatic passports
• Temporary passports.

An official passport is issued to someone who is travelling internationally on official business for the
country and is usually a different colour from regular passports. A diplomatic passport is issued to
someone who will travel internationally on official state business such as diplomats and consuls
when they are posted to foreign countries. A temporary passport is issued to South African citizens
who have applied for a regular passport but need to travel urgently before the regular passport can
be issued.

1.2 Visa

A visa is an endorsement on a passport indicating that the holder is allowed to enter, leave, or stay
for a specified period of time in a country. A visa application must usually be made before departure
as visas are not often issued at ports of entry.

Examples of different kinds of visas are:

• Visitor visas
• Transit visas
• Diplomatic visas
• Courtesy visas
• Official visas.

1.3 Health certificates

A health certificate is an official document that is issued and signed by a health authority which
confirms that an individual has received the vaccine as indicated on the certificate.

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1.4 Requirements for tourists travelling between countries

Tourists must have proof of the following before travelling between countries:

• A valid passport
• A valid visa
• Sufficient funds to cover their stay in the country
• A return ticket, or onward ticket to another country
• International law requires travellers crossing the borders of countries where yellow fever is
endemic, to have a yellow fever vaccination.

2. An international driver’s permit (IDP)

An IDP is a document recognized by many countries which allows the permit-holder to drive a
private motor vehicle in that country. The Automobile Association of South Africa (AA) has the
authority to issue the permit. An IDP can be obtained directly from any AA Autoshop or AA Travel
Experience Store in South Africa.

3. Passports

3.1 Requirements for obtaining a passport

To apply for a passport the following is required in South Africa:

• An identity number
• Two passport photographs
• Fingerprints must be taken if aged 16 years or older
• A fee dependent on the type of passport applied for.

4. Visas

4.1 Requirements for obtaining a visa

The basic requirements to qualify for a visa include:

• A valid, acceptable passport

• Sufficient funds for the duration of the stay
• A return or onward travel ticket
• Identity photographs, as per requirement of the country for which application is made
• Blank pages in the passport as per requirement of country
• A yellow fever certificate if the applicant passes through a high risk area
• A statement and/or documentation confirming the purpose and duration of the visit
• Payment of the prescribed fee in the currency of the country in which the application is
made
• In the case of children, proof of guardianship or custody, or consent from the guardian must
be provided
• A completed visa application form.

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5. Concepts

All travellers arriving at South Africa’s ports of entry, whether by land, sea or air, are required to pass
through immigration control before collecting their baggage. The South African Department of
Home Affairs provides this service. Travellers then pass through customs control where their
baggage may be X-rayed or examined by customs officers. After passing through immigration control
travellers collect their baggage. They then have a choice of two channels. By selecting the green
channel, a traveller indicates that they have no goods to declare, in other words, they have no
prohibited or restricted goods, and no goods in excess of the duty free allowances.

5.1 Duty free goods

Duty free goods are those goods that travellers are allowed to bring into South Africa without paying
customs duty or value-added tax (VAT).

5.2 Prohibited goods

Prohibited goods refer to those goods that travellers are not allowed, by law, to bring into South
Africa such as illegal drugs.

5.3 Travel allowances

This refers to how much money a traveller is allowed to take out of South Africa. These transactions
are subject to exchange control regulations, governed by the South African Reserve Bank.

Unit 6 Time zones

1. Concepts

1.1 Time zone

The phrase time zone refers to any of the 24 longitudinal divisions of the earth's surface in which a
standard time is kept, the primary division being that bisected by the Greenwich meridian. Each zone
is 15° of longitude in width, with local variations, and observes a clock time one hour earlier than the
zone immediately to the east.

Most countries have only one time zone, for example, South African. More than one time zone may
apply if countries extend across many degrees of longitude.

1.2 UTC (Universal Time Coordinate)

UTC is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is
one of several closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

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1.3 Greenwich

The 0º line of longitude passes through Greenwich in London, England. This line divides Earth into
the Western and Eastern Hemispheres and is also known as the prime meridian.

1.4 Hemispheres

Earth is divided into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres by the equator, and the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres by the Greenwich Meridian.

1.5 Equator

The equator is the 0º line of latitude. It is located at equal distance from the North and South Poles
and divides Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

1.6 Seasons

Seasons are the four divisions of the year: spring, summer, autumn and winter. The four seasons are
the result of Earth’s changing position with the sun.

1.7 Standard time

The local time at the standard meridian of a country is called standard time. Standard time is the
same for all places in that particular country and is calculated from Greenwich.

1.8 Local time

Local time is the specific time at any given place. is the time everyone in an area agrees upon as the
local time.

1.9 The International Date Line (IDL)

The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line on the Earth’s surface at 180° longitude.

1.10 The 24-hour clock

The 24-hour clock is a convention of time keeping in which the day runs from midnight to midnight
and is divided into 24 hours, indicated by the hours passed since midnight, from 0 to 23. This system
is the most commonly used time notation in the world today.

1.11 Latitude and longitude

A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that enables every location on the Earth to
be specified by a set of numbers. They lie east and west of the Greenwich Meridian and divide the
world into 24 time zones.

2. Introduction to a world time zone map

The map shows the different time zones around the world.

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3. Daylight saving time (DST)

DST is a way of making better use of daylight by setting the clock ahead during summer months
(thus losing one hour) when DST starts, and setting it back again one hour in the winter months (thus
gaining one hour) when DST ends.

Reasons for implementing daylight saving time are:

• Some countries feel they can make better use of the extra daylight in the evenings.
• Some countries are of the opinion that fewer road accidents and injuries occur because of
better visibility.
• The extra hour of daylight in the evening can give children more time for social activities.
• The extra hour of daylight in the evening may boost the tourism industry as it creates an
opportunity to increase participation in outdoor activities.
• It can help to save energy and reduce artificial lighting during the evening hours.

4. The impact of time zones and DST on travel planning and travelling

Time zone differences must be taken into account during long flights eastward or westward because
an hour is lost for each time zone that is crossed when flying eastwards.

Travellers must be familiar with the time changes, especially when flying east or west across time
zones. They must know when a country has DST and whether they will be crossing the International
Date Line as this can affect the times of flight changes, catching trains, etc...

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Unit 7 Calculations of world times when travelling between countries

1. Calculating arrival, departure and flying time

1.1 Determining the time and day in a different time zone

Step 1: Locate the place for which you already know the time and day on a time zone map.
Step 2: Locate the place for which you wish to know the time and the day of the week on a time
zone map.
Step 3: Count the time zones between the two places
Step 4: Calculate the time by either adding or subtracting an hour for each time zone, depending on
whether you are moving east or west.
Step 5: If you have crossed the International Date Line, identify the day.

1.2 Calculating arrival, departure and flying time

Time difference calculations are also important when calculating arrival, departure, and flying times.

1.3 Calculating time using DST

When DST applies to countries one has to add an hour to the time zone for countries to the east and
subtract an hour for countries to the west.

2. Jet lag and jet fatigue

2.1 Definition of jet lag

Jet lag is a general feeling of fatigue and disorientation often experienced by travellers by jet aircraft
who cross several time zones in relatively few hours.

2.2 Symptoms of jet lag

The main cause of jet lag is the inability of the body to immediately adjust to the time in a different
zone.
Other factors that contribute to jet lag are:

• The food and drinks consumed during the flight

• Cabin pressure, which causes leg swelling and tiredness
• Stale air in the plane, which cause tiredness, irritability and headaches
• Lack of exercise during the flight
• Lack of sleep during the flight.

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2.3 How to minimise and ease the effects of jet lag

Before the flight, travellers should make sure:

• They are in good physical shape and that they eat correctly before their trip.
• They are well informed about any medical condition from which they suffer.
• They begin adjusting their bodies to the new time zone before they leave if their stay
in the destination time zone will last more than a few days.
• They try to go to sleep and get up earlier if they are travelling east.
• They get a good night’s sleep the night before departure.

During the flight, travellers should make sure:

• They do not drink alcoholic beverages the day before their flight, during the flight, or
the day after the flight.
• They do not drink caffeinated beverages before, during, or just after a flight
• They drink plenty of water to offset the effects of the dry air in the plane.
• They do not eat too much on the plane
• They exercise their legs from time to time while they are seated for their flight
• They get up and walk around every hour or two.
• They do not take sleeping pills.
• They do not nap for more than an hour at a time.
• They break up long-haul trips across many time zones, if feasible, with a stay in a city
about halfway to their destination.
• They wear comfortable clothes and shoes.
• They make use of sleeping aids.

After the flight travellers should make sure:

• They try and get at least an hour’s worth of sunlight as soon as possible after reaching their
destination if they are travelling west.
• They check, on arrival, whether beds and bathroom facilities at their accommodation are
satisfactory
• They adapt to the local schedule as quickly as possible to help their bodies adjust faster.
• They try to establish sleeping patterns according to the time at their destination without
resorting to sleeping pills.

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Questions

1. List 5 different types of tours? (10)

2. What does the phrase tourist profile mean? (4)

3. Name 5 requirements for tourists travelling between countries? (10)

4. What are the requirements for obtaining a passport in South Africa? (8)

5. What does the phrase daylight saving time mean? (4)

6. What does the phrase time zone mean? (4)

7. What does the phrase jet lag mean? (4)

8. Name 4 things travellers can do during the flight to minimise jet lag? (8)

9. What does the phrase hemisphere mean? (4)

10. List the 5 steps that can be taken to determining the time and day in a different time zone?
(10)

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 Term 2

Topic 1 Domestic, regional and international tourism

Overview

This topic examines the different world famous icons of different countries, their locations and why
they are tourist attractions.

In this topic you will learn about:

• The difference between a tourist attraction and an icon

• The reasons why specific tourism attractions are regarded as icons
• Profiles and statistics of tourists visiting these icons
• The economic significance of icons for a country or area
• World famous icons and attractions in different countries of the world
• The location of the world famous icons and attractions on a map
• The reasons why these attractions are considered to be world famous icons
• Interesting facts about these icons.

Units 1-4 Famous world icons and attractions

Successful tourist attractions
• Factors contributing to the success of a
• The difference between tourist attractions and
tourist attraction
icons
• Characteristics of a successful tourist
• Reasons why some attractions become icons
attraction
• Profiles of tourists visiting icons
• Statistics of tourists visiting icons
• Famous world icons

Units 1-4 Famous world icons and attractions

In your learner book units 1-4 of topic 1 term 2 deal with the different icons that are tourist
attractions in different countries. You need to make sure that you know what icon belongs to which
country.

1. The difference between tourist attractions and icons

Tourist attractions are places that tourists like to visit, such as national parks and
heritage sites. An icon is a tourist attraction that is world famous and comes to
represent or be symbolic of the country or city in which it is located. Icons can be
human-made or natural. A World Heritage Site is a place such as a forest,

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mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city that is listed by UNESCO as being of
special cultural or physical significance.

2. Reasons why some attractions become icons

Icons are unique and tourists find them fascinating because they are the only one of their kind in the
world. Many icons are also proclaimed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO because of their special
cultural or physical significance. Sometimes an icon provides a sense of identity, such as the Vatican
City to people of the Catholic faith. An icon may be linked to famous people such as Robben Island
and Nelson Mandela.

2.1 The economic significance of icons for a country

Tourism icons are used by the tourism industry as pull factors and are often included in tour
packages and can therefore make a significant economic contribution to a country or region where
they are located. Businesses involved in the tourism industry are interrelated and dependent on
each other. For this reason the economic benefits of tourism reach almost everyone in the region in
some way. This is called the multiplier effect which is an effect in economics in which an increase in
spending produces an increase in national/regional income and consumption greater than the initial
increase.

3. Profiles of tourists visiting icons

Different types of tourists will visit different types of icons, depending mainly on their interests, age,
professions and income. A young adventurous tourist might climb Mount Everest while an older
wealthier tourist might relax on the beaches of the French Rivera.

4. Statistics of tourists visiting icons

The numbers of tourists visiting icons are used to plan:

• Marketing strategies
• The time and level of maintenance and upkeep of the icon
• Restrictions to protect icons from possible damage caused by mass
tourism.

Examples of famous world icons include:

Australia: Sydney Opera House, Ayers Rock/Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park.

Brazil: The Statue of Christ the Redeemer
Canada: Niagara Falls
Italy: The Colosseum, The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Venice, Vatican City
Egypt: The Great Pyramids of Giza, The Sphinx
Germany: Berlin Wall and the Brandenburg Gate, The Black Forest
China: The Great Wall of China
Israel: The Dome of the Rock, The Wailing Wall
Greece: The Parthenon
India: The Taj Mahal
Turkey: The Blue Mosque
France: The Eiffel Tower, The French Riviera
Japan: Mount Fuji
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Mexico: Chichén Itzá (Yucatan)
Jordan: Petra
Nepal: Mount Everest
Saudi Arabia: Mecca
Switzerland: The Swiss Alps
Netherlands: Mill Network at Kinderdijk, Elshout
Peru: Machu Picchu (Cuzcu)
Poland: Auschwitz Concentration Camp
Portugal: The Algarve
Spain: Alcazar of Segovia, Bullfights
Thailand: Floating markets
Russia: The Kremlin, Red Square
United Kingdom: Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, Tower of London, London Bridge
United States of America: The Statue of Liberty, The Grand Canyon.

Unit 5 Factors contributing to the success of tourist attractions

Attractions form a key component of the tourism industry. They draw local and international tourists
to cities and regions and motivate tourists to visit a destination.

Successful tourist attractions are those that:

• Continue to attract tourists

• Give enough information about the attraction where applicable
• Provide for the needs of tourists
• Meet the interests of the tourists
• Are easily accessible
• Are well maintained
• Provide a safe experience for tourists.

1. Factors that make a tourist attraction successful

The five main areas in attraction management that impact on the success
of an attraction are:

• Marketing
• Income and financial management
• Human resources
• visitor management
• Operation management.

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1.1 Marketing of tourism products locally and /or internationally

Successful marketing strategies are key to the success of tourist attractions. It is important that the
marketing technique that is used will improve visitor numbers, and stimulate out of season and
seasonal visits. Furthermore, the strategy must create a brand awareness and help to reach the
budgeted income. The strategy must make the tourist attraction stand out from all other available
options.

1.2 Sustainable and responsible management plans

Sustainable and responsible management entails sound management of both the financial and
environmental aspects of the tourist attraction.

1.2.1 Environmental management

The environment on which the attraction is dependent for its existence must be looked after and
developed.

1.2.2 Financial management

Financial management issues that must be well managed to ensure the success of an attraction are:

• The budget
• External issues such as inflation and tax laws
• Controlling costs and income.

1.3 Efficiency and ethical behaviour of staff and management

Labour costs will make up a significant portion of the budgeted costs. It is therefore important that
staff are managed well and that they are efficient and behave ethically. To ensure this, good staff
planning and training are needed. Good induction programmes and continuous training are
important to make sure that staff obtains the skills needed.

1.4 Positive experience of visitors

To ensure positive visitor experiences it is important that:

• Visitor numbers are controlled

• Opening hours are convenient
• Pricing is right
• Pathways are clear and signage is displayed
• Informative brochures and leaflets are available.

1.5 Safety and crime prevention

The safety and security of tourists is the highest priority of any tourist attraction and a well co-
ordinated strategy must be developed to protect tourists and make them feel safe.

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1.6 General appearance and upkeep of the attraction

A successful attraction should have a pleasing and clean appearance. This means that regular
maintenance of the facilities must take place.

1.7 Considering the needs of people with disabilities

Tourism attractions should be accessible to all including people with disabilities.

1.8 Universal access

Tourists have different needs. To be successful an attraction should have universal access. In
other words it must be accessible to a wide range of tourists.

Key aspects that make an attraction accessible include:

• Transport to the attraction

• Transport at the attraction
• Parking
• Accommodation
• Toilet facilities
• Information
• Support facilities and services.

2. Characteristics of a successful tourist attraction

These include:

• Actual number of visitors exceeds the target number of visitors

• Repeat visits
• Income generated exceeds target figures
• Positive impact on local community and environment.

Questions

1. What is the difference between tourist attractions and icons? (4)

2. What is the reason why some attractions become icons? (2)
3. Give an example of an icon linked to a famous person? (2)
4. Give 10 examples of famous world icons (20)
5. List 4 characteristics of a successful tourist attraction (8)
6. What does the phrase multiplier effect mean? (4)
7. Name two things that can be done to ensure staff obtain the skills needed to do
their jobs properly? (4)
8. Name 7 things that make an attraction accessible?
(14)

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 9. Is the general appearance and upkeep of an attraction important? (2)
10. What are the five main areas in attraction management that impact on the success of an
attraction? (10)

Topic 2 Foreign Exchange

Overview

When tourists travel to another country they have to exchange their own currency for that of the
country they are visiting in order to buy things such as food, gifts or pay for accommodation. The
rate at which one currency can be exchanged for another affects not only the decisions made by
tourists to visit a particular country but also the amount of foreign currency earned by a country.

In this topic you will learn about:

• The term GDP and its benefits to the economy

• The multiplier effect and its link to the GDP
• The concepts of a weak and strong rand
• The relative strength and relative weakness of a currency
• How to interpret a currency rate sheet
• How to convert major currencies
• The difference between bank selling rate (BSR) and bank buying rate (BBR)
• The effect of exchange rates on international tourism
• Fluctuations in exchange rates.

Exchange rates and the economy Exchange rate conversions

• How to interpret a currency rate sheet
• Gross domestic product (GDP) and its benefits • Conversion of major currencies to understand
to our economy • the buying power of different currencies
• The multiplier effect and its link to the GDP • Differentiation between bank selling rate and
• The concept ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ rand bank buying rate
• The relative strength and weakness of a
currency at specific times

The impact of exchange rates on tourism

• Effect of exchange rates on international tourism

and its influence on South African travel patterns
• Fluctuations in the exchange rate

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Unit 1 Foreign exchange

The phrase foreign exchange refers to the exchange of one currency for another, or the conversion
of one currency into another currency. Foreign exchange also refers to the global market where
currencies are traded virtually around-the-clock. The term foreign exchange is usually abbreviated as
"forex".

1. Gross domestic product (GDP) and its benefits to our economy

The GDP is a measure of a country’s national income. GDP is a measure of all the goods and services
produced domestically, usually in a period of one calendar year. The components included are
consumer spending, investment made by industry, value of exports minus value of imports, and
government spending.

Our economy is diversified with key economic sectors contributing to the GDP, including:

• Mining
• Agriculture and fisheries
• vehicle manufacturing
• food processing
• Clothing and textiles
• Telecommunication
• Energy
• Financial and business services
• Tourism
• Transportation
• Wholesale and retail trade.

If there are more goods and services produced in a year than in the previous year, we say there has
been growth in the GDP. If GDP is increasing the economy is in good health and the nation is
progressing and standards of living are improving.

2. The multiplier effect and its link to the GDP

The multiplier effect refers to the increase in final income arising from any new injection of
spending. Every time there is an injection of new demand into the circular flow there is likely to be a
multiplier effect. This is because an injection of extra income leads to more spending, which creates
more income, and so on.

2.1 The tourism multiplier effect

Tourism not only creates jobs in the tourism industry, it also encourages growth in other sectors of
industry. This is known as the tourism multiplier effect. Simply stated, this is how many times money
spent by a tourist circulates through a country’s economy.

2.2 The multiplier effect and the GDP

The multiplier effect is an effect in which an increase in spending produces an

increase in national income and consumption greater than the initial amount
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spent. Therefore the tourism multiplier affects GDP and is very important for South Africa because
we need to grow the economy and create more jobs.

3. The concept ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ rand

Strong currency, also known as a hard currency, refers to a currency when it is worth more relative
to other currencies. A weak currency, also known as a soft currency, is a currency whose value has
depreciated significantly over time against other currencies and will fluctuate erratically or
depreciate against other currencies. A weak currency is often the result of political or fiscal
instability in the country. The terms strong rand and weak rand are used in the foreign exchange
market to describe the value and strength of the South African Rand against other currencies. When
one unit of our currency trades for more units of another currency, it is known as a strong rand.

4. The relative strength and weakness of a currency at specific times

Some of the effects of a weak currency:

• A weak currency is good for nations that have more exports than imports
because their exports will become cheaper for foreign buyers.
• A weak currency will stimulate manufacturing and exports to areas with
a stronger currency.
• There will be an increase in manufacturing and job creation if the demand
for exports increases.
• More foreign tourists will be able to afford to visit countries with weak
currencies as it will increase their purchasing power.
• Imports become more expensive for the countries with weak currencies.
• Higher prices of foreign products increase the cost of living in countries
with weak currencies.
• Purchasing power weakens for people in countries with weak currencies.
• A weak currency has a negative effect for people planning to travel to areas
with a strong currency.

Effects of a strong currency:

• Imports become cheaper for the countries with strong currencies.

• Imported products and services, especially fuel, become more affordable.
• Exports become more expensive. Countries with strong currencies will export less as the
demand will decrease.
• Domestic manufacturing will decrease as there is less demand from both the domestic and
foreign markets.
• Fewer foreign tourists will be able to afford to visit countries with strong currencies as it will
decrease their purchasing power.
• Purchasing power strengthens for people in countries with strong currencies.
• A strong currency has a positive effect for people planning to travel to areas with a weak
currency.

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5. How to interpret a currency rate sheet

Currency rates, also known as foreign exchange rates or simply exchange rates, tell how much of one
currency you need to purchase a unit of another currency.

In order to calculate a foreign exchange rate follow these steps:

• Identify the exchange rate of the currency you need and find the ISO code. For example, the
currency code of the rand is ZAR, while that of the US Dollar is USD.
• Look up the exchange rate for your two currencies.
• Calculate the exchange rate by looking at a currency pair (two currencies). The first currency
in the pair, known as the base currency, is the transaction currency and the second currency
is the payment currency.

Unit 2 Foreign exchange (part 2)

7. Differentiation between bank selling rate and bank buying rate

In the trading world of the currency exchange markets, a different buying rate and selling rate will be
quoted. Exchange rates are quoted in two different rates:

• The bank buying rate

• The bank selling rate.

The buying rate (BBR) is the rate at which the exchange bank will buy a currency. The selling rate
(BSR) is the rate at which the exchange bank will sell a currency.

The quoted rates will include an allowance for a dealer’s margin (profit) in trading. Alternatively the
profit may be recovered in the form of a commission. Banks perform a vital role in foreign currency
exchange transactions. Banks trade in international currencies in order to make a profit.

8. Effect of exchange rates on international tourism and its influence on South African travel
patterns

Exchange rates can impact the tourism industry either negatively or positively. A fall in the value of
the South African rand has a twofold effect:

• It makes international travel for South Africans more expensive

• It makes travelling in South Africa cheaper for foreign tourists.

Tourist travel patterns are influenced by the exchange rates as they affect the tourist’s purchasing
power. Tourists visiting South Africa from another country will have more or less money to spend
depending on the exchange rate.

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9. Fluctuations in the exchange rate

Factors that determine exchange rates are:

• Inflation
• Interest rates
• Trade balance
• Terms of trade
• Government debt
• Political and economic instability
• Employment outlook of a country.

Questions

1. What does the phrase foreign exchange mean? (4)

2. What does the phrase Gross Domestic Product mean? (4)

3. What do you understand by the phrases strong and weak currencies? (4)

4. Name three effects of a weak currency? (6)

5. List the different factors that determine exchange rates? (14)

6. List two effects a fall in the value of the South African rand has on tourism? (4)

7. Name the two ways exchange rates are quoted? (4)

8. What are the steps that need to be taken to determine an exchange rate? (6)

9. List three effects of a strong currency? (6)

10. What is the multiplier effect and its link to the GDP? (4)

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Term 3

Topic 1 Domestic, regional and international tourism

Overview

In this topic you will learn about:

• Forms of payment when travelling internationally including:

• Electronic fund transfers (EFT)
• Telegraphic transfers (SWIFT transfers)
• Bank drafts
• Internet payments
• Foreign bank notes (cash)
• Credit cards (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Diners Club)
• Traveller’s cheques
• Preloaded foreign currency debit cards such as Cash Passport Card/Travel
Wallet/International Travel Card
• The advantages and disadvantages of each form of payment
• Interpreting statistics regarding inbound international tourism including:
• Foreign arrivals to South Africa and how the arrival statistics can determine foreign market
share
• Most visited provinces in South Africa
• Length of stay in each province
• Average expenditure per tourist
• Activities undertaken whilst in South Africa.

Forms of payment when travelling

internationally Foreign Market Share
• Electronic fund transfers
Concepts
• (EFT)
Foreign arrivals to South Africa
• Telegraphic transfers (SWIFT
Most visited provinces in South Africa
• transfers)
Length of stay in each province
• Bank draft s
Average expenditure per tourist
• Internet payments
Activities undertaken whilst in South Africa
• Foreign bank notes
• Credit cards
• Preloaded foreign currency debit cards
• Traveller’s cheques

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Unit 1 Forms of payment when travelling internationally

There are several methods tourists can use to pay for goods and services when travelling in a foreign
country. Each method of payment has its advantages and disadvantages and tourists need to do
research before deciding which method is best suited to them.

1. Electronic fund transfers (EFT)

An EFT is the electronic exchange, transfer of money from one account to another, either within a
single financial institution or across multiple institutions, through computer-based systems.

Its advantages are:

• It is safe and secure

• It is efficient and fast
• It is less expensive than paper cheque payments and collections
• Money can be transferred throughout the world.

Its disadvantages are:

• Funds will only show on a beneficiary’s account if the transaction is done before a specific
time of the day, otherwise it will only show the next day.
• Funds might be transferred to or from a person’s account on the incorrect date.
• It may be difficult to cancel an EFT.

2. Telegraphic transfers (SWIFT transfers)

Telegraphic transfers are a method of electronic funds transfer from one person or institution to
another. A wire transfer can be made from one bank account to another bank account or through a
transfer of cash at a cash office. Wire transfer systems are intended to provide more individualized
transactions than bulk payment systems.

Its advantages are:

• If you are stuck overseas without cash, someone at home can send you money electronically
within a day
• You do not need Internet banking as the banks send the information directly to each other.

Its disadvantages are:

• Fees can be high.

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3. Bank drafts

A banker's draft (also called a cashier's check) is a cheque where the funds are taken directly from
the financial institution rather than the individual drawer's account.

Its advantages are:

• It is one of the safest ways to send money abroad.

Its disadvantages are:

• Bank fees and charges can be high

• Drafts need to be physically sent by mail or courier, so they may take a few weeks to reach
the recipient.
• The recipient cannot cash the draft unless he has a bank account in which to deposit it.

4. Internet payments

Internet payments describe any online payment (on the internet) for a product or service.

Its advantages are:

• They can save time

• No need to stand in long queues to pay a bill
• People can log into their accounts at any time to get an up-to-date statement of their
transactions
• Low transaction costs/fees.

Its disadvantages are:

• No internet access can cause late payments

• There is no direct contact with the business from which a product or service is purchased
• Computer crimes may result in money being stolen
• Criminals record a user’s keystrokes and then use this information to illegally access
accounts.

5. Foreign Bank notes

Foreign bank notes are cash (coins and notes) that the tourist uses in the country that they are
visiting.

Its advantages are:

• It’s useful to have cash on hand for immediate expenses.

Its disadvantages are:

• This is the most risky form of payment as if cash is stolen or lost it cannot
be recovered.

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6. Credit Cards

A card issued by a financial company giving the holder an option to borrow funds, usually at point of
sale. Credit cards charge interest and are primarily used for short-term financing. Interest usually
begins one month after a purchase is made and borrowing limits are pre-set according to the
individual's credit rating.

Its advantages are:

• Cards can be used to buy expensive items. The debt can be paid off over time
• They avoid having to carry large amounts of cash
• Most businesses accept credit cards as a form of payment.

Its disadvantages are:

• Some businesses do not accept credit cards

• It is easy to overspend and incur debt
• Transaction costs are charged every time you use the card
• Illegal copying of information from the magnetic strip of a card may give criminals access to
an account (card skimming)
• Interest rates are high.

7. Preloaded foreign currency debit cards

These cards, issued by all major banks, are preloaded with foreign currency before tourists travel
and are also known as ‘cash passports’.

Its advantages are:

• There is no chance of running into debt

• The money loaded onto the card is safe
• Activation of the card is protected by a PIN.

Its disadvantages are:

• Bank fees may be high

• Some cards charge a fee when you use them to make a purchase or withdraw money
• A lack of Internet access may make it difficult to load foreign currency onto the cards.

8. Traveller’s cheques

A traveller’s cheque is a cheque issued by a financial institution that can be used as a form of
payment and, if necessary, exchanged for cash.

© Via Afrika Publishers

Its advantages are:

• They are refunded if lost or stolen

• They are available in all major currencies and can be exchanged at most hotels, restaurants
and shops around the world
• They are useful as currency if a tourist is unable to find a functioning ATM.

Its disadvantages are:

• The exchange rate for traveller’s cheques is not as favourable as the interbank rate that
tourists get when using a credit or debit card
• Nowadays few shops and businesses accept traveller’s cheques for the purchase of goods
• There are bank charges and fees for converting cash into traveller’s cheques.

Unit 2 Foreign market share

1. Concepts

1.1 Inbound tourists

Inbound tourists are incoming tourists, ie - people travelling to South Africa.

1.2 Foreign market share

Foreign market share is the portion of the inbound tourism market that a specific country controls
and includes both the number of tourists and the amount they spend.

The two main categories of foreign markets are:

• Land markets: Countries where at least 60% of arrivals from the country arrive by land. For
South Africa land markets are Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia,
Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
• Air markets: Those countries where at least 60% of arrivals from the country arrive by air.

1.3 Arrival statistics

Arrival statistics indicate the numbers of international tourists that arrive in South Africa. These
numbers are collected, classified, analysed and interpreted.

2. Foreign arrivals to South Africa

Foreign tourist arrivals vary from year to year. We use the phrase source markets
to describe the main areas from which these tourists come from. One of South
Africa's source markets is Europe. Examples of emerging foreign markets are India
and China.

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Questions

1. What does the abbreviation EFT stand for? (2)

2. List four advantages of using EFTs. (8)

3. What is a telegraphic transfer or SWIFT transfer? (4)

4. Name one advantage of using a telegraphic transfer? (2)

5. List four advantages of using the internet to make payments? (8)

6. List four disadvantages of using the internet to make payments? (8)

7. Explain what a credit card is? (4)

8. List three advantages of using a credit card to make payments? (6)

9. Explain the phrase foreign market share? (4)

10. The two main categories of foreign markets are? (4)

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Topic 2 Marketing

Overview

International tourists visiting South Africa form a vital part of our economy.
In this topic you will learn about:

• The importance of marketing South Africa internationally

• The core business of South African Tourism
• Opportunities for marketing South Africa internationally
• How SAT’s marketing activities are funded
• The concept of branding and South Africa’s brand logo
• Local travel shows such as the Tourism Indaba and the Getaway show as
• Opportunities to promote South Africa and the Southern African region to the world.

Marketing South Africa

• The importance of marketing South Africa

internationally
• The core business of South African
Tourism
• Opportunities for marketing South Africa
internationally
• Funding SAT’s international marketing
initiatives: the role of Tourism Marketing
Levy South Africa (TOMSA)
• South Africa’s brand logo
• Opportunities to promote South Africa and
the Southern African region to the world

Unit 1 Marketing South Africa as a tourism destination

1. The importance of marketing South Africa internationally

Tourism is a very important part of South Africa’s economy. In order to ensure that tourism
continues to grow, South Africa must be actively marketed to international tourists as a tourism
destination. There are two main objectives in marketing South Africa as a
destination:

• Increase in annual volume of foreign arrivals to South Africa

• Increase in international awareness of South Africa as a travel destination.

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2. The core business of South African Tourism (SAT)

SAT has been specifically tasked with marketing South Africa as a destination, both domestically and
internationally and can be described as a National Destination Marketing Organisation (DMO).

2.1 Marketing South Africa internationally as a tourism destination of choice

SAT undertakes a number of marketing activities. These include:

• Participation in major travel shows both locally and internationally

• Advertising, public relations and direct mailing campaigns
• Holding educational work sessions with the international partners of South Africa’s travel
industry.

SAT divides the international market into segments to identify the most important markets on which
to focus. SAT categorises market segments as core markets, investment markets, tactical markets,
watch-list markets, markets of strategic importance and strategic air link or hub markets. Core
markets are the most important and receive the most attention.

2.2 Maintaining and enhancing the standard of facilities and services in the industry

The product aspect of marketing is one of the five Ps of the marketing mix. Since facilities and
services form the basis of the tourism product, the quality of these facilities and services needs to be
maintained or, if necessary, improved. One of the ways in which SAT can do this is through the
Tourism Grading Council of South Africa (TGCSA). The TGCSA evaluates accommodation
establishments, such as guesthouses and hotels, and awards them a star grading.

Other initiatives to ensure that the standard of facilities and services are improved include:

• Welcome Awards
• The Emerging Tourism Entrepreneur of the Year Award (ETEYA).

2.3 Coordinating the marketing activities of role players in the industry

SAT spends a large amount of time and money on marketing South Africa as a destination. Other
tourism organisations should use the marketing done by SAT as a platform for their own marketing
initiatives. Marketing efforts should be coordinated so that they align with the strategy and
positioning of South African Tourism. For this reason SAT works closely with other Direct Marketing
Organisations (DMOs) at both provincial and local levels. SAT coordinates the marketing efforts of
the different provinces and cities with the national marketing efforts.

3. Opportunities for marketing South Africa internationally

Tourism intermediaries are very important in generating tourism business for a destination.
International travel trade shows and expos are hosted around the world. The two best known of
these are the International Tourism Exchange (ITB) in Berlin and the World Travel Market (WTM) in
London.

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3.1 ITB (Berlin)

The ITB takes place annually in March. ITB draws more than 170 000 visitors, including 108 000 trade
visitors, and over 10 000 exhibitors from 180 countries.

3.2 World Travel Market (London)

The idea is to create opportunities for a wide variety of people from the global travel trade to meet,
network, negotiate and conduct business under one roof. This is an annual event that normally takes
place in November.

4. Funding SAT’s international marketing initiatives: the role of Tourism Marketing Levy South
Africa (TOMSA)

SAT needs a great deal of funding because international marketing is expensive. Tourism Marketing
Levy South Africa (TOMSA) was set up in 1998 to raise additional funds for the marketing of
destination South Africa. It is a private sector initiative. South African Tourism (SAT) makes use of
these funds to promote the country as a preferred tourist destination, both locally and
internationally.

The TOMSA levy is 1% of each confirmed booking. The collection of the TOMSA levy by tourism
businesses is voluntary. The amounts paid are not the same as paying a tax to the business. The
tourist pays the levies and the business just acts as a collector of the levies. These levies are paid to
the Tourism Business Council of South Africa (TBCSA), which administrates TOMSA.

5. South Africa’s brand logo

South African Tourism’s logo and corporate identity were redeveloped in 2009 in collaboration with
the International Marketing Council (IMC). The logo uses the colours of the South African flag and
the inspiration for the logo is the pride in South Africa that South African Tourism strives to nurture
among all South Africans.

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6. Opportunities to promote South Africa and the Southern African region to the world

6.1 Tourism Indaba

This is owned by SAT and is one of the largest tourism marketing events on the African calendar.
Indaba can be compared to other ‘must visit’ events of its kind on the global calendar, such as the
WTM and ITB. This tourism trade event showcases a wide variety of Southern Africa’s best tourism
products, and attracts international visitors and media from across the world. Indaba takes place
annually over four days normally in mid-May. It attracts well over 13 000 delegates from the travel,
tourism, and related industries.

6.2 The Getaway Show

The Getaway Show takes place annually both in the Western Cape, usually during March/April, and
in Gauteng during August/September. The show is organised by the publishers of Getaway magazine
and includes a wide variety of exhibitors, including outdoor equipment companies, safari tour
operators, and tourist destinations in Southern Africa.

Questions

1. What are the two main objectives in marketing South Africa as a destination? (4)

2. What is the core business of South African Tourism (SAT)? (2)

3. Name three marketing activities that SAT undertakes? (6)

4. What are the segments that SAT divides the market into? (14)

5. Name two international trade expos that SAT participates in? (4)

6. Name two local trade expos that promote South Africa? (4)

7. Explain how SAT is funded? (8)

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Topic 3 Sustainable and responsible tourism

Overview

In this topic you will learn about:

• The concept and background of the triple bottom line approach

• How tourism businesses can act responsibly (environmentally, economically and socially)
• Codes of conduct for tourist behaviour (social, economic and
environmental)
• How a destination can attract tourists who are conscious of the triple
bottom line
• How Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa contributes to responsible and
sustainable practices
• How to make use of case studies of companies that practise the triple
bottom-line approach.

Responsible tourism and tourists

The three pillars of sustainable tourism
• Codes of conduct for tourist
• The concept and background of the behaviour (social, economic and
triple bottom line approach environmental)
• Environmental impacts (planet) • How can a tourism destination
• Economic impacts (profit) attract environmentally (people,
• Social impacts (people) planet, profit) conscious tourists?
• The contribution of Fair Trade in
Tourism South Africa (FTTSA)
towards encouraging responsible
and sustainable practices
• Case studies of companies that
practice the triple bottom-line
approach

Unit 1 The three pillars of sustainable tourism

1. The concept and background of the triple bottom line approach

The phrase bottom line refers to the bottom line of a financial statement, called the income
statement. This line shows how much profit a company has made in a particular period.

As international tourism continues to grow, governments have realised that

tourism has more than just an economic impact on a country. Tourism also has
social (people) and environmental (planet) impacts. These two aspects are added
to the economic (profit) aspect to form the triple bottom line approach.

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If profit was the only objective, human and natural resources could be exploited so balanced
approach is required.

2. Environmental impacts (planet)

2.1 Resource management (energy and water)

Resource management refers to the way in which scarce and limited resources are managed. It is
important that tourism businesses reduce their energy usage to help reduce pollution and protect
our limited resources. Simple things like switching off unused appliances and lights that have been
left on help conserve electricity. The supply of fresh water is limited and large parts of South Africa
receive little rain and are very dry. We need to conserve water to ensure that there is enough water
for everyone. Simple things like fixing leaking taps help conserve water.

2.2 Waste management

Waste management refers to the management of the amount of waste generated by a tourism
business. It is important that tourism businesses manage their waste since waste has a negative
environmental impact. The three Rs can be applied to manage waste – reduce, re-use and re-cycle.

2.3 Litter control

Litter control is the reduction or avoidance of litter. Tourists should be encouraged not to litter.
Tourism organisations should ensure that they provide enough rubbish bins, and encourage tourists
to place litter in the correct bins for recycling. They should also encourage tourists to reduce, re-use
and recycle.

2.4 Pollution control

Tourism organisations should use environmentally friendly products where possible. This is done
through pollution control. Pollution should be reduced or completely avoided. This will ensure that
fewer harmful chemicals that pollute the ground and water are produced. Certain types of waste, for
example, used motor oil and fluorescent tube lights, should be handled by professional waste
management companies.

2.5 Environmentally friendly building

Environmentally friendly building is the construction and design of new buildings, such as hotels,
which are designed to have the minimal negative impact on the environment both during building
and once operational.

2.6 Promotion of indigenous flora and control of alien invasive plants in grounds and
gardens

Alien invasive plants are plants that do not naturally occur in a particular area. They often grow out
of control, affecting the indigenous flora. It is better to use indigenous plants when planning a
garden, for example, for a new hotel, as they use less water and are part of our
natural heritage.

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3. Economic impacts (profit)

If tourism businesses do well, they have a positive economic impact on a destination. Tourism
businesses have an important role to play in the responsible and sustainable management of
tourism.

3.2 Responsible attitude of a tourism business towards the people and the environment it affects

Tourism businesses must realise that their businesses are about more than just profit. They have a
responsibility towards the community and the environment in which they operate. The most
important aspect of this responsible attitude of a tourism business is that they do not exploit people
or the environment for profit.

3.3 Ways to manage economic impacts

• Ownership: It is very important that government encourages and promotes local
tourism business ownership.
• Employment: Employing local residents is important to ensure that the economic benefits
remain at the destination.
• Procurement of local goods and services: Through the procurement of local goods (buying)
from local suppliers, they are sharing the economic benefits of tourism with the other
businesses at the destination.

4. Social impacts (people)

4.1 Positive and negative effects of tourism on local communities, culture and heritage

Tourism can have both positive and negative impacts on communities, and their culture and
heritage.

Examples of positive effects include:

• Tourism creates an awareness of different traditions, cultures, and art forms.

• Tourism creates understanding between people of different cultures.
• Local communities absorb new ideas, interests, and values from tourists.
• Cultural heritage is preserved and money can be raised for the maintenance of cultural sites
and museums.
• The local community learn to take pride in their culture.
• The money generated can be used to uplift the community.

Examples of negative effects include:

• Crime and violence may increase.

• Cultural changes may occur as the locals may adopt the culture of tourists instead of valuing
their own culture and heritage.
• The money generated by tourism may not feed back into the local community.
• There may be racial tension between tourists and locals.
• There may be negative tourist behaviour such as public drunkenness.
• Tension may arise between tourists and locals if locals are denied access to
culturally significant places.

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 • Sometimes privacy is not respected, sacred sites are invaded, and cultural ceremonies are
exploited.

4.2 Corporate social investment (CSI)

Corporate social investment involves a contribution by a business (corporate) to the community in

which it operates and can take many forms.

Unit 2 Responsible tourism and tourists

1. Codes of conduct for tourist behaviour (social, economic and environmental)

Most responsible tourism guidelines and handbooks focus on what tourism businesses should do to
be more sustainable. There are also several organisations that have created lists of ways in which
tourists can be more responsible travellers.

2. How can a tourism destination attract environmentally (people, planet, profit) conscious
tourists?

People all over the world are becoming more concerned with sustainability. As a result, tourists are
more concerned about whether tourism businesses are implementing responsible tourism practices.
Tourism destinations can attract the right type of tourists by marketing the destination as a
responsible tourism destination.

3. The contribution of Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) towards encouraging responsible
and sustainable practices

Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FFTSA) is a nongovernmental organisation (NGO) that promotes
sustainable tourism development and responsible tourism management.

FFTSA promotes sustainable and responsible tourism by:

• Creating awareness of sustainable tourism issues

• Researching better ways of implementing and planning sustainable tourism
• Advocacy of sustainable tourism issues to tourism authorities
• Building capacity through training
• facilitating a tourism Fair Trade certification programme, the first of its kind in the world.

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Questions

1. Explain what the phrase bottom line means? (4)

2. Explain what the phrase triple bottom line means? (4)

3. Name two things you can do to help water and energy management? (4)

4. What are the three R's in waste management? (6)

5. Explain what the phrase environmentally friendly building means? (4)

6. List three ways in which Fair Trade promotes sustainable and responsible tourism. (6)

7. What is meant by the term Corporate Social Investment? (4)

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Topic 4 Culture and heritage

Overview

In this topic you will learn about:

• The concept of a World Heritage Site

• The role of UNESCO
• The logo and main functions of UNESCO
• The types of World Heritage Site
• Descriptions of the World Heritage Sites in South Africa
• The location of the World Heritage Sites in South Africa
• How the World Heritage Sites meet UNESCO’s criteria
• The value of the World Heritage Sites to South African tourism.

World Heritage Sites

• The concept of World Heritage Sites

• The role of UNESCO
• Types of World Heritage Sites
• The World Heritage Sites in South Africa
• The value of the World Heritage Sites to South Africa’s
tourism industry

Unit 1 World heritage sites

1. Concept: World Heritage Sites

Heritage is the legacy preserved by past generations for future generations. In order to be given
World Heritage status, sites must have outstanding natural, cultural or historical value and meet at
least one of UNESCO’s ten selection criteria. A country can apply to the UNESCO World Heritage
Committee for a site to be proclaimed a World Heritage Site. A place that is declared a World
Heritage Site is proclaimed by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism by notice in the
Government Gazette and thereafter included in the World Heritage List. An example is Robben
Island.

2. The role of UNESCO

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) is a

leading international organisation responsible for the protection and development
of heritage.

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2.1 UNESCO logo and main functions

The main functions of UNESCO are in five major areas. These are:

• Education
• Natural sciences
• Social and human sciences
• Culture
• Communication and information.

Examples of UNESCO sponsored projects include literacy and teacher-training programs.

3. Types of World Heritage Sites

The three types of World Heritage Sites are:

Cultural: Sites accorded the status on the basis of their tangible and intangible cultural heritage
Natural: Sites accorded status on the basis of their natural heritage
Mixed: Sites accorded status on the basis of both cultural and natural heritage.

4. The World Heritage Sites in South Africa

There are eight heritage sites in the country that are inscribed in the World Heritage List because of
their unique cultural and natural value to all humanity.

They are:

• Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape

• Cradle of Humankind
• Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape
• Robben Island
• iSimangaliso (Greater St Lucia) Wetland Park
• Vredefort Dome
• uKhahlamba/Drakensberg Park
• Cape Floral Region.

5. The value of the World Heritage Sites to South Africa’s tourism industry

They are valuable in the following ways:

• They bring an awareness of the existence of the sites to both domestic and foreign markets.
• They increase the economic value of the provinces in which they are located as they attract
both domestic and foreign visitors.
• They bring income into the establishments in the area of World Heritage Sites through
provision of services such as accommodation, transport, food, drink, souvenirs and
entry fees.
• They encourage close working relationships between tourism organisations
and establishments in managing World Heritage Site destinations in order to
improve the quality of visitor experience.

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 • They contribute to a sense of ownership and pride of cultural and natural heritage in the
local community.
• They create job opportunities as increased visitor numbers result in increased demand for
services.
• They result in the improvement of the infrastructure that provides access to the sites.

Questions

1. What is the concept behind World Heritage Sites? (8)

2. What is the role of UNESCO? (2)

3. What are the three types of World Heritage Sites? (6)

4. What are the eight World Heritage Sites in South Africa? (16)

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Topic 5 Communication and customer care

Overview

In this topic you will learn about:

• The concept of customer feedback

• The purpose of obtaining customer feedback
• Methods to obtain customer feedback including surveys, questionnaires, feedback cads,
follow-up calls, SMS messages and web-based responses
• How to analyse feedback including studying and capturing feedback, identifying common
complaints , deciding on an action and starting the intervention process
• The impact of the service delivered on an organisation and its profitability.

Methods of obtaining customer feedback and measuring customer

feedback

• Concept: Customer feedback

• Purpose of obtaining customer feedback
• Methods to obtain customer feedback
• Analysing customer feedback
• The impact of service delivery on an organisation’s business
profitability

Unit 1 Methods to obtain customer feedback and measure customer

satisfaction

1. Concept: Customer feedback

Customer feedback is information coming directly from customers about the satisfaction or
dissatisfaction they feel with a product or a service. Customer comments and complaints given to a
company are an important resource for improving and addressing the needs and wants of the
customer. The information is procured through written or oral surveys, online forms, emails, letters,
or phone calls from the customer to the company.

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2. Purpose of obtaining customer feedback

The top four reasons for getting customer feedback are:

• Innovation
• External performance feedback
• Retaining customers
• Advance warning in customer trends.

3. Methods to obtain customer feedback

There are a number of methods available for companies to use to do this, such as:

• Surveys
• Questionnaires
• Feedback cards
• Follow-up calls
• SMS messages on cell phones
• Web-based responses.

4. Analysing customer feedback

The following steps can be taken to analyse customer feedback:

• Study the feedback

• Identify most common complaints
• Decide on an action plan
• Start the intervention process.

5. The impact of service delivery on an organisation’s business profitability

The impacts that good service delivery have on an organisation’s business profitability include:

• Increased sales
• Customer loyalty
• Enhanced public image
• More effective employees
• Motivated staff members
• Reduced marketing costs.

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Questions

1. Explain what the phrase customer feedback means? (4)

2. What are the top four reasons for getting customer feedback? (8)

3. List six methods a company can use to obtain customer feedback? (12)

4. What steps need to be taken to analyse customer feedback? (8)

5. List six advantages that good service delivery have on an organisation’s business profitability?
(12)

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Term 4

Topic 1 Tourism sectors

Overview

In this topic you will learn about:

• Factors influencing a company’s professional image

• The importance of the image of company staff
• Basic conditions of employment in the tourism industry
• Contracts of employment
• The purpose and value of a code of conduct.
•
Professional image in the tourism Conditions of employment
industry
• Information contained in an
• Factors contributing to a employment contract
professional image in the tourism
• Basic conditions of employment in a
industry
tourism field
• The image of company staff

The purpose and value of a code of conduct

• Purpose of a code of conduct

• Value of a code of conduct
• Examples of codes of conduct

Unit 1 Professional image in the tourism industry

It is important that people in the tourism industry portray a professional image. The image of a
tourism business and its staff is of great importance when dealing with tourists from various
countries, cultures and personal backgrounds.

1. Factors contributing to a professional image in the tourism industry

The following factors contribute towards the professional image of a company:

• Company image
• Company staff
• Physical appearance and product packaging
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 • Company customer policies
• Marketing material
• Company environmental policies.

2. The image of staff in the tourism industry

Tourists expect professionalism from tourism employees, who must be presentable, efficient and
well trained. If service providers are unprofessional, it creates a poor image.

Staff must have a professional image which includes:

• Uniforms
• Appropriate dress code
• Good personal hygiene and grooming
• Interaction with customers
• Good communication skills.

Unit 2 Conditions of employment

Conditions of employment refer to the terms under which an employer has employed a person.
Conditions of employment cover a broad spectrum of work related issues. Employees should read
these conditions very carefully before signing a contract to avoid any misunderstandings or
disagreements.

The Employment Act applies to all employers and workers, but excludes:

• The National Defence Force

• The National Intelligence Agency
• The South African Secret Service
• Unpaid volunteers working for charity.

1. Information contained in an employment contract

The following details are normally included in an employment contract:

• Employer and employee details

• Employment details
• Payment details
• Leave details
• Notice/contract period.

2. Basic conditions of employment in a tourism field

The Basic Conditions of Employment Act stipulates that:

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 • Workers are not allowed to work more than 45 hours a week or nine hours a day.
• Employees cannot be forced to work overtime, and by agreement for no more than ten
hours a week.
• Overtime must be paid at 1,5 times the normal wage.
• Employees must have a meal break of one hour after five hours of work.
• Employees must have a daily rest period of 12 consecutive hours and a weekly rest period of
36 consecutive hours.
• Employees who work occasionally on Sunday must be paid double, and those who normally
work on a Sunday must be paid 1,5 times the normal wage. Employees cannot be forced to
work on a public holiday, and must be paid double if they agree to.
• Employees are entitled to 21 consecutive days' annual leave or, by agreement, one day for
every 17 days worked.
• Employees cannot receive money instead of holidays, except when they leave the company.
• Employees are entitled to six weeks' paid sick leave in a 36-month period.
• Pregnant employees are entitled to four consecutive months of maternity leave, although
they do not have to be paid during this time.
• Full-time employees are entitled to three days of paid family responsibility leave per year,
but an employer can ask for reasonable proof of the circumstances.

Unit 3 The purpose and value of a code of conduct

A code of conduct is a set of rules outlining the responsibilities of or proper practices for an
individual, party or business. The code of conduct thus takes the aims and objectives of the
organisation into account. The code of conduct contains procedures to follow in certain situations
and requires certain behaviours.

1. Purpose of a code of conduct

A code of conduct:

• Spells out the expected conduct of staff in their performance of duties

• Offers guidance for staff members faced with ethical challenges
• Guides behaviour
• Helps businesses ensure that employees act responsibly
• Protects businesses from lawsuits and ensures good workplace and public relations
• Acts as a public face for the business, identifying the ethics of the organisation to the outside
world
• Is used as a reference for a business’ proposed course of action, or for when this course of
action is questioned.

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2. Value of a code of conduct

A code of conduct:

• Creates a cooperative and collaborative atmosphere

• Assists in promoting integrity in the workplace
• Creates agreed upon behaviours and methods of operation for the business
• Leads to improved company performance if linked to the aims and objectives of the
company
• Promotes a good company culture as employees know what behaviour is expected of them
• Assists in the development of good communication between employer and employees
• States the company’s unique set of values and beliefs
• Can be used to create publicity and attract new customers.

3. Examples of codes of conduct

3.1 South African National Parks

The Board of SANParks is highly committed to a policy of fair dealing and integrity in the conduct of
their business. Their commitment is based on the belief that all activities should be conducted
honestly, fairly and legally. The primary purpose of the code is a positive one: to promote exemplary
conduct.

3.2 Southern Africa Tourism Services Association (SATSA)

The SATSA Code of Conduct aims to ensure that the public receive the best possible service from
members. The association wishes to maintain and enhance their reputation, standing and good
name.

Questions

1. List six factors that contribute towards the professional image of a company? (12)

2. List five factors that contribute towards the professional image of staff? (10)

3. The Employment Act applies to all employers and workers, but excludes who? (8)

4. Which details are normally included in an employment contract? (10)

5. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act stipulates that workers should not work more than how
many hours per week? (2)

6. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act stipulates that workers should be paid what rate for
overtime?
(2)

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7. Explain what the phrase code of conduct means? (4)

8. Give two examples of organisations in South Africa that have codes of conduct? (4)

Answers

Term 1

Topic 1

1. A global event is an organised event involving people from countries from around the world.
There are many different types of global events and they can attract a lot of media attention.
(4)

2. The Olympic Games is the largest sporting event in the world, the FIFA Soccer World Cup is the
second largest sporting event in the world, the Tour de France cycling event is the third largest
sporting event in the world and is held mainly in France. (4)

3. The word indaba is an isiZulu word meaning ‘a meeting of elders’ but is used as a general term for
meetings, exhibitions, and conferences. The Tourism Indaba is South Africa’s tourism showcase. It is
the largest incoming travel trade exhibition in Africa and is held annually.
(6)

4. Generation of foreign exchange income, investment, the multiplier effect as money spent by a
tourist circulates through the economy, development of infrastructure in the host country, job
creation, future growth in international tourism. (12)

5. Facilities built for the event, may not be suitable for domestic use after the event, during the
event, domestic tourism in the host country normally slows down, pollution of areas in and around
the places used during the event, possible security risks, it might take a long time for the country to
pay off this debt, construction workers involved in building roads and other facilities in preparation
for the event could lose their jobs once the construction work is completed. (12)

6. Civil war, terrorism, general unrest. (6)

7. Natural disasters, diseases, Tsunamis, earthquakes, Global recession, accidents. (2)

8. Travellers who have already booked will may cancel their trips. Tourists who haven’t yet booked
trips to affected areas delay their bookings, or may go elsewhere. Tour operators avoid booking
trips to affected countries. Airlines suspend their flights to affected areas. (8)

9. Malaria, yellow fever, bird flu, swine flu. (4)

10. A tsunami is a series of very large ocean waves caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic
eruption which damage infrastructure, buildings, attractions, ports, coastlines and beaches.

(4)

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Topic 2

1. Packaged tour, Escorted packaged tour, Group packaged tour, Independent packaged tour,
Scheduled tours. (10)

2. A tourist profile is a summary of personal information and facts relevant to the tourist’s wants and
expectations. The tourist profile helps the travel agent plan a tour and make sure that the needs of
the tourist are met. (4)

3. A valid passport, a valid visa, sufficient funds to cover their stay in the country, a return ticket, or
onward ticket to another country, international law requires travellers crossing the borders of
countries where yellow fever is endemic, to have a yellow fever vaccination.
(10)

4. An identity number, two passport photographs, fingerprints must be taken if aged 16 years or
older, a fee dependent on the type of passport applied for. (8)

5. DST is a way of making better use of daylight by setting the clock ahead during summer months
(thus losing one hour) when DST starts, and setting it back again one hour in the winter months (thus
gaining one hour) when DST ends. (4)

6. The phrase time zone refers to any of the 24 longitudinal divisions of the earth's surface in which a
standard time is kept, the primary division being that bisected by the Greenwich meridian. Each zone
is 15° of longitude in width, with local variations, and observes a clock time one hour earlier than the
zone immediately to the east. (4)

7. Jet lag is a general feeling of fatigue and disorientation often experienced by travellers by jet
aircraft who cross several time zones in relatively few hours. (4)

8. They do not drink alcoholic beverages the day before their flight, during the flight, or
the day after the flight, They do not drink caffeinated beverages before, during, or just after
a flight, They drink plenty of water to offset the effects of the dry air in the plane, They do not eat
too much on the plane, They exercise their legs from time to time while they are seated for their
flight, They get up and walk around every hour or two, They do not take sleeping pills, They do not
nap for more than an hour at a time, They break up long-haul trips across many time zones, if
feasible, with a stay in a city about halfway to their destination, They wear comfortable clothes and
shoes, They make use of sleeping aids. (8)

9. Earth is divided into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres by the equator, and the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres by the Greenwich Meridian. (4)

10.
Step 1: Locate the place for which you already know the time and day on a time zone map.
Step 2: Locate the place for which you wish to know the time and the day of the week on a time
zone map.
Step 3: Count the time zones between the two places
Step 4: Calculate the time by either adding or subtracting an hour for each time
zone, depending on whether you are moving east or west.
Step 5: If you have crossed the International Date Line, identify the day.
(10)

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Term 2

Topic 1

1. Tourist attractions are places that tourists like to visit, such as national parks and heritage sites. An
icon is a tourist attraction that is world famous and comes to represent or be symbolic of the
country or city in which it is located. (4)

2. Icons are unique and tourists find them fascinating because they are the only one of their kind in
the world. (2)

3. Robben Island and Nelson Mandela. (2)

4. (Students can list any ten of the following below)

Australia: Sydney Opera House, Ayers Rock/Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park.

Brazil: The Statue of Christ the Redeemer
Canada: Niagara Falls
Italy: The Colosseum, The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Venice, Vatican City
Egypt: The Great Pyramids of Giza, The Sphinx
Germany: Berlin Wall and the Brandenburg Gate, The Black Forest
China: The Great Wall of China
Israel: The Dome of the Rock, The Wailing Wall
Greece: The Parthenon
India: The Taj Mahal
Turkey: The Blue Mosque
France: The Eiffel Tower, The French Riviera
Japan: Mount Fuji
Mexico: Chichén Itzá (Yucatan)
Jordan: Petra
Nepal: Mount Everest
Saudi Arabia: Mecca
Switzerland: The Swiss Alps
Netherlands: Mill Network at Kinderdijk, Elshout
Peru: Machu Picchu (Cuzcu)
Poland: Auschwitz Concentration Camp
Portugal: The Algarve
Spain: Alcazar of Segovia, Bullfights
Thailand: Floating markets
Russia: The Kremlin, Red Square
United Kingdom: Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, Tower of London, London Bridge
United States of America: The Statue of Liberty, The Grand Canyon. (20)
5. Actual number of visitors exceeds the target number of visitors, repeat visits, income generated
exceeds target figures, positive impact on local community and environment. (8)

6. Is an effect in economics in which an increase in spending produces an increase in

national/regional income and consumption greater than the initial increase.
(4)

7. Good induction programmes and continuous training.

(4)

© Via Afrika Publishers

8. Transport to the attraction, Transport at the attraction, Parking, Accommodation, Toilet facilities,
Information, Support facilities and services. (14)

9. Yes. (2)

10. Marketing, Income and financial management, Human resources, visitor management,
Operation management. (10)

Topic 2

1. The phrase foreign exchange refers to the exchange of one currency for another, or the
conversion of one currency into another currency. Foreign exchange also refers to the global market
where currencies are traded virtually around-the-clock. The term foreign exchange is usually
abbreviated as "forex". (4)

2. The GDP is a measure of a given country’s national income. GDP is a measure of all the goods and
services produced domestically, usually in a period of one calendar year. The components included
are consumer spending, investment made by industry, value of exports minus value of imports, and
government spending. (4)

3. Strong currency, also known as a hard currency, refers to a currency when it is worth more
relative to other currencies. A weak currency, also known as a soft currency, is a currency with value
that has depreciated significantly over time against other currencies and will fluctuate erratically or
depreciate against other currencies. (4)

4. (Any three of the following below)

• A weak currency is good for nations that have more exports than imports
because their exports will become cheaper for foreign buyers.
• A weak currency will stimulate manufacturing and export to areas with
stronger currency.
• There will be an increase in manufacturing and job creation if the demand
for exports increases.
• More foreign tourists will be able to afford to visit countries with weak
currencies as it will increase their purchasing power.
• Imports become more expensive for the countries with weak currencies.
• Higher prices of foreign products increase the cost of living in countries
with weak currencies.
• Purchasing power weakens for people in countries with weak currencies.
• A weak currency has a negative effect for people planning to travel to areas
with a strong currency. (6)

5. Inflation, Interest rates, Trade balance, Terms of trade, Government debt, Political and economic
instability, Employment outlook of a country. (14)

6. It makes international travel for South Africans more expensive, It makes travelling in South Africa
cheaper for foreign tourists.
(4)

7. The bank buying rate, The bank selling rate.

(4)
© Via Afrika Publishers
8.
Step 1: Identify the exchange rate of the currency you need and find the ISO code. For example, the
currency code of the rand is ZAR, while that of the US Dollar is USD.
Step 2: Look up the exchange rate for your two currencies.
Step 3: Calculate the exchange rate by looking at a currency pair (two currencies). The first currency
in the pair, known as the base currency, is the transaction currency and the second currency is the
payment currency. (6)

9. (Any of the three below)

• Imports become cheaper for the countries with strong currencies.
• Imported products and services, especially fuel, become more affordable.
• Exports become more expensive. Countries with strong currencies will export less as the
demand will decrease.
• Domestic manufacturing will decrease as there is less demand from both the domestic and
foreign markets.
• Fewer foreign tourists will be able to afford to visit countries with strong currencies as it will
decrease their purchasing power.
• Purchasing power strengthens for people in countries with strong currencies.
• A strong currency has a positive effect for people planning to travel to areas with a weak
currency. (6)

10. Every time there is an injection of new demand into the circular flow there is likely to be a
multiplier effect. This is because an injection of extra income leads to more spending, which creates
more income, and so on. The multiplier effect refers to the increase in final income arising from any
new injection of spending. (4)

Term 3

Topic 1
1. Electronic fund transfer (2)

2. It is safe and secure, It is efficient and fast, It is less expensive than paper cheque payments and
collections, Money can be transferred throughout the world. (8)

3. Telegraphic transfers are a method of electronic funds transfer from one person or institution to
another. A wire transfer can be made from one bank account to another bank account or through a
transfer of cash at a cash office. Wire transfer systems are intended to provide more individualized
transactions than bulk payment systems. (4)

4. (One of the two listed below)

If you are stuck overseas without cash, someone at home can send you money electronically within
a day OR You do not need Internet banking as the banks send the information directly to each other.
(2)

5. They can save time, No need to stand in long queues to pay a bill, People can log
into their accounts at any time to get an up-to-date statement of their
transactions, Low transaction costs/fees.
(8)

© Via Afrika Publishers

6. No internet access can cause late payments, There is no direct contact with the business from
which a product or service is purchased, Computer crimes may result in money being stolen,
Criminals record a user’s keystrokes and then use this information to illegally access accounts.
(8)

7. A card issued by a financial company giving the holder an option to borrow funds, usually at point
of sale. Credit cards charge interest and are primarily used for short-term financing. Interest usually
begins one month after a purchase is made and borrowing limits are pre-set according to the
individual's credit rating. (4)

8. Cards can be used to buy expensive items as the debt can be paid off over time, They avoid having
to carry large amounts of cash, Most businesses accept credit cards as a form of payment.
(6)

9. Foreign market share is the portion of the inbound tourism market that a specific country controls
and includes both the number of tourists and the amount they spend. (4)

10. Land markets and air markets. (4)

Topic 2

1. Increase in annual volume of foreign arrivals to South Africa and increase in international
awareness of South Africa as a travel destination. (4)

2. Marketing South Africa as a destination, both domestically and internationally. (2)

3. Participation in major travel shows both locally and internationally, Advertising, public relations
and direct mailing campaigns, Holding educational work sessions with the international partners of
South Africa’s travel industry. (6)

4. Core markets, investment markets, tactical markets, watch-list markets, markets of strategic
importance and strategic air link or hub markets. (14)

5. ITB (Berlin) and the World Travel Market (London) (4)

6. Tourism Indaba and the Getaway Show. (4)

7. SAT needs a great deal of funding because international marketing is expensive. Tourism
Marketing Levy South Africa (TOMSA) was set up in 1998 to raise additional funds for the marketing
of destination South Africa. It is a private sector initiative. South African Tourism (SAT) makes use of
these funds to promote the country as a preferred tourist destination, both locally and
internationally.

The TOMSA levy is 1% of each confirmed booking. The collection of the TOMSA levy by tourism
businesses is voluntary. The amounts paid are not the same as paying a tax to the business. The
tourist pays the levies and the business just acts as a collector of the levies. These levies are paid to
the Tourism Business Council of South Africa (TBCSA), which administrates TOMSA.

(8)

© Via Afrika Publishers

Topic 3

1. The phrase bottom line refers to the bottom line of a financial statement, called the income
statement. This line shows how much profit a company has made in a particular period.
(4)

2. As international tourism continues to grow, governments have realised that tourism has more
than just an economic impact on a country. Tourism also has social (people) and environmental
(planet) impacts. These two aspects are added to the economic (profit) aspect to form the triple
bottom line approach. If profit was the only objective, human and natural resources could be
exploited so balanced approach is required. (4)

3. Turning of unused appliances and fixing leaking taps. (4)

4. Reduce, re-use and re-cycle. (6)

5. Environmentally friendly building is the construction and design of new buildings, such as hotels,
which are designed to have the minimal negative impact on the environment both during building
and once operational. (4)

6. (Any three below)

Creating awareness of sustainable tourism issues, Researching better ways of implementing and
planning sustainable tourism, Advocacy of sustainable tourism issues to tourism authorities, Building
capacity through training, facilitating a tourism Fair Trade certification programme, the first of its
kind in the world. (6)

7. Corporate social investment is how companies help their communities. They set aside money,
time or expertise for local nonprofit organizations to use to provide solutions for significant social
problems. (4)
Topic 4

1. Heritage is the legacy preserved by past generations for future generations. In order to be given
World Heritage status, sites must have outstanding natural, cultural or historical value and meet at
least one of UNESCO’s ten selection criteria. A country can apply to the UNESCO World Heritage
Committee for a site to be proclaimed a World Heritage Site. A place that is declared a World
Heritage Site is proclaimed by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism by notice in the
Government Gazette and thereafter included in the World Heritage List. An example is Robben
Island. (8)

2. UNESCO is responsible for the protection and development of heritage. (2)

3.
Cultural: sites accorded the status on the basis of their tangible and intangible cultural heritage
Natural: sites accorded status on the basis of their natural heritage
Mixed: sites accorded status on the basis of both cultural and natural heritage.
(6)

4. Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape, Cradle of Humankind, Richtersveld Cultural

and Botanical Landscape, Robben Island, iSimangaliso (Greater St Lucia) Wetland

© Via Afrika Publishers

Park, Vredefort Dome, uKhahlamba/Drakensberg Park, Cape Floral Region.
(16)

Topic 5

1. Customer feedback is information coming directly from customers about the satisfaction or
dissatisfaction they feel with a product or a service. Customer comments and complaints given to a
company are an important resource for improving and addressing the needs and wants of the
customer. The information is procured through written or oral surveys, online forms, emails, letters,
or phone calls from the customer to the company. (4)

2. Innovation, External performance feedback, Retaining customers, Advance warning in customer

trends. (8)

3. Surveys, Questionnaires, Feedback cards, Follow-up calls, SMS messages on cell phones, Web-
based responses. (12)

4. Study the feedback, Identify most common complaints, Decide on an action plan, Start the
intervention process. (8)

5. Increased sales, Customer loyalty, Enhanced public image, More effective employees, Motivated
staff members, Reduced marketing costs. (12)

Term 4

Topic 1

1. Company image, Company staff, Physical appearance and product packaging, Company customer
policies, Marketing material, Company environmental policies. (12)

2. Uniforms, Appropriate dress code, Good personal hygiene and grooming, Interaction with
customers, Good communication skills. (10)

3. The National Defence Force, The National Intelligence Agency, The South African Secret Service,
Unpaid volunteers working for charity. (8)

4. Employer and employee details, Employment details, Payment details, Leave details,
Notice/contract period. (10)

5. Workers are not allowed to work more than 45 hours a week or nine hours a day. (2)

6. Overtime must be paid at 1,5 times the normal wage. (2)

7. A code of conduct is a set of rules outlining the responsibilities of or proper practices for an
individual, party or business. The code of conduct thus takes the aims and objectives of the
organisation into account. The code of conduct contains procedures to follow in
certain situations and requires certain behaviours. (4)

8. South African National Parks and the Southern Africa Tourism Services
Association (SATSA). (4)

© Via Afrika Publishers

 Via Afrika

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

Life Sciences
My greatest reward as a teacher lies in looking at
my learners and seeing how they have grown and
developed into individuals that can serve society.
Grade 12 Study Guide
C.E. Whitlock, [Link], J.J.J. de Beer, E.J.P. Pretorius,
— Morgan Munien, Teacher M.A. Khan, F. Naude, S.M. Wiese

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Life Sciences

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 16 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 5 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 26 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 35 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 41 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 53 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at lifesciences@[Link]?
Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
 Study Guide

Life Sciences
Grade 12

Our Teachers. Our Future.

ISBN: 978-1-41546-329-1
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 Human

sacrum

Australopithecus

foramen
magnum sacrum

Chimpanzee

sacrum

Skull and pelvis of a human, Australopithecus and chimpanzee

 A SIMPLIFIED SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY
OF HOMINIDS

Homo
Homo sapiens
Homo erectus
habilis

Australopithecus A. robustus
afarensis

A
Chimpanzee

5 4 3 2 1 0

Time (million years)

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 inflow of sewage
40
35
Population size (grams)

30
25 algae

20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Distance down river ( metres)

Cost
Emissions
Cost
Emissions
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450  
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350
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250

200

150

100

50

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 
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 Life Sciences

Paper 1

Exemple examination paper

Via Africa

TIME: 2½ hours

INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION

Read the following instructions carefully before answering the questions.

1. Answer ALL the questions.

2. Write ALL the answers in your ANSWER BOOK.

3. Start the answers to each question at the top of a NEW page.

4. Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.

5. Present your answers according to the instructions of each question.

6. ALL drawings should be done in pencil and labelled in blue or black ink.

7. Draw diagrams or flow charts only when asked to do so.

8. The diagrams in this question paper are NOT necessarily all drawn to scale.

9. Do NOT use graph paper.

10. You should use non-programmable calculators, protractors and compasses

were necessary.

11. Write neatly and legibly.

SECTION A

QUESTION 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 to 1.1.10) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example
1.1.11 D.

1.1.1 Which of the following is TRUE about Anaphase I of meiosis?

A Chromosomes arranged at equator.

B Chromosomes are pulled to the poles.
C Centromere splits.
D Chromatids of a chromosome separate and move to
the poles.
1.1.2 Study the diagram of a developing foetus inside the uterus.

Which labelled part secretes its own progesterone after about the twelve week of
pregnancy?
A M
B N
C O
D P
 1.1.3 The withdrawal and rhythm methods are regarded as..................
methods of contraception.

A chemical
B natural
C surgical
D mechanical

1.1.4 Which of the following combination of structures is responsible for

accommodation?

A lens , ciliary muscle, suspensory ligaments

B circular muscle, lens, suspensory ligaments
C ciliary muscle, pupil, suspensory ligaments
D radial muscle, lens, suspensory ligaments

QUESTION 1.1.5 and QUESTION 1.1.6 are based on the diagram of a reflex arc
shown below.

1.1.5 Part B indicates the …

A dendrite of the motor neuron.

B axon of the motor neuron.
C dendrite of the sensory neuron.
D axon of the sensory neuron.

1.1.6 The correct sequence in which impulses move from the receptor to
the effector in the reflex arc above, is …
 A A→B→C
B B →C → A
C C → A →B
D B→A → C

1.1.7 The diagram shows the activity of the pituitary gland in the
secretion of a hormone from the thyroid gland.

Thyroid
stimulating
hormone
(TSH)
Pituitary Thyroid hormone Y
gland gland

Identify hormone Y.

A Adrenalin
B Insulin
C Thyroxin
D Glycogen

1.1.8 Which of the following is an exocrine gland?

A Thyroid
B Pancreas
C Adrenal
D Pituitary

1.1.9 The diagrams show structures within the human skin under two
different external conditions.
What are the external conditions?
Condition 1 Condition 2
A Cold Hot
B Hot Cold
C Cold Cold
D Hot Hot

1.1.10 Which one of the following steps can be carried out as a control for
the experiment, shown below?

Step:
1 Seal the opening in the dark box.
2 Rotate a similar plant on a clinostat in a dark box.
3 Take the plant outside the box and expose it evenly to light.
4 Rotate a similar plant on a clinostat with no box.

A Only step 1.
B Only step 2.
C Steps 1 and 2.
D Steps 1, 3 and 4.
(10 x 2) (20)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number (1.2.1–1.2.8) in your ANSWER
BOOK.
1.2.1 Fertilisation of the ovum by a sperm cell inside the body of the
female.
1.2.2
The system responsible for chemical co-ordination in the human
1.2.3 body.
 1.2.4 The gland that secretes oxytocin.

1.2.5 The ‘master gland’.

The condition suffered by a person when the core body

temperature is decreased so much that the body's homeostatic
1.2.6 control mechanism can no longer cope

1.2.7 The growth movement of plant organs to the stimulus of light.

The amount of carbon dioxide emitted due to the consumption of

1.2.8 fossil fuels by a particular person.

The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a

result of drought, deforestation or inappropriate agriculture.

(8)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only,
B only, both A and B, or none next to the question number (1.3.1–1.3.5) in
the ANSWER BOOK.

COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 Development in which a A: Altricial
hatchling is capable of moving B: Precocial
around on its own and can
feed itself.
1.3.2 Method of reproduction in A: Ovipary
which the foetus is retained in B: Vivipary
the mother's uterus and is
nourished through an umbilical
cord
1.3.3 Increase the permeability of A: ADH
the walls of the distal B: LH
convoluted tubule and
collecting tubule. .
1.3.4 It promotes the development A: Gibberellins
of flowers. B: Abscisic Acid
1.3.5 Ozone depletion. A: CFCs
B: HFCs
(5 x 2) (10)
1.4 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

1.4.1 Write down only the letter (A–H) of the part that:
(a) is transparent and plays an important role in (1)
accommodation.

(b) helps the eye to maintain its shape. (1)

(c) causes the lens to change its shape. (1)

(d) responds to light intensity. (1)

(e) Prevents internal reflection of light. (1)

(5)

1.5 The amount of sodium ions that is excreted can be regulated.

1.5.1 Which organ plays a vital role in the excretion of sodium ions to
help the body to maintain healthy salt levels? (1)

1.5.2 (a) Which gland plays a role in the regulation of the salt levels? (1)
(b) Give the name of the hormone secreted by the gland mentioned
in question 1.5.2 (b) which helps in the maintaining of the salt
levels.
1.5.3 (1)
Explain what happens when there is a shortage of sodium in the
blood. (4)
(7)

TOTAL SECTION A: 50
SECTION B

QUESTION 2

2.1 Study the diagram below of a phase in meiosis and answer the questions that
follow.

2.1.1 Explain which phase of meiosis is represented above. (2)

2.1.2 How many chromosomes would be present in each daughter cell at

the end of meiosis in this cell? (1)

2.1.3 Describe what takes place in the cell after the phase shown in
Diagram I. (3)

2.1.4 Draw a labelled diagram of the structures labelled A. (3)

(9)
2.2 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

2.2.1 Label each of the following structures:

(a) B (1)

(b) C (1)

(c) E (1)

2.2.2 Give the function of the parts that are labelled

(a) A (1)

(b) D (1)
 2.2.3 When a man has a vasectomy, the tubule labelled B is cut off and
sealed on both sides.

(a) Explain how this procedure will act as a method of

contraception. (2)

(b) Will it be possible for a man who is HIV positive to pass the
HI virus to another person after he undergoes a vasectomy?
Explain (2)

2.2.4 Explain why it is necessary for part D to 'hang outside' the body of
the male. (2)
(11)

2.3 Study the graph below that shows the levels of hormones as well as the
changes in the ovary and uterus during the menstrual cycle.

Hormonal regulation of the female reproductive cycle

II

2.3.1 Identify hormones I and II (2)

2.3.2 On which day does ovulation take place? (1)

2.3.3 Between which days does menstruation take place? (2)

 2.3.4 State ONE function of FSH during the menstrual cycle. (1)

2.3.5 What deductions can you make from the graphs by referring to the
interaction between oestrogen and FSH (2)

2.3.6 Fertilisation did not take place. Motivate this statement with
evidence from the above diagram. (2)
(10)

2.4 Choosing a contraceptive method

We have reached the stage where unplanned pregnancies, really should be rare,
because of the range of good methods of birth control.
At present there are about 14 reliable ones.
Contraceptive Popularity among the various methods
of family planning (%)
Pill 25
Male condom 25
Vasectomy 16
Female sterilisation 14
IUD 4
Withdrawal method 4
Rhythm method 3
Contraceptive injection 2
IUS 2
Skin patch 2
Cap/Diaphragm 1
Implant 1
Female condom 0.5
Vaginal ring 0.5

2.4.1 Draw a pie chart to illustrate the above data. Show all workings. (10)
(10)
[40]
QUESTION 3

3.1 Study the diagram below and answers the questions that follow.

3.1.1 Give labels for the parts labeled A – D. (4)

3.1.2 Give TWO functions of the part labeled A. (2)
3.1.3 People with Alzheimer’s Disease have nerve tissue within the brain
which appears to waste away. Give TWO characteristics of people
with this disease. (2)
3.1.4 Name TWO effects of Dagga on the central nervous system? (2)
(10)
3.2 The diagram shows how a certain hormone affects the blood circulation of a
person in an emergency.

3.2.1 Identify hormone A. (1)

3.2.2 State the position of the gland that secretes hormone A in the
human body. (1)

3.2.3 Name the part of the human eye that is also affected by hormone
A. (1)
(3)
3.3 Study the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.

Plant defence against herbivory

Poison ivy produces urushiol to protect the plant from herbivores. In humans
this chemical produces an allergic skin rash, known as urushiol-induced contact
dermatitis.
Source: Wikipedia

3.3.1 Why would the plant want to protect itself against herbivores? (2)

3.3.2 You were tasked to test the effect of poison ivy on humans. List
FIVE planning steps you would consider to perform the experiment. (5)

3.3.3 How can the reliability of the results of your investigation be (1)
improved? (8)
3.4 Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follow:

2007
2008

2009

2010

Rhinoceros hunting from 2007 to 2010

Adapted Volksblad 27 /11/2010 Adapted: Volksblad 27/11/2010

Adapted Volksblad 27 /11/2010

3.4.1 The reporter lost her information. Use the data above and put it
into a table (8)

3.4.2 Formulate a hypothesis that will be accepted for the above data. (2)

3.4.3 List the dependant variable. (1)

3.4.4 List the independent variable (1)

(12)

3.5 As the world’s population grows, supplies of freshwater are becoming scarcer.
Researchers are investigating the use of sea water to irrigate selected crops
which can be fed to livestock.
The biomass yield of two freshwater-irrigated plants often used for livestock
forage, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanense),
were compared with those of salt-tolerant crops irrigated by seawater,
saltbush (Atriplex spp.) and sea blite (Sueda maritima).
The results are shown in the bar chart below.
Sheep were raised on a normal diet (control sheep) and compared with sheep
fed on a normal diet supplemented with salt-tolerant plants. The results are
shown in the bar chart below.

3.5.1 Compare the biomass yield of crops irrigated with seawater and
freshwater (3)

3.5.2 Compare the daily weight gain in sheep fed on saltbush with sheep
fed on sea blite. (2)

3.5.3 Discuss, using only the data provided, the disadvantages of using
crops irrigated by seawater to feed sheep. (2)
(7)
[40]

TOTAL SECTION B: 80
SECTION C
QUESTION 4

4.1 Describe how hearing and balance occurs in the human ear.

Content (17)
Synthesis (3)
(20)
NOTE: NO marks will be awarded for answers in the form of flow
charts or diagrams.
TOTAL SECTION C: 20
GRAND TOTAL: 150
 Life Sciences

Paper 2

Additional Exemplar

Via Africa

TIME: 2½ hours

INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION

Read the following instructions carefully before answering the questions.

1. Answer ALL the questions.

2. Write ALL the answers in your ANSWER BOOK.

3. Start the answers to each question at the top of a NEW page.

4. Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.

5. Present your answers according to the instructions of each question.

6. ALL drawings should be done in pencil and labelled in blue or black ink.

7. Only draw diagrams or flow charts when asked to do so.

8. The diagrams in this question paper are NOT necessarily all drawn to scale.

9. Do NOT use graph paper.

10. You must use a non-programmable calculator, protractor and a compass

where necessary.

11. Write neatly and legibly.

SECTION A

QUESTION 1

1.1 Four options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 to 1.1.10) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example:
1.1.11 D.

1.1.1 The relationship between nucleic acids and nucleotides is

that ...

A nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids.

B nucleic acids are building blocks of nucleotides.
C nucleotides are larger than nucleic acids.
D nucleic acids are found in the nucleus and nucleotides
are found in the cytoplasm.

1.1.2 What percentage of adenine bases is present in a DNA molecule of

2000 bases, if 400 of the bases are cytosine?

A 20
B 30
C 40
D 60

1.1.3 In DNA, if the sequence of bases on one strand is AGG, the

corresponding bases on the complementary strand are …
A ACC.
B TAA.
C CTT.
D TCC.

1.1.4 Dolly the sheep was cloned by combining…

A two unfertilised sheep egg cells.

B a sheep egg cell with a sheep sperm cell.
C a sheep diploid body cell with a sheep egg cell from which the
nucleus was removed.
D skin cells from two different sheep
1.1.5 The numbers I, II, III and IV below refer to four populations of frogs.
These populations are represented diagrammatically by circles.
Overlapping circles show populations that are capable of interbreeding
to produce fertile offspring.

I II I III IV
It would be reasonable to conclude that ...

A if population II were to die out, there would be two different

species remaining.
B populations I, II, III and IV represent four different species.
C if population II and IV were to die out, there would be two
different species remaining.
D if population III were to die out, there would be only one species
remaining.

1.1.6 Which of the following is the best definition of a species?

A A population of similar animals which can interbreed

B A population of organisms which breed to produce fertile
offspring
C A community of organisms which can interbreed
D A population of organisms with similar characteristics

1.1.7 The table below shows the number of differences in the amino acid
sequence of the protein albumin in four species of primates.

Species of Monkey Gibbon Gorilla Human

primates
Human 32 14 8 0
Gorilla 32 14 0
Gibbon 32 0
Monkey 0

Which two species are likely to have separated most recently,

according to the results on the table?

A Humans and monkeys

B Gorillas and gibbons
C Gibbons and monkeys
D Gorillas and humans
1.1.8 The diagram below shows the changes in cell mass and DNA mass during
two cell cycles.

Increasing DNA mass per nucleus

2
cell mass
Increasing cell mass
(arbitrary units)

(arbitrary units)
DNA mass 2

0 0
0 12 24 36 48
Time (hours)

It can be concluded from the graph that during the cell cycle ...

A interphase is the longest phase.

B the cell is dividing between 24 and 36 hours.
C replication takes place between 0 and 12 hours.
D cytokinesis takes place at 12 and 36 hours.

1.1.9 From the cladogram below which statement is correct about the relations
amongst A, B, C and D?

A B C D

A B and C are the most closely related.

B A is more closely related to B than to C.
C A and B are the most closely related.
D A and B are the least related.
 1.1.10 Which of the following statements are characteristic of DNA?

(i) Double-stranded helix

(ii) Sugar molecule is deoxyribose
(iii) Found in the nucleus
(iv) Constant amount normally found in all the somatic
cells of a particular species

A (i), (ii) and (iii) only

B (i), (ii) and (iv) only
C (i), (iii) and (iv) only
D (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(10 x 2) (20)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number (1.2.1 to 1.2.10) in your ANSWER
BOOK.

1.2.1 The point at which two chromatids of a chromosome are joined

together.
1.2.2 The process by which the DNA molecule makes a copy of itself.
1.2.3 Two identical alleles for a particular characteristic.
1.2.4 Organisms that have the same alleles at a given locus.
1.2.5 The stage in the process of formation of a protein determined by
the anticodons in the tRNA.
1.2.6 Abnormal meiosis leading to Down’s syndrome.
1.2.7 Examples of the types of inheritance are skin, colour and height.
1.2.8 The number, shape and arrangement of all the chromosomes in
the nucleus of a somatic cell.
1.2.9 The physical and functional expression of a gene.
1.2.10 An allele that is not expressed when found in the heterozygous
condition. (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A only, B

only, both A and B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B, or NONE next to the question number (1.3.1 to 1.3.7) in
your ANSWER BOOK.
 COLUMN I COLUMN II
1.3.1 The study of ancient humans and A: Palaeontology
their cultural activities B: Anthropology
1.3.2 Change in the genetic make-up of an A: Mutation
organism B: Multiple alleles
1.3.3 The development of organisms over A: Natural selection
many generations to achieve the B: Artificial selection
most desirable phenotype to survive
1.3.4 Introduces variation within a species A: Crossing over during
meiosis
B: Random assortment of
chromosomes during meiosis
1.3.5 Characteristic that is used to build a A: Similarity of DNA sequence
phylogenetic tree B: Biogeography
1.3.6 Results when a diploid cell divides A: Four diploid cells
during meiosis B: Four haploid cells
1.3.7 A genetic disorder that is caused by A: Haemophilia
a chromosomal aberration B: Albinism

(7 x 2) (14)

1.4 The graph below shows the results of an investigation into the frequency of
blood groups in a small human population.

Proportion of each blood group in a small population

50
Proportion of population (%)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
AB AB A A B B O O

Blood groups
1.4.1 How many alleles control the blood groups? (1)

1.4.2 Which blood group has the lowest frequency in the population? (1)

1.4.3 Write down the genotype of blood group O. (1)

1.4.4 Write down the genotype of blood group A. (1)
1.4.5 State one reason why it is suitable for the results of this
(2)
investigation to be presented in the above type of graph.
(6)

TOTAL QUESTION 1: 50
TOTAL SECTION A: 50
SECTION B

QUESTION 2

2.1 Study the diagram below illustrating protein synthesis and answer the
questions that follow.

nuclear membrane

ribosome
5
4 6

3
C G U UG U A A A
2
T

2.1.1 Name the molecule labelled 2. (1)

2.1.2 Using the letters of the genetic code, write down the complementary
nitrogenous bases on strand 1 of the DNA double helix, starting from
the top. (2)

2.1.3 The table below shows the base triplets of tRNA (anticodons) that
correspond to the different amino acids.
 Base triplets (anticodons) of tRNA that correspond
to different amino acids
tRNA anticodons amino acids
UGU threonine
CGU alanine
UUU lysine
ACA cysteine
GCA arginine
GUU glutamine
CUA aspartate
CCA glycine
AAA phenylalanine

Use the diagram in QUESTION 2.1 and the table provided to…

(a) write down the anticodon at 3. (1)

(b) name the amino acid at 5. (1)

(c) state how the composition of the protein molecule would

change if the base sequence of the first codon (from the left)
of molecule 2 was UUU instead of CGU. (2)
(7)
2.2 Two investigators, Jacky and Lindi, carried out separate investigations about
the variation in the height of sunflower plants that were planted in a field on 10
September 2012.
Jacky’s procedure was as follows:
 Investigation was done on the 20 October 2012
 The sunflower plants were taken from 20 randomly selected areas
 The sunflower plants that were measured were selected at random
 The heights of 10 plants were measured in each of the selected
areas.

Lindi’s procedure was as follows:

 Investigation was done on the 24 October 2012
 The sunflower plants were taken from 20 randomly selected areas
 The sunflower plants that were measured were selected at random
 The heights of 5 plants were measured in each of the selected areas
The results of both Jacky’s and Lindi’s investigations are shown in the table
below.
 Number of sunflower plants
Height interval (cm) Jacky Lindi
51 – 55 25 15
56 – 60 45 20
61 – 70 40 30
71 – 75 55 25
76 – 80 35 10

2.2.1 Explain why the plants were selected at random. (2)

2.2.2 Jacky concluded that the variation in height of sunflower plants is

only due to genetics. Explain why this conclusion is probably
wrong. (2)

2.2.3 Whose results are probably more reliable? (1)

2.2.4 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 2.2.3. (1)

2.2.5 State TWO ways in which the design of the investigation may be
improved, to increase validity or reliability of the procedure. (2)

2.2.6 Draw a histogram to illustrate Jacky’s results. (6)

(14)

2.3 Study the diagrams representing various phases in meiosis in an organism.

A C

B
Diagram 1 Diagram 2 Diagram 3 Diagram 4

2.3.1 Which diagram/s 1 to 4 represents meiosis II? (2)

2.3.2 Suggest why the chromosomes in diagram 2 will be genetically

different from those of the parent cell at the beginning of meiosis. (3)

2.3.3 How many chromosomes will each daughter cell have at the end (1)
of this cell division?

2.3.4 State TWO reasons why this type of cell division is important.
(2)
 2.3.5 Write down the numbers of the diagrams to show the correct
sequence in which the phases occur.
(1)
(9)
2.4 The pedigree diagram below traces the inheritance of vestigial (reduced in
size) and normal wing trait in fruit flies. Study it and answer the questions.

C D F
E

G I J

Vestigial female Vestigial male

Normal male Normal female

2.4.1 State the dominant wing characteristic of the flies used in these
crosses. (1)

2.4.2 Using the letters G and g, write down the genotype of:
(a) A (1)
(b) J (1)

2.4.3 Show, with a genetic cross, the offspring when fly C was crossed
with a male having vestigial wings. (7)
(10)

TOTAL QUESTION 2: 40
QUESTION 3

3.1 In mosquitoes there is a gene locus which has alleles involved in resistance to DDT, a
well known insecticide.

The graph below shows the number of mosquitoes and their genotypes, collected from
1965 when DDT was first used, through to 1970, two years after the spraying of DDT
stopped.

100
90
80
Number of mosquitoes

70
60 Rr
50
40
30
rr
20
10 RR
0
1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

spraying started spraying stopped

Years

3.1.1 How many alleles are involved in the trait for resistance in
mosquitoes? (1)

3.1.2 State the genotype for the recessive mosquitoes. (1)

3.1.3 Which genotype appeared more frequently in the population in

1970? (1)

3.1.4 Which genotype had its chances of survival reduced after the (1)
removal of DDT in 1968? (4)
3.2 The diagram below represents a karyotype of a human cell.

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23

Karyotype of a human

3.2.1 How many chromosomes are present in this karyotype? (1)

3.2.2 Is this karyotype that of a man or a woman? (1)

3.2.3 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 3.2.2. (2)

3.2.4 State how the karyotype of a person with Down’s syndrome would
be different from that of the karyotype shown in the diagram above. (2)
(6)

3.3 Study the table below which indicates some of the hominid fossils found in
the world, and answer the questions which follow.
 Species Region found Period of existence
(when lived)
Australopithecus afarensis Eastern Africa 3,4 – 2,8 mya
Australopithecus africanus Southern Africa 2,1 – 2,8 mya
Australopithecus sediba Southern Africa 2,0 – 1,9 mya
Homo habilis Sub-Saharan (Africa) 2,3 – 1,4 mya
Homo erectus Africa, Europe, Asia 1,5 – 0,2 mya
Homo heidelbergensis Europe, China 0,6 – 0,35 mya
Homo neanderthalensis Europe, Western Asia 0,35 – 0,03 mya
Homo sapiens Worldwide 0,2 mya – present
(Adapted from The Evolutionary Road, Jamie Shreeve, National Geographic, July 2010)

3.3.1 Explain why the information in the table supports the ‘Out of Africa’
hypothesis. (5)

3.3.2 If a fossil of Australopithecus afarensis dated 3,2 mya is found in

Asia, explain the implications for the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis.
(2)
3.3.3 List TWO fossils found in:
(a) The Rift valley (2)
(b) South Africa (2)

3.3.4 Describe TWO genetic lines of evidence that support the ‘Out of
Africa’ hypothesis. (6)

3.3.5 Describe the significance of Australopithecus sediba as a

transitional fossil. (3)

3.3.6 List two other forms of evidence for human evolution that is studied
by anthropologists. (2)
(22)
3.4 Study the three diagrams (A, B and C) below that show how populations of
beetles changed over a long period of time.

A B C

Time

The change in beetle populations over time

 3.4.1 From a comparison of pictures A and B, state the characteristic of
the beetles that have enabled their offspring to survive. (1)

3.4.2 Name the mechanism that is illustrated in these diagrams. (1)

3.4.3 Use the three diagrams above to explain the mechanism

mentioned in QUESTION 3.4.2. (6)
(8)

TOTAL QUESTION 3: 40

TOTAL SECTION B: 80
Question 4

4.1 Describe the anatomical similarities and facial differences between

African apes and humans, that are used as evidence of common
ancestors between living hominids.

(20)

TOTAL SECTION C: 20
GRAND TOTAL: 150
SECTION A

QUESTION 1

1.1 1.1.1 B

1.1.2 A
1.1.3 B
1.1.4 A
1.1.5 C
1.1.6 D
1.1.7 C
1.1.8 B
1.1.9 A
1.1.10 B
(10 x 2) (20)

1.2 1.2.1 Internal fertilisation

1.2.2 Endocrine system
1.2.3 Hypothalamus
1.2.4 Pituitary gland/Hypophysis
1.2.5 Hypothermia
1.2.6 Phototropism 
1.2.7 Carbon footprint
1.2.8 Desertification (8 x 1) (8)

1.3 1.3.1 B only

1.3.2 A only
1.3.3 A only
1.3.4 A only 
1.3.5 Both A and B
( 5 x 2) (10)

1.4 1.4.1 (a) G (1)

(b) A (1)

(c) D (1)

(d) G (1)

(e ) B (1)

Kidney  (5)

1.5 1.5.1 (a) Adrenal gland (1)

 1.5.2 (b) Aldosterone (1)
(1)

1.5.3 The adrenal cortex secretes more aldosterone. Therefore more (1)
sodium is reabsorbed by the blood capillaries at the distal
and collecting tubules and less sodium ions are excreted. 
(any 4) (4)
(7)

TOTAL SECTION A: 50

SECTION B

QUESTION 2

2.1 2.1.1 Metaphase 1. The chromosomes are lined up at the equator of
the cell in their homologous pairs.
OR
The chromosomes show evidence of crossing over. (2)

2.1.2 Two (1)

2.1.3 The next phase is Anaphase 1. The spindle fibres contract

(shorten) and pull each chromosome of each chromosome pair to
opposite poles of the cell. (3)

2.1.4 Homologous pair of chromosomes

 = heading
= any 2 correct labels
(chromatid, centromere) (3)
(9)

2.2 2.2.1 (a) Vas deferens/sperm duct (1)

(b) Epididymus (1)
(c) Urethra (1)

2.2.2 (a) Secretes a fluid which promotes movement of the

spermatozoa/provides nutrition to the spermatozoa  (1)
(b) Secretes testosterone/ Produces sperm  (1)

2.2.3 (a) Sterilisation. Semen will still be produced but there will be
 no spermin it, because the sperm cannot be transported from the
testes.  (any 2) (2)
(b) Yes
The HI virus is carried in body fluids./Saliva/blood can still infect a
person through open wounds/blood transfusion.
OR
Seminal fluids will still be produced and can infect a person
during sexual intercourse. (2)

2.2.4 Sperm cells are temperature sensitiveand must be kept at a

temperature lower than body temperature. On a warm day they
must be kept away from the body and on a cold day, close to the
body, which will be warmer. (any 2) (2)
(11)

2.3 2.3.1 I – LH

II – progesterone (2)

2.3.2 14 (1)

2.3.3 Day 0– Day 7 (2)

2.3.4 FSH stimulates the development of the primary follicles to

Graafian follicles. (1)

2.3.5 FSH stimulates the development of the Graafian follicles.

Oestrogen inhibits the production of FSH, so that only one follicle
at a time matures. (2)

2.3.6 Progesterone levels decrease towards the end of the cycle.

The corpus luteum decreases in size. (2)
(10)
2.4 2.4.1
Popularity among the various methods
of family planning

Pill
Male condom
Vasectomy
Female sterilisation
IUD
Withdrawal method
Rhythm method
Contraceptive injection
IUS
Skin patch
Cap/diaphragm
Implant
Female condom
Vaginal ring

Pill:
25 x 360o
100

= 90o
(Each sector must be calculated like this)

NOTE:
If the wrong type of graph is drawn marks will be lost for 'correct
type of graph'

Rubric for the mark allocation of the graph

Correct type of graph = 1 
Caption for graph = 1
Calculations shown = 1
Drawing of graph:
1– sectors drawn correctly 
3–4 sectors drawn correctly 
5–6 sectors drawn correctly  
 7–8 sectors drawn correctly  
9–10 sectors drawn correctly   
11–12 sectors drawn correctly   
13–14 sectors drawn correctly    (10)
(10)
[40]
QUESTION 3

3.1 3.1.1 A – cerebrum

B – cerebellum
C – medulla oblongata 
D – spinal cord (4)

3.1.2 Controls all voluntary actions

Receives and interprets all sensations, that is, sight, hearing, smell,
taste and touch
Controls all the higher thought processes such as memory,
judgement, reasoning, etc
(any 2)

(2)

3.1.3 Memory loss

Confusion (2)

3.1.4 It affects the parts of the brain than control emotions, memory, and
judgement.
It can weaken short term memory and can block information from
becoming saved into long term memory.
It weakens problem-solving ability.
(first 2) (2)
(10)

3.2 3.2.1 Adrenalin

(1)

3.2.2 On top of kidney (1)

3.2.3 Pupil (1)

(3)
3.3 3.3.1 Herbivores eat plants. The plant protects itself against being
eaten.
(2)
3.3.2  Learn to identify the plant .
 Find volunteers.
  Determine the size of the experiment (how many people) .
 Determine the method of testing.
 Decide on a way to record the data.
(5)

Use more people in the investigation.

3.3.3 (1)
3.4 3.4.1 Rhinoceros hunted from 2007 to 2010 (8)
Year Number of rhinoceros
2007 13
2008 83
2009 122
2010 287

Caption
Labelled all rows correctly
Labelled both columns correctly
Drawing of table 
For each correct number

(8)

3.4.2 Rhinoceros hunting increased from 2007 to 2010 

(2)

Number of rhinoceros hunted

3.4.3
(1)
Years 
3.4.4
Freshwater irrigated: Seawater irrigated: (1)
3.5 3.5.1
2 + 1,1 1,75 + 1,75 (12)
-2 -1
= 3.1/kg m y  = 3.5 /kg m-2 y-1 
(3)
The biomass yield is almost the same 

(2)
Daily weight gain is more in sheep fed on sea blite.
3.5.2
Water intake is higher and food conversion efficiency is slightly (2)
3.5.3 lower.
(7)
[40]

TOTAL SECTION B: 80
SECTION C

QUESTION 4

4.1 Sample answer

Hearing
 Sound waves are directed into the auditory canal by the pinna.
 The sound waves make the tympanic membrane vibrate and the vibrations
are passed on to the ossicles in the middle ear.
 The ossicles make the oval window vibrate and this causes pressure
wavesto be set up in the inner ear.
 These vibrations also cause the organ of Corti to be stimulated and it
generates impulses which are sent to the cerebrum along the auditory
nerve.
 The cerebrum interprets the impulses as sound.

Balance
• Sudden changes in speed and directioncauses the endolymphwithin the
semicircular canals to move.
• The movement of the fluid stimulates the cristae in the ampullae – situated at
the base of the semi circular canal. 
• When the direction of the head changes, gravitational pull stimulates maculae
– in the sacculus and utriculus
• Within the cristae and maculae the stimuli are converted to impulses.
• These impulses are sent to the brain by the vestibular branch of the auditory
nerve.
(any 17)
ASSESSING THE PRESENTATION OF THE ESSAY
Marks Description
3 Explained all hearing and balance fully without irrelevant information.
2 Explained hearing and balance competently with little/no irrelevant information.
1 Explained one of hearing or balance fully with little/no irrelevant information.
0 Not attempted/nothing written other than question number/no correct information.
Synthesis (3)
(20)
TOTAL SECTION C: 20
GRAND TOTAL: 150
SECTION A

QUESTION 1

1.1 1.1.1 A

1.1.2 B
1.1.3 D 
1.1.4 C
1.1.5 A
1.1.6 B
1.1.7 B
1.1.8 A
1.1.9 A
1.1.10 D (10 x 2) (20)

1.2 1.2.1 Chiasmata

1.2.2 Replication
1.2.3 Homologous 
1.2.4 Homozygous 
1.2.5 Translation
1.2.6 Non disjunction
1.2.7 Polygenic
1.2.8 Karyotype
1.2.9 Phenotypic
1.2.10 Recessive allele (10)

1.3 1.3.1 B only

1.3.2 A only 
1.3.3 A only 
1.3.4 Both A and B 
1.3.5 A only
1.3.6 B only
1.3.7 Both A and B 
(7 x 2) (14)

1.4 1.4.1 3 (1)

1.4.2 AB (1)

1.4.3 i
1.4.4 (1)
IAIB / IA i
 1.4.5 A column graph shows the percentages of each type of blood (2)
group separately.
(1)
(7)
TOTAL QUESTION 1: 50
TOTAL SECTION A: 50
SECTION B
QUESTION 2
2.1.1 mRNA  (1)

2.1.2 (CGT TGT AAA) (2)

2.1.3
(a) UUU  (1)
(b) cysteine (1)
(c) The protein would have the amino acid phenylalanine instead
of arginine leading to a different protein. any (2)
(7)

2.2

2.2.1 This increases the chancesof the sample being representative

of the plant population. (2)

2.2.2 Other factors like environmental factors/amount of light/soil type will

also influence the height to which sunflower plants grow.
Genetic variation is only one of many factors
that influences the height/genotype tends to represent the potential and
environment actualises the potential. any (2)

2.2.3 Jacky (1)

2.2.4 Jacky included a larger number/10 of plants in the sample/bigger sample

size (1)

2.2.5 The number of plants measured in each sample for both must be the same.

- Measurements must be done at the same time
- Measurements must be done on the same day
- Increase the sample size in each of the selected areas
- Repeat the investigation (any 2) (2)
2.2.6 Number of sunflower plants at each height interval, in
Jacky’s investigation
60

Number of sunflower plants

50

40

30

20

10

0
51-55 56-60 61-70 71-75 76-80

Height interval (cm)

Mark allocation of the graph

Correct type of graph 

Title of graph 
Correct label and 1
appropriate scale for X-axis
including units
Correct label for and 
Appropriate scale Y-axis
Drawing of bars  1–4 bars drawn correctly
 All 5 bars drawn correctly
(6)
NOTE:

If the wrong type of graph is drawn:

- Marks to be lost for ‘correct type of graph’
If axes are transposed:
- Marks to be lost for labelling of X-axis and Y-axis
(14)

2.3
2.3.1 Diagrams 1 and 4 (2)
2.3.2 Because of crossing over pieces of chromatids/groups of genes are
exchanged between the homologous chromosomes (one from mother
and one from father) (3)

2.3.3 2 (1)
2.3.4 Reduction of chromosome number from diploid to haploid
Production of gametes
Mechanism to introduce genetic variation through crossing over and
random assortment of chromosomes (any 2) (2)

2.3.5 2,3,1,4 (1)

(9)

2.4 2.4.1 Normalwings (1)

2.4.2 (a) Gg (1)

(b) gg (1)

2.4.3 Gg (2)

gg ( any order) (2)
(7)
2.4.4
P1/parent phenotype normal female x vestigial wings male
genotype Gg x gg

Meiosis

G/gametes G, g x g, g

Fertilisation
OR
Gametes G g
g Gg gg
g Gg gg
1 mark for correct gametes
1 mark for correct genotypes
F1/offspring genotype Gg, Gg, gg, gg
phenotype 2 normal wings and 2 vestigial wings

Parents and offspring/P1 and F1

Meiosis and fertilisation any (7)
 (10)
TOTAL QUESTION 2 40
QUESTION 3
3.1 3.1.1 2

3.1.2 rr

3.1.3
Rr/ heterozygous
3.1.4 (3)

RR/ homozygous dominant

3.2.1 (1)
3.2.2 (4)
3.2.3 46/23 pairs
Man
3.2 3.2.4 One large chromosome /one big and one small chromosome/ (1)
chromosomes of pair 23 are different
A person with Down’s syndrome will have 3 copies of (1)
chromosome number 21 in each cell instead of 2.
(2)

(2)
(6)
3.3.1 The oldest fossils of hominids ( Australopithecines and Homo habilis) are
only found in Africa, whilst the younger fossils are found worldwide
which suggests that humans originated in Africa. The oldest Homo erectus
fossils was found in Africa and later in Europe and Asia, which suggests
that Homo erectus migrated out of Africa (any 5) (5)

3.3.2 The hypothesis will be rejected; it would imply that the origin of humans is in
Asia not Africa
(2)
3.3.3 (a) Nutcracker man, (Paranthropus boisei) 
Handy man,(Homo habilis) 
Laetoli footprints, 
Toumai.(Sahelanthropus tchadensis)  (any 2) (2)
(b) Mrs Ples (Australopithecus africanus
Taung child, (Australopithecus africanus), 
Karabo(Australopithecus sediba) (any 2) (2)
3.3.4 Mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)can be used to trace the
female ancestral
line as mitochriondrial DNA is only inherited from your mother; this has
been traced to a female ancestor in Africa. (3)
 Mutations in the Y-chromosomecan be use to trace the partenal (male)
ancestral line because only males inherit the Y-chromosome from their
father and this can be traced to a male ancestor in Africa. (3)
3.3.5 A transitional form has characteristics of both the australopithecines and
humans.

(3)
3.3.6 Tool making
Rock painting
(2)

(22)
3.4
3.4.1..Colour of the beetle (1)

3.4.2 Natural selection/survival of the fittest (1)

3.4.3 There is variation in the colour of the beetles /black and white/light colour
The white/light colour beetles have the desirable characteristic/are better
adapted/ to camouflage/ better coloured for surviving.
More of the white/light coloured beetles survive and reproduce white/light
coloured offspring.
More of the black beetles died/ were eaten by the predators.
Over generations all beetles will be white/light coloured . (6)
(8)

TOTAL QUESTION 3: 40
TOTAL SECTION B: 80
 SECTION C
QUESTION 4

4.1 Characteristics humans share with African apes

 Upright posture
 Large brains/skulls compared to their body mass
 Long upper arms
 Eyes in front/binocular vision/stereoscopic vision
 Eyes with cones/colour vision
 Two mammary glands only
 Freely rotating arms
 Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm
 Flat nails instead of claws/bare finger tips
 Opposable thumbs which work in opposite direction to their fingers
 Sexual dimorphism/distinct differences between male and female
 Rotate hands at least 180º
 Olfactory brain centers reduced/reduced sense of smell
 Parts of the brain that process information
 from the hands and eyes are enlarged (max) 10

Characteristics that make humans different from African apes

 Brain case size and shape are different
 Shape and slope of forehead
 Brow ridge development
 The facial angle
 Size of canines
 Position of foramen magnum
 Degree of prognathism
 Presence of a chin
 Gap between incisors and canines (max ) 7
Content (17)
Synthesis (3)
(20)

ASSESSING THE PRESENTATION OF THE ESSAY

Marks Description
3 Well structured – demonstrates insight and understanding of question.
2 Minor gaps or irrelevant information in the logic and flow of the answers.
1 Attempted but with significant gaps and irrelevant information in the logic and
flow of the answers.
0 Not attempted/nothing written other than question number/no correct
information.
TOTAL SECTION C: 20
GRAND TOTAL: 150
 Via Afrika
Mathematics

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

For me, teaching is about applying myself in the lives
of the learners and inspiring flight – inspiring them to Grade 12 Study Guide
reach their full potential.

M. Malan, L.J. Schalekamp, E.C. Brown, L. Bruce,

— Brynn Taylor, Teacher G. du Toit, C.R. Smith, L.M. Botsane, J. Bouman, M. Pillay

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Mathematics

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 5 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 6 to 9 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 31 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 31 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 31 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 32 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at maths@[Link]? Alternatively,
visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
 M. Malan

St udy G u id e

Via Afrika Mathematics

Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-335-2
 Exponents and Surds

Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 1 Number patterns, sequences and series ........................................ 4

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 4
Unit 1 Arithmetic sequences and series
Unit 2 Geometric sequences and series
Unit 3 The sum to n terms(Sn): Sigma notation
Unit 4 Convergence and sum to infinity
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 2 Functions ..................................................................................... 10

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 10
Unit 1 The definitions of a function
Unit 2 The inverse of a function
Unit 3 The inverse of y = ax + q
Unit 4 The inverse of the quadratic function y = ax2
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 3 Logarithms ................................................................................... 24

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 24
Unit 1 The definition of a logarithm
Unit 2 Solving exponential equations using logarithms
Unit 3 The graph of y = logbx where b > 1 and 0 < b < 1
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 28

Chapter 4 Finance, growth and decay ............................................................ 29

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 29
Unit 1 Future value annuities
Unit 2 Present value annuities
Unit 3 Calculating the period
Unit 4 Analysing investments and loans
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 35

Chapter 5 Compound angles ......................................................................... 37

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 37
Unit 1 Deriving a formula for cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)
Unit 2 Formula for cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) and 𝑠𝑖𝑖(𝛼 ± 𝛽)
Unit 3 Double angles
Unit 4 Identities
Unit 5 Equations
Unit 6 Trigonometric graphs and compound angles
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 46

Chapter 6 Solving problems in three dimensions ........................................... 48

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 48
Unit 1 Problems in three dimensions
Unit 2 Compound angle formulae in three dimensions
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 51

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 1

 Exponents and Surds

Chapter 7 Polynomials .................................................................................. 53

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 53
Unit 1 The Remainder Theorem
Unit 2 The Factor Theorem
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 57

Chapter 8 Differential calculus ...................................................................... 58

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 58
Unit 1 Limits
Unit 2 The gradient of a graph at a point
Unit 3 The derivative of a function
Unit 4 The equation of a tangent to a graph
Unit 5 The graph of a cubic function
Unit 6 The second derivative (concavity)
Unit 7 Applications of differential calculus
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 70

Chapter 9 Analytical geometry ...................................................................... 72

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 72
Unit 1 Equation of a circle with centre at the origin
Unit 2 Equation of a circle centred off the origin
Unit 3 The equation of the tangent to the circle
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 77

Chapter 10 Euclidean geometry ..................................................................... 81

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 81
Unit 1 Proportionality in triangles
Unit 2 Similarity in triangles
Unit 2 Theorem of Pythagoras
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 94

Chapter 11 Statistics: regression and correlation ........................................... 97

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 97
Unit 1 Symmetrical and skewed data
Unit 2 Scatter plots and correlation
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 106

Chapter 12 Probability .................................................................................. 108

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 108
Unit 1 Solving probability problems
Unit 2 The counting principle
Unit 3 The counting principle and probability
Mixed exercises .................................................................................................................... 112
ANSWERS TO MIXED EXERCISES ...................................................................................................... 113
EXEMPLAR PAPER 1 ..................................................................................................................... 151
EXEMPLAR PAPER 2 .................................................................................................................... 168

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 2

 Exponents and Surds

Introduction to Via Afrika Mathematics Grade 12 Study Guide

Woohoo! You made it! If you’re reading this it means that you made it through Grade 11,
and are now in Grade 12. But I guess you are already well aware of that…

It also means that your teacher was brilliant enough to get the Via Afrika Mathematics
Grade 12 Learner’s Book. This study guide contains summaries of each chapter, and should
be used side-by-side with the Learner’s Book. It also contains lots of extra questions to
help you master the subject matter.

Mathematics – not for spectators

You won’t learn anything if you don’t involve yourself in the subject-matter actively. Do
the maths, feel the maths, and then understand and use the maths.

Understanding the principles

• Listen during class. This study guide is brilliant but it is not enough. Listen to your
teacher in class as you may learn a unique or easy way of doing something.
• Study the notation, properly. Incorrect use of notation will be penalised in tests
and exams. Pay attention to notation in our worked examples.
• Practise, Practise, Practise, and then Practise some more. You have to practise
as much as possible. The more you practise, the more prepared and confident you
will feel for exams. This guide contains lots of extra practice opportunities.
• Persevere. We can’t all be Einsteins, and even old Albert had difficulties learning
some of the very advanced Mathematics necessary to formulate his theories. If you
don’t understand immediately, work at it and practise with as many problems from
this study guide as possible. You will find that topics that seem baffling at first,
suddenly make sense.
• Have the proper attitude. You can do it!

The AMA of Mathematics

ABILITY is what you’re capable of doing.

MOTIVATION determines what you do.
ATTITUDE determines how well you do it.

“Pure Mathematics is, in its way, the poetry of logical ideas.” Albert Einstein

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 3

 1 Chapter
Number patterns, sequences and series

Overview

Unit 1 Page 10
Arithmetic sequences and • Formula for an arithmetic
series sequence

Unit 2 Page 14
Geometric sequences and • Formula for the nth term
Chapter 1 Page 8 series of a sequence
Number patterns,
sequences and Unit 3 Page 18
series The sum to 𝑖 terms (𝑆𝑛 ): Sigma • The sum to 𝑖 terms in an
notation arithmetic sequence
• The sum to 𝑖 terms in a
geometric sequence

Unit 4 Page 28
Convergence and sum to infinity • Convergence

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Bok.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of this study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in this study guide.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 4

 1 Chapter
Number patterns, sequences and series

TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES

TYPE GENERAL TERM: 𝑇𝑛 SUM OF TERMS: 𝑆𝑛 EXAMPLES
A) 2 ; 5 ; 8 ; 11 ; ...
Arithmetic Sequence (AS) 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑖 − 1)𝑑 𝑆𝑛
𝑖
(also named the linear = [2𝑎 + (𝑖 − 1)𝑑] 𝑑= +3 +3 +3
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑐𝑟𝑚 𝑇1 2
sequence) or
𝑖 𝑇𝑛 = 2 + (𝑖 − 1)(3)
𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑆𝑛 = [𝑎 + 𝑙] = 2 + 3𝑖 − 3
Constant 2
st 𝑑 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 3𝑖 − 1
1 difference where
𝑜𝑟 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 etc.
𝑙 = the last term of
B) 1 ; -4 ; -9 ; ...
the sequence

𝑑 = -5 -5

𝑇𝑛 = 1 + (𝑖 − 1)(−5)
= 1 − 5𝑖 + 5
= −5𝑖 + 6
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1) A) 2 ; -4 ; 8 ; -16 ; ...
𝑆𝑛 =
Geometric Sequence (GS) 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 𝑟−1
(also named exponential 𝑟 = x-2 x-2 x-2
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑐𝑟𝑚 𝑇1 Or
sequence) 𝑛
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 )
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛 = 2(−2)𝑛−1
𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑡 1−𝑟
NOT CONVERGING as 𝑟 < −1
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑎
Or 𝑆∞ =
Constant 𝑇2 𝑇3
1−𝑟
B) 3 ;
3
;
3
;
3
; ...
ratio 𝑟= 𝑜𝑟 Where −1 < 𝑟 < 1 2 4 8
𝑇1 𝑇2
(Converging series) 1 1 1
𝑟= x x x
2 2 2
1 𝑛−1
𝑇𝑛 = 3 � �
2
CONVERGING as −1 < 𝑟 < 1
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑖2 + 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑐 3 ; 8 ; 16 ; 27 ; ...
Quadratic Sequence (QS)
𝑓= 1st difference 𝑓: 5 8 11
𝑠= 2nd difference
𝑠: 3 3
Constant Determine 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐
nd
2 using simultaneous Setup three equations using
difference equations (see the first three terms:
example) 𝑇1 = 3:
3=𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 …(1)
Alternatively: 𝑇2 = 8:
𝑎 =𝑠÷2 8 = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 …(2)
𝑏 = 𝑓1 − 3𝑎 𝑇3 = 16:
𝑐 = 𝑇1 − 𝑎 − 𝑏 16 = 9𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐 …(3)
where Solving simultaneously leads
𝑓1 = first term of first to:
differences 𝑇𝑛 = 32𝑖2 + 12𝑖 + 1

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 5

 1
Chapter
Number patterns, sequences and series

TYPES OF QUESTIONS YOU STRATEGY TO ANSWER THIS TYPE EXAMPLE(S) OF THIS TYPE OF
CAN EXPECT OF QUESTION QUESTION
Identify any of the following Determine whether sequence has a See Table 1 above
three types of sequences: • constant 1st difference (AS)
Arithmetic (AS), Geometric • constant ratio (GS)
(GS) and Quadratic (QS) • constant 2nd difference (QS)
Determine the formula for the You need to find: See Table 1 above
general term, 𝑇𝑛 , of AS, GS • 𝑎 and 𝑑 for an AS
and QS (from Grade 11) • 𝑎 and 𝑟 for a GS
• 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 for a QS
Determine any specific term Substitute the value of 𝑖 into 𝑇𝑛 See Text Book :
for a sequence e.g. 𝑇30 Example 1, nr. 1 d and 2 d, p.8
(AS)
Example 1, nr. 1 b, 3 b, p.11
(AS)
Example 1, nr. 1, p. 15 (GS)
Determine the number of Substitute all known variables into See Text Book:
terms in a sequence, 𝑖, for an the general term to get an equation Example 1, nr.1 c, p.8
AS, GS and QS or with 𝒔 as the only unknown. Solve Example 1, nr.1 c, p.11
the position, 𝑖, of a specific for 𝑖. Example 1, nr. 3, p.15
given term or when the sum OR
of the series is given Substitute all known variables into
the 𝑆𝑛 -formula to get an equation
with 𝒔 as the only unknown. Solve
for 𝑖. Example 2, nr.3, p.20
Example 3, nr. 2, p.24
Remember:
𝑖 must be a natural number
(not negative, not a fraction)
When given two sets of For each set of information given, See Text Book:
information, make use of substitute the values of 𝑖 and 𝑇𝑛 or Example 1, nr. 3, p.11 (AS)
simultaneous equations to 𝑖 and 𝑆𝑛 . Example 1, nr.2, p.15 (AS)
solve: Example 3, nr.3, p.24 (GS)
𝒂 and 𝒅 (for an AS) You then have 2 equations which
𝒂 and 𝒓 (for a GS) you can solve simultaneously (by
substitution)
Determine the value of a For AS use constant difference: The first three terms of an AS
variable (𝑥) when given a 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 are given by
sequence in terms of 𝑥. 2𝑥 − 4; 𝑥 − 3; 8 − 2𝑥
For GS use constant ratio: Determine 𝑥:
𝑇2 𝑇3 8 − 2𝑥 − (𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 − 3 −
= (2𝑥 − 4)
𝑇1 𝑇2
∴𝑥=5
© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 6
 1
Chapter
Number patterns, sequences and series

For a series given in sigma Remember: ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑇𝑘 has 𝑖 terms

notation: The “counter” indicates the number (counter 𝑘 runs from 1 to 𝑖)
• Determine the number of of terms in the series ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑇𝑘 has (𝑖 + 1) terms
terms (counter runs from 0 to 𝑖; so
one term extra)
∑𝑛𝑘=5 𝑇𝑘 has (𝑖 − 4) terms
( four terms not counted )

• Determine the value of Remember the expression next to See Text Book:
the series, in other words, the ∑-sign is the general term, 𝑇𝑛 . Example 1, p.19
𝑆𝑛 . This will help you to determine 𝑎
and 𝑑 or 𝑟.

Determine the general term, 𝑇𝑘 and Example 1, p.19

Write a given series in sigma number of terms, 𝑖 and substitute
notation. into ∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑇𝑘
Determine the sum, 𝑺𝒔 , of an In some cases you have to first See Text Book:
AS and a GS (when the determine the number of terms, 𝑖
number of terms are given or using 𝑇𝑛 . Example 2, nr.1 & 2, p.20
not given) Substitute the values of 𝑎, 𝑖 and 𝑑/𝑟 Example 3, nr. 1, p.24
into the formula for 𝑆𝑛
Determine whether a GS is Converging if −1 < 𝑟 < 1
converging or not
Determine 𝑆∞ for a Substitute vales of 𝑎 and 𝑟 See Text Book:
converging GS Into formula for 𝑆∞ Example 1, nr. 1, p.29
Determine the value of a Determine 𝑟 in terms of 𝑥 See Text Book:
variable (𝑥) for which a series and use −1 < 𝑟 < 1 Example 1, nr. 3, p.29
will converge,
e.g. (2𝑥 + 1) + (2𝑥 + 1)2 +…
Apply your knowledge of Generate a sequence of terms from See Text Book:
sequences and series on an the information given. Identify the Exercise 5, nr. 6, p.30
applied example (often type of sequence.
involving diagram/s)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 7

 1
Chapter
Number patterns, sequences and series

Mixed Exercise on sequences and series

1 Consider the following sequence: 5; 9; 13; 17; 21; …

a Determine the general term.
b Which term is equal to 217?
2 a T5 of a geometric sequence is 9 and T9 is 729. Determine the constant ratio.
b Determine T10.
3 The following is an arithmetic sequence: 2 x − 4 ; 5 x ; 7 x − 4
a Determine the value of x .
b Determine the first 3 terms.
4 Consider the following sequence: 2 ; 7 ; 15 ; 26 ; 40 ; …
a Determine the general term.
b Which term is equal to 260?
5 How many terms are there in the following sequence?
17 ; 14 ; 11 ; 8 ; … ; -2785
6 Tom links balls with rods in arrangements as shown below:

Arrangement 1 Arrangement 2 Arrangement 3 Arrangement 4

1 ball, 4 rods 4 balls, 12 rods 9 balls, 24 rods 16 balls 40 rods

a Determine the number of balls in the nth arrangement.

b Determine the number of rods in the nth arrangement.
7 Determine the following:
30 10
1
a ∑k =1
(8 − 5k) b ∑
k =2
4
(2)𝑘−1

8 Write the following in sigma notation: 1+5+9+…+21

9 The 5th term of an arithmetic sequence is zero and the 13th term is equal to 12.
Determine:
a the constant difference and the first term.
b the sum of the first 21 terms.
© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 8
 1Chapter
Number patterns, sequences and series

10 The first two terms of a geometric sequence are: (𝑥 + 3) and (𝑥 2 − 9)

a For which value of 𝑥 is this a converging sequence?
b Calculate the value of 𝑥 if the sum of the series to infinity is 13.
99+97+95+⋯+1
11 Calculate the value of:
299+297+295+⋯+201

12 𝑆𝑛 = 3𝑖2 − 2𝑖. Determine 𝑇9 .

13 The first four terms of a geometric sequence are 7; 𝑥 ; 𝑦 ; 189.
a Determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
b If the constant ratio is 3, make use of a suitable formula to determine the number of
terms in the sequence that will give a sum of 206 668.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 9

 Chapter 2
Functions

Overview

Unit 1 Page 40
The definition of a function • Relations and functions
• Type of relations
• Which relations are
functions?
• Definition of a function?
• Function notation

Unit 2 Page 44
Chapter 2 Page 36 The inverse of a function • The concept of inverses
Functions by studying sets of
ordered number pairs

Unit 3 Page 46
The inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑞 • Graphs of 𝑓and 𝑓 −1 on
the same set of axes

Unit 4 Page 48
The inverse of the quadratic • Restricting the domain of
function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 the parabola

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 10

 Chapter 2
Functions

TYPES OF RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES

TYPE DESCRIPTION PROPERTIES TYPICAL EXAMPLES

NON-FUNCTIONS One-to-many • One 𝑥-value in domain has MORE • Inverse of a parabola

THAN ONE 𝑦-value (See Unit 4)
• Does NOT pass vertical line test
FUNCTIONS One-to-one • Each 𝑥-value has a unique 𝑦- • Straight line graph
value and its inverse
• No 𝑥- or 𝑦-value appear more • Hyperbola and its
than once in domain or range inverse
• Passes VERTICAL line test • Exponential graph
and its inverse, the
logarithmic function
Many-to- one • No 𝑥-value appears more than • Parabola
once in domain • Graph of the cubic
• More than one 𝑥-value maps onto function
the same 𝑦-value • Trigonometric graphs
• Passes VERTICAL line test

REVISION OF THE
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH

Standard form: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

𝒎
• Gradient of line
• Indicates “steepness”
𝒄
and direction of line:
• 𝑦-intercept

𝑚 > 0 (+) • Where 𝑥 = 0

𝑚 < 0(−)

𝑚=0

𝑦 −𝑦
• 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 11

 Chapter 2
Functions

PARALLEL AND
PERPENDICULAR LINES
Let 𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and
𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 be two lines.
If the lines are PARALLEL, then:
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
If the lines are PERPENDICULAR,
then: 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1

TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

GIVEN: EXAMPLES
1
1. Gradient and a point A line has a gradient of and goes through the point (4;1):
2
1
𝑚=
2
1
Substitute point (4;1) into 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
2
1
1 = (4) + 𝑐
2
𝑐 = −1
1
𝑦 = 𝑥−1
2
2. 𝒚-intercept and a point A line has a 𝑦-intercept 3 and goes through the point (-2;1):
𝑐=3
Substitute point (-2;1) into 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 3
1 = 𝑚(−2) + 3
𝑚=1
𝑦 =𝑥+3
3. Two points on the line A line goes through the points (4;-3) and (2;1).
𝑦 −𝑦 1−(−3)
𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 4−(2) = 2
2 1

Substitute any one of the two points into 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑐

1=2(2)+c
𝑐 = −3
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
4. A point or 𝒚-intercept plus a) A line is parallel to the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3 and goes
information regarding through the point (5;-2).
relationship to another line Parallel lines have same gradients; so 𝑚 = −1
Sub (5;-2) into 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑐
−2 = −(5) + 𝑐
𝑐=3
b) A line is perpendicular to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 and has a
𝑦-intercept of 4.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 12

 Chapter 2
Functions

Perpendicular lines have gradients with a product of −𝟏.

1
𝑚 × 2 = −1 ∴𝑚=−
2
−1
𝑦= 𝑥+4
2

REVISION OF THE PARABOLA

EQUATION IN STANDARD FORM

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 (𝒂 ≠ 𝟎)

𝒄
𝒂
• 𝑦-intercept
Indicates shape of parabola
• Where 𝑥 = 0
𝒂 > 0 (+)
Concave up

𝒃

Remember:
Positive(+) people smile!
• Affects the axis of symmetry and
turning point (TP)
𝒂 < 0(−)
𝑏
• Equation of axis of symmetry: 𝑥 = −
Concave down 2𝑎
𝑏 4𝑎𝑎−𝑏2
• Coordinates of TP �− 2𝑎 ; 4𝑎
�


Remember: 𝒙-intercepts
Negative (−) people are sad!
• Also called roots/zeroes
• Substitute 𝑦 = 0

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 13

 Chapter 2
Functions

EQUATION IN

TURNING POINT FORM

𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒑)𝟐 + 𝒒 (𝒂 ≠ 𝟎)

𝒂
Indicates shape of parabola
𝒑 and 𝒒
𝒂 > 0 (+)
Concave up


• Equation of axis of symmetry 𝒙 =𝒑
Remember:
• Coordinates of turning point (𝒑; 𝒒)
Positive(+) people smile!

𝒂 < 0(−)
Concave down
Intercepts
• 𝑥-intercepts (make 𝑦 = 0)
 • 𝑦-intercept (make 𝑥 = 0)

Remember:
Negative (−) people are sad!

DOMAIN: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
RANGE:

𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 𝑞) 𝑦 ∈ (𝑞; ∞)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 14

 Chapter 2
Functions

DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA

GIVEN: 2 ROOTS (𝒙-INTERCEPTS) PLUS 1 POINT GIVEN: TURNING POINT PLUS 1 POINT

FORM OF EQUATION: FORM OF EQUATION:

𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + 𝑞

𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 are the roots (𝑝; 𝑞) is die turning point of the parabola
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
y y

5
(2;6)

x (−1;2)
−1 3
x

𝒙𝟏 = −𝟏 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏 (𝑝; 𝑞) = (−1; 2)

𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + 𝑞

𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 − (−𝟏))(𝒙 − 𝟏) 2
𝑦 = 𝑎�𝑥 − (−1)� + 2
𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟏) 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 1)2 + 2

Now substitute the other point (𝟐; 𝟔): Now substitute the point (0;5):

𝟔 = 𝒂(𝟐 + 𝟏)(𝟐 − 𝟏) 5 = 𝑎(0 + 1)2 + 2

𝟔 = 𝒂(𝟏)(−𝟏) 5=𝑎+2
𝟔 = −𝟏𝒂 3=𝑎
−𝟐 = 𝒂
𝑦 = 3(𝑥 + 1)2 + 2
𝒚 = −𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟏)
𝑦 = 3(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + 2
𝒚 = −𝟐�𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏� 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 + 2
𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟔 (standard form) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 (standard form)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 15

 Chapter 2
Functions

REVISION OF THE HYPERBOLA

𝒂
𝒚 = 𝒙−𝒑 + 𝒒
𝒒
𝒂 Horizontal asymptote
Indicates shape of hyperbola 𝒚=𝒒
(with respect to asymptotes)

𝒂 > 0 (+) 𝒑
Vertical asymptote Intercepts
𝒙=𝒑
• 𝑥-intercept (make 𝑦 = 0)
𝒂 < 0(−) • 𝑦-intercept (make 𝑥 = 0)

Domain: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅; 𝑥 ≠ 𝑝
Range: 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅; 𝑦 ≠ 𝑝

2
EXAMPLE: 𝑦 = 𝑥−1 − 2
𝑦-intercept: Axes of symmetry:
2
𝑦= − 2 = −4
−1 Substitute(1; −2) into
Axes of symmetry (AS) 𝑥- intercept: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑘1 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑘2
2
0= − 2 ;𝑥 = 2
𝑥−1
• Two axes of symmetry −2 = 1 + 𝑘1 𝑎𝑖𝑑 − 2 = −1 + 𝑘2
• AS go through intersect of Asymptotes: 𝑘1 = −3 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑘2 = −1
𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑦 = −2 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 1
asymptotes (𝑝; 𝑞)
y

• Equations: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑘1 and x

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑘2 1 2

−2

• Substitute the point (𝑝; 𝑞) to

−4
calculate 𝑘1 and 𝑘2

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 16

 Chapter 2
Functions

REVISION OF THE
EXPONENTIAL GRAPH

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙−𝒑 + 𝒒
𝒂
Indicates shape of hyperbola

𝒂>𝟏 𝒒
• Horizontal asymptote: 𝑦 = 𝑝
𝟎<𝒂<1 • Indicates that the graph 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 was
translated (shifted) vertically up/down
𝒒 > 0: shifted upwards
𝒒 < 0: shifted downwards

𝒑
EXAMPLE: 𝑦 = 2𝑥+1 − 1
𝑥
Indicates that the graph 𝑦 = 𝑎 was Asymptote: 𝑦 = −1
translated (shifted) horizontally left/right 𝑥-intercept (𝑦 = 0): 2𝑥+1 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −1
0+1
𝒑 > 0: shifted left 𝑦-intercept: (𝑥 = 0): 𝑦 = 2 −1=1
𝒑 < 0: shifted right
y

Intercepts
1

• 𝑥-intercept (make 𝑦 = 0)
x

• 𝑦-intercept (make 𝑥 = 0) −1

−1

Domain: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
Range: 𝑦 ∈ (𝑞; ∞)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 17

 Chapter 2
Functions

EXAMPLES OF SYMMETRICAL
EXPONENTIAL GRAPHS

SYMMETRICAL IN THE 𝑦 −axis

y
𝑥
1 𝑦 = 3𝑥
𝑦 = � � = 3−𝑥
3

SYMMETRICAL IN THE 𝑥 −axis

y 𝑦 = 3𝑥

𝑦 = −3𝑥

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 18

 Chapter 2
Functions

INTERSECTS OF TWO GRAPHS

To determine the coordinates of the

point where two graphs INTERSECT:

Use SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE

Determine the coordinates of the points of

intersection of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 6 and
𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 14

Equate the two equations and solve for 𝒙:

3𝑥 + 6 = −2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 14
2𝑥 2 − 8 = 0
𝑥2 − 4 = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = −2
Substitute 𝒙-values back into one of equations
(choose the easier one):

If 𝑥 = 2 then 𝑦 = 3(2) + 6 = 12
So one point of intersection is (2; 12).

If 𝑥 = −2 then 𝑦 = 3(−2) + 6 = 0
The other point of intersection is (−2; 0) which
is also the 𝑥-intercept of both graphs.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 19

 Chapter 2
Functions

THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

• The inverse of a function, 𝑓, is denoted by 𝑓 −1 .

• 𝑓 −1 is a reflection of 𝑓in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
• To determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 , swop 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the
equation of 𝑓
• The 𝑥-intercept of 𝑓 is the 𝑦-intercept of 𝑓 −1

FUNCTION 𝒇 INVERSE OF EXAMPLES DIAGRAM

FUNCTION, 𝒇−𝟏
Straight line Straight line 𝑓: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 y
f

𝒇: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 Inverse: 2𝑦 + 3 = 𝑥
x

−1 1 3
𝑓 :𝑦 = 𝑥−
2 2

Exponential Logarithmic 𝑓: 𝑦 = 3𝑥 y
f
graph function
Inverse:
𝒙 −1
𝒇: 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝑓 : 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥 x

Parabola The inverse of a 𝑓: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2

y
parabola is NOT A
𝒇: 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 FUNCTION Inverse:

𝑥 = 2𝑦 2
NB: The DOMAIN of 1
the parabola has to 𝑦2 = 𝑥
2 x

be RESTRICTED to 1
𝑥 ≥ 0 or 𝑥 ≤ 0 so 𝑓 −1 : ±� 𝑥
2
that 𝑓 −1 is also a
function

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 20

 Chapter 2
Functions

Mixed Exercise on Functions

1 Determine the coordinates of the intercept of the following two lines:

2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 17
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 15
4 y
f

2 a Determine the equation of line 𝑓. 3

b Determine the equation of line 𝑔. P

c Determine the co-ordinates of point, P, 1

where the two lines intersect.

x

−4 −3 4

d Are these two lines perpendicular? (2;-1)

Give a reason for your answer.

e Write down the equation of the line g
which is parallel to line 𝑔 with a 𝑦-intercept −4

of -2.

3 The diagram shows the graphs of y = x 2 − 2 x − 3 y

and y = mx + c .
a Determine the lengths of OA, OB and OC.
b Determine the co-ordinates of the turning point D. A B x

c Determine m and c of the straight line.

d Use the graph to determine for which values C

of k for which the equation x 2 − 2 x + k = 0 would D

have only one real root.

4 The diagram shows the graph of f ( x) = −2( x + 1) + 8 .

2 E D

C is the turning point.

E is the mirror image of the y-intercept of 𝑓.
Determine:
a the length of AB. A B x

b the co-ordinates of C.
c the length of DE.
© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 21
 Chapter 2
Functions

1 𝑥
5 Consider the function 𝑔(𝑥) = � � − 2.
2

a Make a neat drawing of 𝑔. Clearly show the asymptote and intercepts with the axes.
b Determine the domain of 𝑔.
c For which values of 𝑥 would 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0.

y
𝑎
6 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = ; 𝑥 ≠ 0 is shown.
𝑥

𝐴(−2; 2) is a point on the graph where it cuts the line 𝑦 = −𝑥.

a Determine the value of 𝑎 . A(−2;2)
x

b Write down the coordinates of B. f

B
c Graph 𝑓 is translated 2 units up and 1 unit right.
d Write down the equation of the new graph.

7 The graphs of the following are shown :

1
𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
2
Determine:
a the coordinates for A E
y

b the coordinates for B and C F A

c the length of CD
R
d the length of DE which is parallel to the 𝑦-axis f

e the length of AF which is parallel to the 𝑥-axis

f the length of GH which is parallel to the 𝑦-axis H x
B D C
g the 𝑥-value for which RS would have a maximum length.
h the maximum length of RS. G
S
g
i the 𝑥-values for which 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) > 0.

8 The diagram alongside shows the graphs of the functions of (2 ;5 )

𝑎 f
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = +𝑞
𝑥+𝑝
a Write down the equation of the asymptote of 𝑓.
B(−6 ;0 ) −2 x
b Determine the equation of 𝑓.
−1
c Write down the equations of the asymptotes of 𝑔.
g
d Determine the equation of 𝑔.
A(0 ;−3 )
e Determine the equations of the axes of symmetry of 𝑔 .
−4
f For which values of 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥)?

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 22

 Chapter 2
Functions

9 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 is given.

y

a Determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 in

the form 𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = ⋯
b How can one restrict the domain of 𝑓 so
that 𝑓 −1 will be a function?
f(x)=2x²

10 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is given. 3 y

The point A (-1; 3) lies on the graph. 2

a Determine the equation of 𝑓. x

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

b Determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 in the form 𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = ⋯ −1

c Make a neat drawing of the graph of 𝑓 −1 .

−2

d Determine the domain of 𝑓 −1 .

−3

11 A straight line graph has an 𝑥-intercept of -2 and a 𝑦-intercept of 3. Write down the
coordinates of the 𝑥- and 𝑦-intercepts of 𝑓 −1 .

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 23

 Chapter 3
Logarithms

Overview

Unit 1 Page 60
The definition of a logarithm • Changing exponents to
the logarithmic form
• Proofs of the logarithmic
laws

Unit 2 Page 64
Chapter 3 Page 58 Solve exponential equations • Using logarithms
Logarithms using logarithms

Unit 3 Page 66
The graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 where • Inverse of
𝑏 > 1 and 0 < 𝑏 < 1 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
• Inverse of the function
1 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = � �
2

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Bok.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of this study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in this study guide.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 24

 Chapter 3
Logarithms

Definition of logarithm

If log 𝒃 𝒙 = 𝒚, then 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒙.

EXAMPLES: Converting from one form to another

Logarithmic form Exponential form
log 𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟏 = 𝟓 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟐𝟒𝟏
log 𝟎,𝟓 𝟎, 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏 𝟎, 𝟓𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝟏𝟐𝟓
log 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟐 = √𝟏
log 𝟏 √𝟏 =
𝟐

LOGARITHMIC LAW EXAMPLES

• log 𝑘 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = log 𝑘 𝑎 + log 𝑘 𝑏 + log 𝑘 𝑐
Law 1: 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒎 𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒎 𝑨 + 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒎 𝑩
• log 5 25.5 = log 5 25 + log 5 5 = 2 + 1 = 3
𝑦
• log 𝑚 𝑧 = log 𝑚 𝑦 − log 𝑚 𝑧
𝑨
Law 2: 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒎 𝑩 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒎 𝑨 − 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒎 𝑩
0,2
• log 5 = log 5 0,2 − log 5 25
25
= log 5 5−1 − log 5 25
= −1 − 2 = −3
• log 𝑦 𝑎3 = 3 log 𝑦 𝑎
Law 3: 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒙 𝑷𝒚 = 𝒚 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒙 𝑷
• log 5 0,04 = log 5 5−2 = −2 log 5 5 = −2
log 𝑎
• log 𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑏
𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂
Law 4: 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒃 𝒂 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒃
log 5
• log 2 5 = log 2 = 2,32

Note that:
• log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 (𝑎 ≠ 0)
• log 𝑎 1 = 0
• log 𝑎 = log 𝟏𝟎 𝑎

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 25

 Chapter 3
Logarithms

USING LOGARITHMS TO SOLVE EQUATIONS

We know that equations involving exponents can

be solved using exponential laws:
𝟐𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕 (prime factorise)
∴𝒙=𝟕

But, what if we cannot use prime factors?

𝟐𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏
𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟐𝒙 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟏𝟏
𝒙𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟐 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟏𝟏
𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟏𝟏
𝒙= = 𝟑, 𝟕
𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟐

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 26

 Chapter 3
Logarithms

THE INVERSE OF THE

𝑓: 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥
EXPONENTIAL GRAPH
is the logarithmic function
𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 ; 𝑥 > 0

EXAMPLES
−1
𝑓(RED GRAPH) 𝑓 (BLUE GRAPH) DIAGRAM
y

1
𝒙
𝒚=𝟒 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟒 𝒙 x

𝟏𝒙 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟏 𝒙
𝒚= 1

𝟒 𝟒 x

𝒚 = −𝟒𝒙
−1
𝒚 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟒 (−𝒙)
x

−1

𝟏𝒙 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟏 (−𝒙)
𝒚=− 𝟒
−1 x

𝟒
−1

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 27

 Chapter 3
Logarithms

Mixed Exercise on Logarithms

1 Make use of the definition of the logarithm to solve for 𝑥:

a log 3 𝑥 = 2
b log 1 𝑥 = 2
3

c − log 4 𝑥 = 2
d log 5 𝑥 = −2
e log 𝑥 3 = 6
f log 3 81 = 𝑥
1
g log 3 = 𝑥
9

9
2 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 goes through the point �2; �.
4

a Determine the value of 𝑎.

b Determine the equation of 𝑓 −1.
c Determine the equation of 𝑔 if 𝑓 and 𝑔 are symmetrical in the 𝑦-axis.
d Determine the equation of ℎ, the reflection of 𝑓 −1 in 𝑥-axis.

3 The function 𝑓 is given by the graph 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥.

a Determine the equations of the following graphs:
i 𝑔, the reflection of 𝑓 in the 𝑥-axis
ii 𝑝, the reflection of 𝑓 in the 𝑦-axis
iii 𝑞, the reflection of 𝑔 in the 𝑦-axis
iv 𝑓 −1 , the inverse of 𝑓
v 𝑔−1 , the inverse of 𝑔
vi ℎ, the translation of 𝑓 two units left
b Sketch the graphs of 𝑓, 𝑓 −1, 𝑔 and 𝑔−1 on the same system of axes.
y

c Determine the domain and range of 𝑓 −1 and 𝑔−1 .

4 The graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 is shown in the diagram alongside.

a Determine the coordinates of point A. x

A
b How do we know that 𝑏 > 1.
3
c Determine 𝑏 if B is the point �8; �.
2
C
d Determine the equation of 𝑔, the inverse of this graph.
e Determine the value of 𝑎 if C is the point (𝑎; −2).
© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 28
 4
Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

Overview

Unit 1 Page 78
Future value annuities • Deriving the future value
formula

Unit 2 Page 82
Present value annuities • Deriving the present
value formula
Chapter 4 Page 76
Finance, growth
Unit 3 Page 86
and decay
Calculating the period • Finding the value of 𝑖

Unit 4 Page 88
Analysing investments and • Outstanding balances on a
loans loan
• Sinking fund
• Pyramid schemes

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of this study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 29

 4
Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

HIRE PURCHASE AGREEMENTS

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑖)

Example:

NB: Simple Kelvin buys computer equipment on hire purchase for R20 000.
Interest He has to put down 10% deposit and repays the amount monthly over 3 years.
The interest rate is 15% p.a.

Deposit = 10% of R20 000 = R2 000.

He has to repay 𝐴 = 18000(1 + 0,15 × 𝟏) = 𝑅26 100 in total.
36 monthly payments of R26 100÷ 36 =R725 each.

INFLATION / INCREASE IN PRICE OR VALUE

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
NB: Compound
Interest
𝑖= number of years

DEPRECIATION

Choose the correct formula!

Straight line method Reducing-balance method

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑖) 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖)𝑛

𝑖= number of years

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematics Grade 12 30

 4
Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

NOMINAL AND EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES

NB: 𝒎 = the number of times per year

interest is added
Daily: 𝑚 = 365
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝒎
�1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 � = �1 + � Monthly: 𝑚 = 12
𝒎
Quarterly: 𝑚=4
Half-yearly (semi-annually): 𝑚=2

EXAMPLE:
What is the effective rate if the nominal rate is 18% p.a. compounded quarterly?
In other words:
Which rate compounded annually will give me the same return as 18% compounded quarterly?

0,18 4
𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = �1 + � −1
4
=0,1925186...
Effective rate = 19,25%

FUTURE VALUE ANNUITIES

Choosing the
𝑥[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1] value of 𝒔 is very
𝐷= KEY WORDS:
𝑖 important!
• Regular investments
(monthly/quarterly etc.)
• Sinking funds
Example 1 • Annuity/pension
• Savings plan
First payment in one month’s time. Last payment in one year’s time.
Now

𝑖 = 12

First payment Last payment

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Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

Example 2

First payment immediately. Last payment in one year’s time.

Now

𝑖 = 13

First payment Last payment

Example 3

Assume investment pays out in one year’s time, but the first payment was made 2 months from now
and the last payment in one year’s time.

Now

𝑖 = 11

First payment Last payment

Example 4 (Watch out!)

First payment immediately, but last payment in 9 months’ time.

Now

𝑖 = 10

First payment Last payment

BUT, the investment still

𝒙[(𝟏+𝒔)𝟏𝟎 −𝟏] earns interest for another 3
𝑭= (𝟏 + 𝒔)𝟏
𝒔 months before paying out

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Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

FUTURE VALUE ANNUITIES

𝑥[1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
KEY WORDS:
NB: There must always
be ONE GAP between
• Regular payments
the P-value and the first
payment! (monthly/quarterly etc.)
• Loan (NOT HIREPURCHASE)
• Bond/home loan
• Repayment of debt
• How long will money be enough to
Example 1 provide regular income?

Payment starts one month after the granting of the loan. Last payment in one year’s time.
GAP

Now
𝑖 = 12

First payment Last payment

𝑥[1−(1+𝑖)−12 ]
Granting of loan 𝑃=
𝑖
Example 2

Payment starts in 3 months’ time. Last payment in one year’s time.

GAP
Now

𝑖 = 12 − 2 = 10

First payment Last payment

Granting of loan

𝑥�1−(1+𝑖)−10 �
NB: Loan amount accumulates interest for 2 months: 𝑃(𝟏 + 𝒔)𝟐 = 𝑖

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Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

OUTSTANDING BALANCE OF LOAN

Option 2
Option 1
Use A- and F-formula
Use P-formula
𝒔 = number of payments
𝒔 = number of payments left
already made

Example
A loan of is being repaid over 20 years in monthly payments of R6 000. The interest rate is 15% p.a.
compounded monthly. What is the outstanding balance after 12½ years?

Option 1

Outstanding period = 7½ years = 90 months

0,15 −𝟗𝟎
6000�1−�1+ � �
12
𝐴𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑐𝑐 = 0,15
12

Option 2

Payments already made = 12½X12=150 payments already paid

Outstanding balance = 𝐴 − 𝐷

0,15 𝟏𝟓𝟎
0,15 𝟏𝟓𝟎 6000��1+ � −1�
12
Balance = 𝑃 �1 + � − 0,15 where P is the initial loan amount.
12
12

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Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

Mixed Exercise on Finance, growth and decay

1 Determine through calculation which of the following investments is the best, if R15 000 is
invested for 5 years at:
a 10,6% p.a. simple interest
b 9,6% p.a., interest compounded quarterly.

2 An amount of money is now invested at 8,5% p.a compounded monthly to grow to R95 000 in
5 years.
a Is 8,5% called the effective or nominal interest rate?
b Calculate the amount that must be invested now.
c Calculate the interest earned on this investment.

3 Shirley wants to buy a flat screen TV. The TV that she wants currently costs R8 000.
a The TV will increase in cost according to the rate of inflation, which is 6% per annum.
How much will the TV cost in two years’ time?
b For two years Shirley puts R2 000 into her savings account at the beginning of every
six month period (starting immediately). Interest on her savings is paid at 7% per
annum, compounded six-monthly. Will she have enough to pay for the TV in two
years’ time? Show all your calculations.

4 Calculate:
a the effective interest rate to 2 dec. places if the nominal interest rate is 7,85% p.a.,
compounded monthly.
b the nominal interest rate if interest on an investment is compounded quarterly, using
an effective interest rate of 9,25% p.a.

5 Equipment with a value(new) of R350 000 depreciated to R179 200 after 3 years, based on the
reducing balance method. Determine the annual rate of depreciation.

6 R20 000 is deposited into a new savings account at 9,75% p.a., compounded quarterly.
After18 months, R10 000 more is deposited. After a further 3 months, the interest rate
changes to 9,95% p.a., compounded monthly. Determine the balance in the account 3 years
after the account was opened.

7 A company recently bought new equipment to the value of R900 000 which has to be replaced
in 5 years’ time. The value of the equipment depreciates at 15% per year according to the
reduced-balance method. After 5 years the equipment can be sold second hand at the
reduced value. The inflation rate on the equipment is 18% per year.

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Chapter
Finance, growth and decay

a The company wants to establish a sinking fund to replace the equipment in 5 years’
time. Calculate what the value of the sinking fund should be to replace the equipment.

b Calculate the quarterly amount that the company has to pay into the sinking fund to
be able to replace the equipment in 5 years’ time. The company makes the first
payment immediately and the last payment at the end of the 5 year period. The
interest rate for the sinking fund is 8% per year compounded quarterly.

8 Goods to the value of R1 500 is bought on hire purchase and repaid in 24 monthly payments
of R85. Calculate the annual interest rate that applied for the hire purchase agreement.

9 Peter makes a loan to buy a house. He pays back the loan over a period of 20 years in monthly
payments of R6 500. Peter qualifies for an interest rate of 12% per years compounded
monthly. He makes his first payment one month after the loan was granted.
a Calculate the amount Peter borrowed.
b Calculate the amount that Peter still owes on his house after he has been paying back
the loan for 8 years.

10 Megan’s father wants to make provision for her studies. He starts paying R1000 on a monthly
base into an investment on her 12th birthday. He makes the last payment on her 18th birthday.
She needs the money 5 months after her 18th birthday. The interest rate on the investment is
10% per annum compounded monthly. Calculate the amount Megan has available for her
studies.

11 Stephan starts investing R300 into an investment monthly, starting one month from now. He
earns interest of 9% per annum compounded monthly. For how long must he make these
monthly investments so that the total value of his investment is R48 000? Give your answer
as follows: …. years and …. Months

12 Carl purchases sound equipment to the value of R15 000 on hire purchase. The dealer expects
him to put down a 10% deposit. The interest rate is 12% per annum and he has to repay the
money monthly over 4 years. It is compulsory for him to insure the equipment through the
dealer at a premium of R30 per month. Calculate the total amount Carl has to pay the dealer
monthly.

13 Tony borrows money to the value of R400 000. He has to pay back the money in 16 quarterly
payments, but only has to make his first payment one year from now. The interest rate is 8%
per annum compounded quarterly. Calculate the quarterly payment Tony has to pay.

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Chapter
Compound angles

Overview

Unit 1 Page 108

Deriving a formula for • How to deriving a formula
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 − 𝛽) for 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 − 𝛽)

Unit 2 Page 112

Formulae for cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) and • Formula for cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)
sin(𝛼 ± 𝛽) • Formula for sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)
• Formula for sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)
Unit 3 Page 116
Double angles • Formula for sin2𝛼
• Formula for 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼
Chapter 5 Page 102
Compound angles Unit 4 Page 120
Identities • Proving identities
• Finding the value(s) for
which the identity is not
defined
Unit 5 Page 124
Equations • Equations with compound
and double angles
Unit 6 Page 128
Trigonometric graphs and • Drawing and working with
compound angles graphs of compound
angles

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of this study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in this study guide.

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Chapter
Compound angles

REVISION OF TRIGONOMETRY

BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Ratio Inverse
𝑜 ℎ
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝒉
ℎ 𝑜 𝒄
𝑎 ℎ
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝜽 Γ̅
ℎ 𝑎
𝑜 𝑎 𝒂
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝑎 𝑜

Ratio Inverse
𝑜 ℎ
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
ℎ 𝑜
𝑎 ℎ
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
ℎ 𝑎 𝒓
𝑜 𝑎 𝒚
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝑎 𝑜 𝜽 Γ̅
𝒙

YOU HAVE TO KNOW IN WHICH QUADRANT AN ANGLES LIES AND WHICH

RATIO (AND ITS INVERSE) IS POSITIVE THERE:

2nd quadrant 𝒚 1st quadrant

(𝟏𝟏𝟎° − 𝜽) 𝜽
(−𝟏𝟏𝟎° − 𝜽) (𝟏𝟔𝟎° + 𝜽)
𝑥
(𝟏𝟏𝟎° + 𝜽) (𝟏𝟔𝟎° − 𝜽)
(𝜽 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎°) (−𝜽)

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

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Chapter
Compound angles

REDUCTION FORMULAE

𝑠𝑖𝑖(180° − 𝑠) 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑠

𝑐𝑜𝑠(180° − 𝑠) −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑡𝑎𝑖(180° − 𝑠) −𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑠

𝑠𝑖𝑖(180° + 𝑠) −𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑖(360° − 𝑠) −𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑠

𝑐𝑜𝑠(180° + 𝑠) −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠(360° − 𝑠) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑡𝑎𝑖(180° + 𝑠) 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑖(360° − 𝑠) −𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑠

CO-RATIOS/CO-FUNCTIONS

Ratio Co-ratio
𝑠𝑠𝑠(90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (90° − 𝑠)
Is in 1st quadrant
𝑐𝑐𝑐(90° − 𝜃) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑡𝑡𝑡(90° − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Ratio Co-ratio
𝑠𝑠𝑠(90° + 𝜃) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (90° + 𝑠)
Is in 2nd quadrant
𝑐𝑐𝑐(90° + 𝜃) −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑡𝑡𝑡(90° + 𝜃) −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

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Chapter
Compound angles

KNOW YOUR SPECIAL TRIANGLES!

√𝟐 𝟏

𝟒𝟓° Γ̅

𝟏𝟎°
𝟐
√𝟏

𝟔𝟎° Γ̅
𝟏

IDENTITIES
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = and 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = =
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

SQUARE IDENTITIES:
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏
From this follows that:
∴ 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽
∴ 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜽

Note that the two identities above can both be

FACTORISED as differences of two squares:
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽 = (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔)
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜽 = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)(𝟏 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)

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Chapter
Compound angles

COMPOUND ANGLE-IDENTITIES

𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝜶 − 𝜷) = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝜶 + 𝜷) = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝜶 + 𝜷) = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝜶 − 𝜷) = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

DOUBLE ANGLE-IDENTITIES
𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝜶

𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝟐𝟐 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜶 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜶

= 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜶
= 𝟐𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜶 − 𝟏

𝟐 𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝜶
𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝟐𝟐 =
𝟏 − 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝟐 𝜶

TIPS FOR PROVING IDENTITIES

• Work with LHS and RHS separately

• Write DOUBLE angles as SINGLE angles
• Watch out for SQUARE IDENTITIES
• Write everything in terms of 𝒔𝒔𝒔 and 𝒄𝒄𝒄
• When working with fractions, put EVERYTHING over the LCD
• Be on the look out for opportunities to FACTORISE, e.g.
 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏)
 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜶 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜶 = (𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔)(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔)
 𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜶 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝟏 = (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏)(𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝟏)
• It is sometimes necessary to replace 𝟏 with 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜶
E.g. 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝜶 + 𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐 𝜶
= (𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)𝟐

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Chapter
Compound angles

FINDING THE GENERAL SOLUTION

OF A TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION
STEP EXAMPLES OF HOW TO APPLY STEP
Get trig ratio (sin/cos/tan) A 2 sin 3𝑥 = 0,4
alone on LHS 𝑠𝑖𝑖3𝑥 = 0,2
1
B 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −0,2
One value alone on RHS 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −0,6
C 2 tan(𝑥 − 10°) + 3 = 0
3
tan(𝑥 − 10°) = − 2
Now use RHS consisting of a: A 𝑠𝑖𝑖3𝑥 = +0,2
The + indicates the 1st and 2nd quadrant,
SIGN (+ or -) and a VALUE where sin is positive.
Reference ∠= 𝑠𝑖𝑖−1 (0,2) = 11,54°
B 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −0,6
Indicates Get reference The – indicates the 2nd and 3rd quadrant,
Quadrant angle using: where cos is negative.
𝒔𝒔𝒔−𝟏 (+𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆) Reference ∠= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0,6) = 53,13°
𝒄𝒄𝒔−𝟏 (+𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆) 3
C tan(𝑥 − 10°) = −
Or 𝒕𝒂𝒔−𝟏 (+𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆) 2
The − indicates the 2nd and 4th quadrant,
where tan is negative.
3
Reference ∠= 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 �2� = 56,31°
A 2 sin 3𝑥 = 0,4
The angle in the trig equations will be equated to 𝑠𝑖𝑖3𝑥 = 0,2
the following in the respective quadrants: 1st : 3𝑥 = 11,54° + 𝑘360° ; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
𝑥 = 3,85° + 𝑘120° OR
1st = Ref ∠ 2nd : 3𝑥 = 180° − 11,54° + 𝑘360°
+𝑘360°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 for sin/cos
2nd = 𝟏𝟏𝟎° −Ref ∠ 𝑥 = 56,15° + 𝑘120°
or
3rd = 𝟏𝟏𝟎° +Ref ∠
4th = 𝟏𝟔𝟎° −Ref ∠ +𝑘180°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 for tan B 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −0,2
3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −0,6
Then solve for 𝒙 2nd : 𝑥 = 180° − 53,13° + 𝑘360°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
𝑥 = 126,87° + 𝑘360° OR
3rd : 𝑥 = 180° + 53,13° + 𝑘360°
𝑥 = 233,13° + 𝑘360°

C 2 tan(𝑥 − 10°) + 3 = 0
3
tan(𝑥 − 10°) = −
2
2nd : 𝑥 − 10° = 180° − 56,31° + 𝑘180°;
𝑘∈𝑍
𝑥 = 133,69° + 𝑘180°

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Chapter
Compound angles

EQUATIONS INVOLVING
TWO TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLES COMMENTS
1 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒙
÷ by 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 on both sides
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒙 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒙
=
𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒙 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒙

𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒙 = 𝟏
𝒙 = 𝟒𝟓° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟏𝟎° ; 𝒌𝝐𝒁

2 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒙 = 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝟏𝒙 May NOT divide by 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 both sides

𝒄𝒄𝒔(𝟗𝟎° − 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝟏𝒙 Trig function on both sides should be the
same
𝟗𝟎° − 𝒙 = 𝟏𝒙 + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° ; 𝒌𝝐𝒁
−𝟒𝒙 = −𝟗𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° Angles on LHS and RHS should either be the
𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟓° − 𝒌. 𝟗𝟎° same or
or
𝟗𝟎° − 𝒙 = −𝟏𝒙 + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° ; 𝒌𝝐𝒁
𝟐𝒙 = −𝟗𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° be in two different quadrants where 𝑐𝑜𝑠 have
𝒙 = −𝟒𝟓° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟏𝟎° the same sign (1st and 4th quadrant)

3 𝐬𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟐𝟎°) = 𝐜𝐥𝐬(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎°) Alternative: sin on both sides

𝒄𝒄𝒔[𝟗𝟎° − (𝒙 + 𝟐𝟎°)] = 𝒄𝒄𝒔(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎°)
𝑠𝑖𝑖(𝑥 + 20°) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 − 30°)
𝒄𝒄𝒔(𝟕𝟎° − 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒄𝒔(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎°) 𝑠𝑖𝑖(𝑥 + 20°) = sin[90° − (2𝑥 − 30°)]
𝟕𝟎° − 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° 𝑠𝑖𝑖(𝑥 + 20°) = 𝑠𝑖𝑖(120° − 2𝑥)
−𝟏𝒙 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎°
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟏° − 𝒌. 𝟏𝟐𝟎° ; 𝒌 ∈ 𝒁 𝑥 + 20° = 120° − 2𝑥 + 𝑘. 360°
or 3𝑥 = 100° + 𝑘. 360°
𝟕𝟎° − 𝒙 = −(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎°) + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° 𝑥 = 33,33° − 𝑘. 120° ; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
𝒙 = −𝟒𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° or
𝑥 + 20° = 180° − (120° − 2𝑥) + 𝑘. 360°
−𝑥 = 40° + 𝑘. 360°
𝑥 = −40° − 𝑘. 360°

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 5
Chapter
Compound angles

EXAMPLES OF EQUATIONS INVOLVING

DOUBLE ANGLES

𝒄𝒄𝒔𝜽. 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝟏𝟒° + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽. 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟏𝟒° = 𝟎, 𝟕𝟏𝟓

𝒄𝒄𝒔(𝜽 − 𝟏𝟒°) = 𝟎, 𝟕𝟏𝟓
Ref ∠= 𝟒𝟒, 𝟏𝟔°
1st quadrant:
𝜽 − 𝟏𝟒° = 𝟒𝟒, 𝟏𝟔° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎°
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟏, 𝟏𝟔° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° ; 𝒌 ∈ 𝒁
4th quadrant:
𝜽 − 𝟏𝟒° = −𝟒𝟒, 𝟏𝟔° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎°
𝜽 = −𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟔° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° ; 𝒌 ∈ 𝒁

𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝜽 + 𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽𝒄𝒄𝒔𝜽 + 𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽(𝒄𝒄𝒔𝜽 + 𝟏) = 𝟎
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎 or 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝜽 = −𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒌. 𝟏𝟏𝟎° ; 𝒌 ∈ 𝒁 or 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎°

𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 = 𝟏
𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
∴ (𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 + 𝟏)(𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 − 𝟏) = 𝟎
𝟐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 + 𝟏 = 𝟎 or 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟏
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 = − or 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽 = −𝟏
𝟐
No solution 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎° + 𝒌. 𝟏𝟔𝟎° ; 𝒌 ∈ 𝒁

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 44
 5
Chapter
Compound angles

PROBLEMS WITH COMPOUND-ANGLES TO

BE DONE WITHOUT A CALCULATOR

• Write given information in form where trig function is ALONE on LHS

• Select QUADRANT and draw TRIANGLE in correct quadrant
(2 sides of triangle will be known)
• Use the Theorem of PYTHAGORAS to determine 3rd side
• Now work with the expression of which you need to find the value:
write all compound or double angles in terms of SINGLE ANGLES
• Now SUBSTITUTE VALUES from diagram(s) and SIMPLIFY

Example:
𝟓
If 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎 and 𝜶 ∈ [𝟗𝟗°; 𝟐𝟐𝟐°] and 𝜷 = 𝟏𝟏 ; 𝜷 > 90°, determine

without the use of a calculator the value of:

a 𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝜶 − 𝜷) b 𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝜶 + 𝜷)
c 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 d 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
Solution:
𝟏𝟏 𝟓
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = − 𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔𝒔 negative in 3rd and 4th quad 𝒄𝒄𝒄 positive in 1st and 4th quad
But 𝜶 ∈ [𝟗𝟗°;𝛼 𝟐𝟐𝟐°], so 3rd quad But 𝜷 >
𝛽 90°,5so 4 quadrant
th

−12
13 13
𝒙 = −𝟓 𝒚 = −𝟏𝟏

−𝟏𝟏 𝟓 −𝟓 −𝟏𝟏 −120

a 𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝜶 − 𝜷) = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = � 𝟏𝟑 � �𝟏𝟏� − � 𝟏𝟏 � � 𝟏𝟏 � = 169

−𝟓 𝟓 −𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟏
b 𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝜶 + 𝜷) = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = � 𝟏𝟏 � �𝟏𝟏� − � 𝟏𝟏 � � 𝟏𝟏 � = −1

−𝟏𝟏 −𝟓 120
c 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟐 � 𝟏𝟏 � � 𝟏𝟏 � = 169

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 45
 5
Chapter
Compound angles

Mixed Exercise on Compound angles

1 Solve the following equations for . Give the general solution unless otherwise stated.
Answers should be given correct to 2 decimal places where exact answers are not possible.

a 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1 = 0

b 𝑠𝑖𝑖 x = 3 cos x for 𝑥 ∈ [90°; 360°]

c 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = cos 3𝑥

d 6 − 10𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥 ; 𝑥 ∈ [−360°; 360°]

e 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 0

f 3𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥 − 8𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 16𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 0

2 Prove the following identities, stating any values of 𝑥 or 𝑠 for which the identity is not valid:

1
a cos x + tan x sin x =
cos x

sin θ cosθ 1
b − =
1 − cosθ sin θ sin θ

1 − cos 2 x
c = tan x sin x
cos x

sin 3 x + sin x cos 2 x

d = tan x
cos x

1 + tan x 1 + 2 sin x cos x

e =
1 − tan x cos 2 x − sin 2 x

1
f sin(45° + 𝑥) . sin(45° − 𝑥) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥

sin 2𝜃−cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃

g =
sin 𝜃−cos 2𝜃 1+sin 𝜃

cos 𝑥−cos 2𝑥+2 1+cos 𝑥

h =
3 sin 𝑥−sin 2𝑥 sin 𝑥

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 5
Chapter
Compound angles

3 Simplify:

a
( )
sin 180 0 − x tan (− x )
( ) (
tan 180 0 + x cos x − 90 0 )

b
( ) (
sin 180 0 + x tan x − 360 0 ) (without using a calculator)
( )
tan 360 0 − x cos 240 0 tan 225 0

4 Given that 𝑠𝑖𝑖17° = 𝑘, express in terms of 𝑘:

a cos 73°

b 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−163°)

c 𝑡𝑎𝑖197°

d 𝑐𝑜𝑠326°

5 Given that 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 4 = 0 , calculate, without the use of a calculator, the value(s) of :

a 5𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 3𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥

b tan 2𝑥
3
6 If 3𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = −1 ; 𝑥 ∈ [90°; 270°] and 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑦 = ; 𝑦 ∈ [90°; 360°]. Determine without the use of a
4
calculator the value of:

a cos(𝑥 − 𝑦)

b 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑦

7 Simplify without the use of calculator:

a 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 22,5° − 𝑠𝑖𝑖2 22,5°

b 𝑠𝑖𝑖22,5° 𝑐𝑜𝑠22,5°

c 2𝑠𝑖𝑖15°𝑐𝑜𝑠15°

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 47
 6
Chapter
Solving problems in three dimensions

Overview

Unit 1 Page 146

Problems in three dimensions • Trigonometry in real life
Chapter 6 Page 142
Solving problems in Unit 2 Page 150
three dimensions Compound angle formulae in • Using compound angle
three dimensions formulae in three
dimensions

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of this study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 48
 Chapter 6
Solving problems in three dimensions

REVISION ON THE USE OF THE 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒔 −, 𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒔 − and the

𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 −FORMULAE
INFORMATION GIVEN UNKNOWN FORMULA TO USE FORM OF FORMULA

𝒂 𝑏
2 angles and 1 side s 𝑠𝑖𝑖-rule = sin 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
(∠∠s) 𝒂 is unknown

𝑠𝑖𝑖-rule
2 sides and Watch out for 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑨 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝐴
∠ =
𝑎 𝑏
a not- included ∠ ambiguous case!
(ss∠) ∠ can be acute or
𝑨 is unknown
obtuse

2 sides and
an included ∠ s 𝑐𝑜𝑠-rule 𝒂2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
(s∠s) 𝒂 is unknown

3 sides 𝑐𝑜𝑠-rule 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
∠ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 =
(sss) 2𝑏𝑐
𝑨 is unknown

1
2 sides and Area Area-rule Area of ∆= 2 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑖𝐶
an included ∠ Area is unknown

Area, side and ∠ s Area-rule 2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎

𝒃=
𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑖𝐶
𝒃 is unknown

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 6
Chapter
Solving problems in three dimensions

TIPS FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

• Where there are 3 triangles, start with the ∆ with the most information and
work via the 2nd ∆ to the 3rd ∆ which contains the unknown to be calculated.
• Indicate all RIGHT angles – remember they don’t always look like 𝟗𝟗° angles
• Shade the horizontal plane in the diagram (e.g. floor, ground)
• Be on the lookout for reductions like 𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝟗𝟗° − 𝜶) = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 and
𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝟏𝟏𝟏° − 𝜶) = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 to simplify expressions
• Use compound and double angle formulae to convert to single angles
• When writing out the solution – always indicate in which ∆ you are working

EXAMPLE

P, Q and R are in the same horizontal plane. TP is a vertical tower

5,9 m high. The angle of elevation of T from Q is 65°. 𝑃𝑄� 𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅� 𝑄.

a Calculate the length of PQ to the nearest meter.

b Hence show that 𝑅𝑄 = 5,5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.
c If it is further given that 𝑥 = 42°, calculate the area of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅.

Solution:
5,9
a = 𝑡𝑎𝑖65°
𝑃𝑄
5,9
∴ 𝑃𝑄 = = 2,75 𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑛65°
b 𝑄𝑃�𝑅 = 180° − 2𝑥
𝑅𝑄 𝑃𝑄
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑅
𝑅𝑄 2,75
=
sin(180°−2𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑅𝑄 2,75
=
sin 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑅𝑄 2,75
=
2sin 𝑥𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑄 = 2 × 2,75𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑅𝑄 = 5,5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1
c Area of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 = × 𝑃𝑄 × 𝑄𝑅 × 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑄
2
1
= × 2,75 × (5,5𝑐𝑜𝑠42°) × 𝑠𝑖𝑖42°
2
= 3,76 square units

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 50
 6
Chapter
Solving problems in three dimensions

Mixed Exercise on Problems in Three Dimensions

1 In the diagram alongside B, D and E are in the

same horizontal plane. 𝐴𝐷� 𝐷 = 120°
AB and CD are two vertical towers.
AB = 2CD = 2ℎ meter
The angle of elevation from E to A is 𝛼.
The angle of elevation from E to C is (90° − 𝛼).

a Determine the length BE in terms of ℎ and 𝛼.

b Show that the distance between the two towers can be given as:

ℎ√𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝛼+2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼+4

𝐴𝐷 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼

c Hence determine the height of the tower CD, rounded to the nearest meter, if 𝛼 = 42° and
BD=400 m.

2 B, C and D are three points in the same horizontal plane and

AB is a vertical pole of length 𝑝 metres. The angle of elevation of
A from C is 𝑠 and 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐷 = 𝑠. Also, 𝐶𝐴�𝐷 = 30° and 𝐴𝐷 = 8 𝑚.

a � 𝐴 in terms of 𝑠.
Express 𝐶𝐷

8sin(30°+𝜃)
b Hence show that 𝑝 = .
𝑎𝑜𝑠𝜃

3 In the diagram alongside, AB is a vertical flagpole 5 metres high.

AC an AD are two stays. B, C and D are in the same horizontal plane.
𝐴𝐷 = 12 𝑚, 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐷 = 𝛼 and 𝐴𝐷 � 𝐶 = 𝛽.

13sin(𝛼+𝛽)
Show that 𝐶𝐷 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

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 6
Chapter
Solving problems in three dimensions

4 � 𝐶=𝑠.
In ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 AD = ; DB = 𝑖 ; CD = 𝑝 and 𝐴𝐷
a Complete in terms of 𝑚 , 𝑝 and 𝑠: Area ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 = ⋯
1
b Show that the area of ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 = 2 𝑝(𝑚 + 𝑖) sin 𝑠 .

c If the area of ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 = 12,6 𝑐𝑚2 ; 𝐴𝐴 = 5,9 𝑐𝑚

and 𝐷𝐶 = 8,1 𝑐𝑚, calculate the value(s) of 𝑠.

5 � = 90° , 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐷 = 𝑠
In the diagram, 𝐷

𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐴 = 𝛼 ; AB = BC and 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑝 units.

a Express BC in terms of 𝑝 and 𝑠.

b Determine, without stating reasons,

the size of 𝐴�1 in terms of 𝛼.

𝑝.sin 2𝛼
c Hence , prove that AC = sin 𝜃.sin 𝛼

6 In the diagram PQ is a vertical building.

Q, R and S are points in the same horizontal plane.

The angle of elevation of P, the top of the building,

measured from R, is 𝛼.
𝑅𝑄�𝑆 = 30°
𝑄𝑆𝑅 = 150° − 𝛼
𝑄𝑆 = 12 𝑚
6(𝑎𝑜𝑠𝛼+√3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
a Show that 𝑄𝑅 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

b Hence show that the height PQ of the building is given by

𝑃𝑄 = 6 + 6√3𝑡𝑎𝑖𝛼

c Hence calculate the value of 𝛼 if PQ = 23 m.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 52
 7
Chapter
Polynomials

Overview

Unit 1 Page 158

The Remainder Theorem • The Remainder theorem
Chapter 7 Page 156
Polynomials
Unit 2 Page 160
The Factor Theorem • The Factor Theorem

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 53
 7
Chapter
Polynomials

THE REMAINDER THEOREM

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏). 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)

divisor quotient remainder

The remainder theorem can be used to calculate the remainder

when a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥)is divided by (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝑏
∴ 𝑓 �− � = 𝑟(𝑥)
𝑎

Choosing the correct value to substitute is very important:

If you divide 𝒇 by 𝒈(𝒙) = Value to substitute into 𝒇(𝒙)

(𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝑓(2) =?
1
(𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏) 𝑓 � � =?
2
(𝒙 + 𝟑) 𝑓(−3) =?
2
(𝟑𝟑 + 𝟐) 𝑓 �− � =?
3

THE FACTOR THEOREM

𝑏
If 𝑓 �− 𝑎� = 0 then:

• (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏) is a FACTOR of 𝑓(𝑥) and

• 𝑓(𝑥) is DIVISIBLE by (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏)

When trying out 𝑥 −values that give 0, try them in the

following order: 1; −1; 2; −2; 3; −3 etc.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 54
 Chapter7
Polynomials

DIFFERENT METHODS TO FACTORISE A CUBIC POLYNOMIAL (3RD DEGREE)

METHOD AND DESCRIPTION OF STEPS EXAMPLES
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF CUBES 3
A) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 27
= (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 9)
Cannot factorise further
B)𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 3 − 1
= (2𝑥 − 1)(4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
Cannot factorise further
FACTORISE BY GROUPING 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝒙 + 𝟏𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐
𝟏

= 𝑥 2 (𝒙 + 𝟏) − 4(𝒙 + 𝟏)
• Group terms in two pairs
= (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒)
• Take out common factor from each pair = (𝑥 + 3)(𝒙 + 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟐)
• Two sets of brackets now become common factor
• Factorise bracket further if possible
FACTORISE BY INSPECTION 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 10𝑥 − 6
𝑓(−1) = 2(−1)3 − 2(−1)2 − 10(−1)
• Find one linear factor using factor theorem −6=0
• Find other factor (quadratic expression) by ∴ (𝑥 + 1) is a factor
inspection 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝒂𝑥 2 + 𝒃𝑥 + 𝒄)

Now find these coefficients

Start with 𝒂 and 𝒄:
1×𝑎 = 2 ∴𝑎 =2
1 × 𝑐 = −6 ∴ 𝑐 = 6
You now need to find 𝒃:
Multiply the two brackets; the two
𝑥 2 -terms need to give you −𝟐𝒙𝟐 :
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝟐𝑥 2 + 𝒃𝑥 + 𝟔)

𝑏𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 = −𝟐𝒙𝟐 ∴ 𝑏 = −4
2
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6)
= (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)

SYNTHETIC OR LONG DIVISION 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 10𝑥 − 6

𝑓(−1) = 2(−1)3 − 2(−1)2 − 10(−1)
• Find one linear factor using factor theorem −6=0
• Find other factor (quadratic expression) by long ∴ (𝑥 + 1) is a factor
division or synthetic division 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝒂𝑥 2 + 𝒃𝑥 + 𝒄)
(SEE NEXT PAGE) Find 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 using synthetic
division

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 55
 7
Chapter
Polynomials

SYNTHETIC DIVISION

𝑓(−1) = 0 , so (𝑥 + 1)is a factor

𝑓(−1) = 0 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 6

−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
−𝟐 𝟒 𝟔
𝟐 −𝟒 −𝟔 𝟎

This method is called SYNTHETIC division, because we don’t really divide.

We actually multiply and add.

Note the following:

• The 𝑥-value of −1 that gave us the factor (𝑥 + 1) is written on the LHS

• The coefficients of the cubic polynomial are written in the top row
• The first coefficient, 2, is carried down to the last row
• Now starting from the left:
MULTIPLY along the dotted arrow repeat
and write the ANSWER in the block one row up and one column right steps
• Now ADD DOWN in the column (the two values underneath each other)
• You MUST get 0 in the last block
• The 3 values in the bottom row are the coefficients of the quadratic factor.

So, 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6)

You can now complete the factorising:

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 56
 Chapter7
Polynomials

Mixed Exercise on Polynomials

1 Factorise the following expressions completely:

a 27𝑥 3 − 8 b 5𝑥 3 + 40

c 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 6 d 4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 4

e 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 5 f 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1

g 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 + 40 h 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

i 3𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 4 j 𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 + 30

k 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2

2 Solve for 𝑥:

a 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 0

b 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6 = 0

c 2𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6 = 0

d 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 = 0

e 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 − 2 = 0

f 𝑥 3 = 16 + 12𝑥

g 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 = 20𝑥 + 60

3 Show that 𝑥 − 3 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 and hence solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

4 Show that 2𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 and hence solve 𝑔(𝑥) = 0.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 57
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

Overview

Unit 1 Page 170

Limits • Investigating limits

Unit 2 Page 172

The gradient of a graph at a • Function notation and the
point average gradient
• The gradient of a graph at a
point

Unit 3 Page 176

The derivative of a function • First principles
• Rules for differentiation
• The derivative at a point
Chapter 8 Page 166
Differential Unit 4 Page 182
calculus The equation of a tangent • Calculating the equation of a
to a graph tangent to a graph

Unit 5 Page 184

The graph of the cubic • Plotting a cubic function
function

Unit 6 Page 188

The second derivative • Change in concavity
(concavity)

Unit 7 Page 192

Application of differential • Modelling real-life problems
calculus

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 58
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

THE CONCEPT OF A LIMIT

Notation: 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝒙→𝟒 𝒇(𝒙)

We say: “The limit of 𝒇 as 𝒙 approaches 𝟒”

What does it mean?

The limit is the 𝒚-value (remember 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)) which the function

approaches as the 𝒙-value approaches (gets closer to) a certain value
from the left or the right .

Examples: a Let 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒

𝐥𝐥𝐥𝒙→𝟏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝒙→𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒

= 𝟐(𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟒 = 𝟔

Before calculating the limit, it is sometimes necessary to FACTORISE and

SIMPLIFY first:
An examples of this is:
𝑥 2 −9
lim𝑥→3 Substituting 𝑥 = 3 now will cause division by 0
𝑥−3
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
= lim𝑥→3 First factorise the numerator and cancel out
𝑥−3
= lim (𝑥 + 3)
𝑥→3

= (3 + 3) Note that “lim” falls away in the step where you

=6 substitute

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 59
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

AVERAGE GRADIENT BETWEEN 2 POINTS

From previous grades you know you can calculate the gradient between two
𝑦 −𝑦
points (𝑥1 ; 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 ; 𝑦2 ) using the formula: 𝑚 = 𝑥2−𝑥1
2 1

In the diagram below the points A(𝑥; 𝑓(𝑥)) and B(𝑥 + ℎ; 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)) are indicated.

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
The AVERAGE GRADIENT between A and B is given by: 𝑚𝐴𝐴 =
ℎ

THE GRADIENT OF A GRAPH AT A POINT

By letting ℎ approach 0, the distance between point A and B will become smaller
and smaller. A and B will almost “become one point”.

The average gradient then becomes the

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
GRADIENT OF THE GRAPH AT A POINT = limℎ→0
ℎ

NOTATION: This is denoted by 𝒇′ (𝒙)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 60
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
The formula 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = limℎ→0 can be used to find any of the
ℎ

following from FIRST PRINCIPLES: Look out for the words:

FIRST PRINCIPLES
• The derivative of 𝑓 at any point
• The gradient of the tangent to graph 𝑓 at any point
• The gradient of the function 𝑓 at any point
• The rate of change of 𝑓 at any point

𝒇′ (𝒙) can also be determined using DIFFERENTIATION RULES

Function 𝒇 Derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) Examples
• 𝑓(𝑥) = −5
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 • 𝑦=4
where 𝒌 is a constant 𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
• 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 6 ] = 6𝑥 5
1
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒔 ; 𝒙𝝐𝑹 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑖𝑥 𝑛−1 • 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 = 𝑥 −3
𝑥
′ (𝑥) −3
𝑓 = −3𝑥 −4 =
𝑥4
4
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 × 4𝑥 4−1
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌𝒙𝒎 ; 𝒎 ∈ 𝑹 = 8𝑥 3
where 𝒌 is a constant 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘 × 𝑚𝑥 𝑚−1 1 5
1 5 5
−1
• 𝐷𝑥 � 𝑥 � = × 𝑥
2 2
2 2 2
5 3
= 𝑥2
4
When functions are added/subtracted, apply 2
• 𝐷𝑥 [5𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6]
the rule to each function separately: = 5 × 2𝑥 − 4 + 0
= 10𝑥 − 4
𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙)] ± 𝑫𝒙 [𝒈(𝒙)]

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 61
 8
Chapter
Differential calculus

BEFORE YOU APPLY THE DIFFERENTIATION RULES,

MAKE SURE THERE ARE:

• No brackets :
a 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 1
• No 𝑥 under a fraction line:
3𝑥 2 −2 3𝑥 2 2
b 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
= − 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 −1
𝑥
2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 − 2(−1)𝑥 −2 = 3 + 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+2)
c 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
= =𝑥−3
𝑥+2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
• No 𝑥 under a root sign:
1
d 𝑓(𝑥) = 3√𝑥 − 4𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
1 1
1 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 × 𝑥 2−1 − 4 = 𝑥 −2 − 4

NB: NOTE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FOLLOWING:

𝑓(4) is the 𝒚-VALUE of the function at 𝑥 = 4

𝑓 ′ (4) is the GRADIENT of the function at 𝑥 = 4

As well as the gradient of the TANGENT at 𝑥 = 4

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 62
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

THE CUBIC GRAPH 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟏 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅

𝒂 indicates THE SHAPE

STATIONARY POINTS
𝒂 > 0 (+)

TURNING POINTS POINTS OF

or
INFLECTION
𝑎
𝒂 < 0(−) Where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 Where 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0
Local maximum
or

Local minimum

How do I determine whether it is:

A LOCAL MAXIMUM or A LOCAL MINIMUM?

𝑓 ′′ ( ) 0 𝑓 ′′ ( ) 0

What does 𝒇′ and 𝒇′′ tell me?

Negative (< 0) =0 Positive (> 0)
𝒇′ 𝑓 decreases 𝑓 turns 𝑓 increases
𝒇′′ Local maximum Point of inflection Local minimum
Concave down Concave up

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 63
 Chapter8
Differential calculus

𝒙 −INTERCEPTS/ROOTS AND SHAPE

• For 𝑥 −intercepts: solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 0

• A cubic graph can have either one(only) or two or three 𝑥 −intercepts

EXAMPLES:

a 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30

𝑓(3) = (3)3 + 4(3) − 11(3) − 30 = 0

-5 -2 3
∴ (𝑥 − 3) is a factor

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10)

= (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 5)

The roots are −5; −2 and 3.

b 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2

𝑓(1) = (1)3 − 3(1) + 2 = 0

∴ (𝑥 − 1) is a factor

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) = (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 2)

If TWO FACTORS are the SAME, then the 𝑥 −INTERCEPT is also a TURNING POINT.

The graph BOUNCES at 𝑥 = 1

-2 1

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 64
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

EQUATION OF TANGENT TO GRAPH AT A SPECIFIC POINT

• Substitute 𝑥 −value into 𝒇(𝒙) to find coordinates of POINT of TANGENCY

• Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) using differentiation rules
• Substitute 𝑥 −value into 𝒇′ (𝒙) to find GRADIENT of TANGENT, 𝒎
• Substitute gradient into 𝑦 = 𝒎𝑥 + 𝑐
• Substitute point of tangency in 𝑦 = 𝒎𝑥 + 𝑐 to find the value of 𝑐.

EXAMPLE

Determine equation of tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 at 𝑥 = 1

Substitute 𝑥 = 1: 𝑓(1) = 2(1)3 − 5(1)2 − 4(1) + 3 = −4

∴ Point of tangency is (1; −4)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 4
𝑓 ′ (1) = 6(1)2 − 10(1) − 4 = −8
∴ Gradient of tangent at 𝑥 = 1 is −8 ; so 𝑦 = −8𝑥 + 𝑐

Substitute (1; −4) into 𝑦 = −8𝑥 + 𝑐: −4 = −8(1) + 𝑐

∴𝑐=4

Equation of tangent is 𝑦 = −8𝑥 + 4

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 65
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

SKETCHING THE CUBIC GRAPH

EXAMPLE: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐
DESCRIPTION OF STEP STEP APPLIED TO THIS EXAMPLE
Determine shape (using 𝒂) 𝑎 = 1 (positive)

Determine 𝒚 −intercept 𝑦 = (0)3 − (0)2 − 8(0) + 12 = 12

Make 𝒙 = 𝟎
Determine 𝒙 −intercepts 𝑓(2) = 0
Solve 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 ∴ (𝑥 − 2) is a factor
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6)
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
Roots are −3 and 2.
𝑥 = 2 is also a turning point where graph bounces

Determine turning points and their 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0

(3𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝒚 −values 4
𝑥 = − 3 or 𝑥 = 2
Solve 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟎
Substitute 𝒙 −values into 𝒇(𝒙) We already know from the previous step that (2; 0)
is one turning point (local minimum).

Let us now find the other TP’s 𝑦 −coordinates

−4 3 −4 2 −4
𝑓(𝑥) = � � − � � − 8 � � + 12 = 18,52
3 3 3
Local maximum at (−1,33 ; 18,52)

Make a neat drawing y

f

(−1,33 ; 18,52)

12

x
−3 2

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 66
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

FINDING THE EQUATION OF A CUBIC GRAPH IN THE FORM

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟏 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅
INFORMATION GIVEN (CAN BE SHOW ON A STEPS
GRAPH OR NOT)
From the 𝑦 −intercept we already know that
𝑑 = −8.

But we are going to use the three roots:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)
Substitute the point (0; −8):
𝒚 −intercept: 𝒚 = −𝟏 −8 = 𝑎(0 + 2)(0 + 1)(0 − 4)
and 𝒙 −intercepts: 𝒙 = −𝟐; −𝟏 and 𝟒 −8 = −8𝑎
𝑎=1

∴ 𝑦 = 1(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)

Removing the brackets gives:
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 8

We were given two roots (of which one is also

a turning point) and the other turning point.

y
NB: The graph BOUNCES at 𝑥 = 1. This factor
will therefore have to be squared.
1 x
4

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 4)

Substitute the other turning point (3; −4):

( 3;−4)
−4 = 𝑎(3 − 1)2 (3 − 4)
−4 = −4𝑎
𝑎=1

∴ 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 4)
Removing the brackets gives:
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 4

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 67
 8
Chapter
Differential calculus

SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

RATES OF CHANGE

• Distance/Displacement 𝑠(𝑡)
• Speed/Velocity 𝑠 ′ (𝑡)
• Acceleration 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡)

EXAMPLE

The displacement of a moving object is described by the equation

𝑠(𝑡) = 10𝑡 − 𝑡 2 where 𝑠, represents displacement in metres and 𝑡, time in
seconds.
a Determine the displacement after 2 seconds.
b What time will it take for the object to reach a maximum displacement?
c Determine the velocity of the object after 3 seconds.
d Determine the acceleration of the object. Is it going faster or slower?

SOLUTIONS
a 𝑠(2) = 10(2) − (2)2 = 16 𝑚
b 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = 10 − 2𝑡 = 0
∴ 10 − 2𝑡 = 0
∴𝑡 =5𝑠
c 𝑠 ′ (3) = 10 − 2(3) = 4 𝑚. 𝑠 −1
d 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡) = −2 𝑚. 𝑠 −2
The object is going slower because the acceleration is negative.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 68
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

USING FIRST DERIVATIVE TO DETERMINE

MINIMUM OR MAXIMUM

• For area, 𝐴(𝑥), to be a min/max, solve 𝐴′ (𝑥) = 0

• For volume, 𝑉(𝑥), to be a min/max, solve 𝑉 ′ 4(𝑥) = 0
• For cost, 𝐶(𝑥), to be a minimum, solve 𝐶 ′ (𝑥) = 0
• For profit, 𝑃(𝑥), to be a maximum, solve 𝑃′(𝑥) = 0

EXAMPLE

The volume of water in a water reservoir is given by: 𝑉(𝑡) = 60 + 8𝑡 − 3𝑡 2

where 𝑉(𝑡) is the volume in thousands of litres and 𝑡 is the number of days
water is pumped into the reservoir.
a Determine the rate of change of the volume after 3 days.
b When will the volume of water in the reservoir be a maximum?
c What will the maximum level of water in the reservoir be?

SOLUTIONS

a 𝑉 ′ (𝑡) = 8 − 6𝑡
∴ 𝑉 ′ (3) = 8 − 6(3) = −10 thousand liters/day
b 𝑉 ′ (𝑡) = 8 − 6𝑡 = 0
∴ 8 − 6𝑡 = 0
4
𝑡 = 3 = 1,3 days
4 4 4 2
c 𝑉 �3� = 60 + 8 �3� − 3 �3� = 58,67 thousand litres

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 69
 Chapter 8
Differential calculus

Mixed Exercise on Differential Calculus

1 Determine 𝑓′ from first principles if

a 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 2

b 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 2

2 Determine:
𝑑𝑦 1
a 𝑑𝑥
if 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2𝑥 2

2𝑥 2 −𝑥−15
b 𝐷𝑥 � 𝑥−3
�

3 Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 + 15 at
the point 𝑥 = −2.

4 Sketch the graph with the following properties showing all the key points on the
graph:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 when 1 < 𝑥 < 5
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 when 𝑥 < 1 and 𝑥 > 5
𝑓 ′ (5) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ (1) = 0
𝑓(0) = −6 and 𝑓(3) = 0
𝑓 ′′ (3) = 0

5 (2; 9) is a turning point of the graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑏. Determine the

values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the equation of 𝑓.

6 The diagram below represents the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), the derivative of 𝑓.

4 y

a Write down the 𝑥-values of the turning point of 𝑓. −2 2 4 6 8

b Write down the 𝑥-value of the point of inflection of 𝑓. −4

c For which values of 𝑥 will 𝑓(𝑥) decrease? −8

−12
y=f '(x)

−16

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 70
 Chapter8
Differential calculus

7 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is drawn. The curve has turning points at B

and (1; 0). The points (−1; 0) and (1; 0) are 𝑥-intercepts.
y

a Show that 𝑎 = −1; 𝑏 = −1 and 𝑐 = 1. B

b Determine the coordinates of B. x

(−1;0) (1;0)

8 The distance covered in metres by an object is given as 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 + 5.

Determine:

a an expression for the speed of the object at any time 𝑡.

b the time at which the speed of the object is at a minimum.

c the time at which the acceleration of the object will be 8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2.

9 The sketch below shows a rectangular box with base ABCD.

AB = 2𝑥 metres and BC = 𝑥 metres. The volume of the box is 24 cubic metres.
Material to cover the top (PQRS) of the box costs R25 per square metre.
Material to cover the base ABCD and the four sides costs R20 per square metre.

a Show that the height(ℎ) of the box is given by ℎ = 12𝑥 −2 .

b Show that the total cost (C) in rand is given by: 𝐶(𝑥) = 90𝑥 2 + 1440𝑥 −1 .

c Determine the value of 𝑥 for which the cost will be a minimum.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 71
 Chapter9
Analytical geometry

Overview

Unit 1 Page 204

Equation of a circle with centre • Finding the equation of a
at the origin circle
• Symmetrical points on a
circle

Chapter 9 Page 202 Unit 2 Page 208

Analytical Equation of a circle centred off • Finding the equation of
geometry the origin a circle with any given
centre
• General form

Unit 3 Page 214

The equation of the tangent to • Lines on circles
the circle • Equation of a tangent

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the text book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 72
 Chapter9
Analytical geometry

REVISION OF CONCEPTS FROM PREVIOUS GRADES

CONCEPT FORMULA / METHOD
Distance between two points 𝑨(𝒙𝟏 ; 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑑 = �(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
𝑩(𝒙𝟐 ; 𝒚𝟐 )
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
Coordinates of midpoint � ; �
2 2

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
Average gradient between two points 𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑨(𝒙𝟏 ; 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑩(𝒙𝟐 ; 𝒚𝟐 )

Or when given the angle of inclination, 𝑠, use

Gradient of straight line through 𝑨 and 𝑩 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑠
Equation of a straight line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
Angle of inclination, 𝜽 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑠

NB: Angle between line and POSITIVE If 𝑚 > 0(+) , then 𝑠 is

𝒙 −axis an acute angle
(smaller than 90°)

If 𝑚 < 0(−) , then 𝑠 is

an obtuse angle
(bigger than 90° but )

To prove that points 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 are collinear Prove that 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴𝐸
(i.e. arranged in a straight line) Or 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴𝐸
Or 𝑚𝐴𝐸 = 𝑚𝐴𝐸

Parallel lines Two lines 𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and 𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐2

are parallel if 𝑚1 = 𝑚2

Perpendicular lines Two lines 𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and 𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐2

are perpendicular if 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 73
 9
Chapter
Analytical geometry

OTHER DEFINITIONS/CONCEPTS YOU HAVE TO KNOW

DEFINITION EXAMPLES
A (1;4)

C(3;-2)
K
B(-3;4)
Altitude of a triangle = To determine the equation of altitude AK:
line from one vertex perpendicular to • Determine gradient of BC
opposite side • Determine gradient of AK
• Determine equation of AK (substitute A)
−2 − 4
𝑚𝐴𝐸 = = −1
3 − (−3)
But BC⏊AK, so 𝑚𝐴𝐾 = 1
Substitute point A(1;4):
𝑦 − 4 = −1(𝑥 − 1)
Equation of AK:
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 5
K(1;6)

M(4;2)
A
L(-4;-4)
Median = line joining vertex of triangle to To determine the equation of median KA:
midpoint of opposite side • Determine coordinates of midpoint A
• Determine gradient of KA
• Determine equation of KA
−4 + 4 −4 + 2
𝐴� ; �
2 2
𝐴(0; −1)
6 − (−1)
𝑚𝐾𝐴 = =7
1−0
𝑦 − 6 = 7(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 1

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 74
 Chapter9
Analytical geometry

C(4;6)

B(-2;4)

Perpendicular bisector = the line through To determine equation of perpendicular

the midpoint of a line and bisector of BC:
perpendicular to that line • Determine gradient of BC
• Determine gradient of bisector
• Determine equation of bisector
6−4 1
𝑚𝐴𝐸 = =
4 − (−2) 3

Product of gradients must be −1:

𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −3

𝑦 − 6 = −3(𝑥 − 4)
𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 18

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 75
 Chapter9
Analytical geometry

THE CIRCLE : (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐

(centre-radius form)

SUMMARY ON CIRCLES

Equation of circle with radius 𝒓

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
and centre at the origin

Equation of circle with radius 𝒓

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
and centre (𝒂; 𝒃)

Example A: Determine the radius and centre of the circle

with equation (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 16

(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 16 can be written as

To determine radius and (𝑥 − (−1))2 + (𝑦 − (3))2 = 16
centre of circle when given
equation Centre: (−1; 3) Radius = √16 = 4

Example B: Determine the radius and centre of the circle

with equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 10 = 0

We are going to use COMPLETION OF THE SQUARE

• Constant term to RHS; group 𝑥- and 𝑦-terms
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + ⋯ = 10
1 2
• Complete square for 𝑥 and 𝑦 - add �2 × 𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡�
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝟒 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 𝟗 = 10 + 𝟒 + 𝟗
• Write in centre-radius form
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 23

Centre: (−2; −3) Radius = √23

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 76
 Chapter 9
Analytical geometry

NB: Radius is PERPENDICULAR to tangent

Equation of tangent to circle at

given point
Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle
(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝟏)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔 through the point (𝟐; 𝟓).
The steps are:
• Determine centre of circle
• Determine gradient of RADIUS
• Determine gradient of TANGENT:
Remember: 𝒎𝒓𝒂𝒅 × 𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒔 = −𝟏
• Determine equation of tangent by substituting point
of tangency

The centre of circle (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝟏)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔 is (−𝟐; 𝟏).

Radius joins centre (−𝟏; 𝟏) with point of tangency
(𝟐; 𝟓).
𝟓−𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝒓𝒂𝒅 = = =
𝟐 − (−𝟐) 𝟒 𝟐
∴ 𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 = −𝟐
Equation of tangent: 𝒚 − 𝟓 = −𝟐(𝒙 − 𝟐)
𝒚 = −𝟐𝒙 + 𝟗

Mixed Exercise on Analytical Geometry

1 A (−2; 1), B(𝑝; −4), C(5; 0) and D (3; 2) are the vertices of trapezium ABCD in a
Cartesian plane with 𝐴𝐴ǁ𝐶𝐷.
a Show that 𝑝 = 3.
b Calculate AB:CD in simplest form.
c If N (𝑥; 𝑦) is on AB and NBCD is a parallelogram, determine the coordinates of
N.
d Determine the equation of the line passing through B and D.
e What is the angle of inclination of line BD?

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 77
 9
Chapter
Analytical geometry

f Calculate the area of parallelogram NBCD.

g R (−1; 𝑞), A and C are collinear. Calculate the value of 𝑞.

2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 – 8 = 0 is the equation of a circle with centre M in a Cartesian

plane.
a Prove that the circle passes through the point N(1; −3)
b Determine the equation of PN, the tangent to the circle at N.
c Calculate 𝑠, the angle of inclination of the tangent, rounded off to one decimal
place.
d Determine the coordinates of the point where the tangent in 2 b intersects the
𝑥-axis.
e Calculate the coordinates of the point(s) where the circle with centre M cuts
the 𝑦-axis.

3 In the diagram, P, R and S are vertices of ∆PRS . P is a point on the y-axis. The
coordinates of R is (-6; -12). The equation of PR is 3𝑥 – 𝑦 + 6 = 0.
The median SM and the altitude RN intersect at the origin O.

a Calculate the gradient of RO.

b Calculate the gradient of PS.
c Determine the equation of PS.
d Calculate the inclination of PS rounded of to one
decimal digit.
e ( )
If the coordinates of N are 2n; 3 5 + n , determine
3

the value of 𝑖.
f Calculate the coordinates of S.

4 The equation of a circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 – 2𝑦 – 4 = 0.

a Determine the coordinates of M, the centre of the circle, as well as the length
of the radius.
b Calculate the value of p if N(𝑝; 1) with 𝑝 > 0, is a point on the circle.
c Write down the equation of the tangent to the circle at N.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 78
 9
Chapter
Analytical geometry

5 A (-3; 3), B(2; 3), C(6; - 1) and D(𝑥; 𝑦) are the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD in a
Cartesian plane.

a Determine the equation AD.

b Prove that the coordinates of D are
( ) if D is equidistant from B and C.
3 3
;−
2 2

c Determine the equation of BD.

d Determine the size of θ , the angle between BD
and BC, rounded off to one decimal digit.
e Calculate the area of ∆BDC rounded off to the nearest square unit.

6 In the diagram, points A(2; 3), B(𝑝; 0) and C(5; - 3) are the vertices of ∆ABC in a
Cartesian plane. AC cuts the 𝑥-axis at D.

a Calculate the coordinates of D.

b Calculate the value of p if BC = AC and 𝑝 < 0.
c Determine the angle of inclination of
straight line AC, rounded off to one
decimal place.
d If 𝑝 = −1, calculate the size of  , rounded
off to one decimal digit.

7 In the Cartesian plane the equation of a circle with centre M is given by:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 – 7 = 0

Determine, by calculation, whether the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 is a tangent to

the circle, or not.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 79
 9
Chapter
Analytical geometry

8 In the diagram, centre C of the circle lies on the straight line 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7 = 0.

The straight line cuts the circle at D and E(−1; −1). The circle touches the y-axis at
P(0; 2).

a Determine the equation of the circle

in the form: (𝑥 – 𝑖)2 + (𝑦 – 𝑞)2 = 𝑟 2
b Determine the length of diameter DE.
c Determine the equation of the perpendicular
bisector of PE.
d Show that the perpendicular bisector of PE and
straight line DE intersect at C.

9 In the diagram, P, R(4; −4), S and T (0; 4) are the vertices of a rectangle.
P and S lie on the 𝑥 – axis. The diagonals intersect at W.

a Show that the coordinates of S are (2 + 2√5; 0).

b Determine the gradient of TS rounded off to
two decimals.
c Calculate 𝑅𝑇�𝑆 rounded off to two decimals.

10
a Show that the equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 – 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 3 = 0
at the point (5; -2) is 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 13
b If T(𝑥; 𝑦) is a point on the tangent in 10.a, such that its distance from the centre of the
circle is 20 units, determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 80
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Overview

Unit 1 Page 244

Proportionality in triangles • Ratio
• Theorem 1

Chapter10 Page 236 Unit 2 Page 250

Euclidean Similarity in triangles • Theorem 2
geometry • Theorem 3

Unit 3 Page 256

Theorem of Pythagoras • Prove of Theorem of
Pythagoras

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 81
 Chapter10
Euclidean geometry

REVISION of geometry
From previous years

CONGRUENCY
SSS

AAS

SAS
(included angle)

RHS

SIMILARITY
AAA

SSS

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 82
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

PROPERTIES OF SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS

PARALLELOGRAM
• Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel
• Both pairs of opposite side are equal
• Both pairs of opposite angles are equal
• Diagonals bisect each other

RECTANGLE
All properties of parallelogram
Plus:
• Both diagonals are equal in length
• All interior angles are equal to 90°

RHOMBUS
All properties of parallelogram
Plus:
• All sides are equal
• Diagonals bisect each other perpendicularly
• Diagonals bisect interior angles

SQUARE
All properties of a rhombus
Plus:
• All interior angles are 90°
• Diagonals are equal in length

KITE
• Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal
• Diagonal between equal sides bisects other
diagonal
• One pair of opposite angles are equal
(unequal sides)
• Diagonal between equal sides bisects
interior angles (is axis of symmetry)
• Diagonals intersect perpendicularly

TRAPEZIUM
• One pair of opposite sides are parallel

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 83
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

HOW TO PROVE THAT A QUADRILATERAL

IS A PARALLELOGRAM

Prove any ONE of the following (most often by congruency):

• Prove that both pairs of opposite sides are parallel

• Prove that both pairs of opposite sides are equal
• Prove that both pairs of opposite angles are equal
• Prove that the diagonals bisect each other

HOW TO PROVE THAT A

PARALLLELOGRAM IS A RHOMBUS

Prove ONE of the following:

• Prove that the diagonals bisect each other

perpendicularly
• Prove that any two adjacent sides are equal in length

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 84
 Chapter 10
Euclidean geometry

MIDPOINT THEOREM

The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle, is

parallel to the 3rd side of the triangle and half the length of that side.

1
If AD = DB and AE = EC, then DE ǁ BC and DE = 2BC

CONVERSE OF MIDPOINT THEOREM

If a line is drawn from the midpoint of one side of a triangle parallel to

another side, that line will bisect the 3rd side and will be half the length of
the side it is parallel to.

1
If AD = DB and DE ǁ BC, then AE = EC and DE = 2BC.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 85
 Chapter 10
Euclidean geometry

REVISION OF CIRCLE GEOMETRY (FROM GRADE 11)

Theorem 1 Converse of Theorem 1
If AC = CB in circle O, then OC ⏊ AB. If OC ⏊ chord AB, then AC = BC.

Theorem 2
The angle at the centre of a circle subtended by an arc/a chord is double the angle at the
circumference subtended by the same arc/chord. AO� B = 2 × AC� B

Theorem 3 Converse of Theorem 3

The angle on the circumference subtended by If 𝐶̂ = 90°, then AB is the diameter of the circle.
the diameter, is a right angle. (The angle in a
semi-circle is 90°).

Theorem 4 Converse of Theorem 4

The angles on the circumference of a circle, If a line segment subtends equal angles at two
subtended by the same arc or chord, are equal. other points, then these four points lie on the
circumference of a circle.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 86
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Corollaries of Theorem 4 Equal chords of equal circles

Equal chords subtend equal Equal chords subtend equal subtend equal angles at the
angles at the circumference angles at the centre of the circle. circumference.
of the circle.

Theorem 5 Converse of Theorem 5

The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral
supplementary. are supplementary, then it is a cyclic
𝐴̂ + 𝐶̂ = 180° quadrilateral.
𝐴� + 𝐷� = 180°

Theorem 6 Converse of Theorem 6

The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal If the exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to the
to the opposite interior angle. opposite interior angle, then it is a cyclic
quadrilateral.

Theorem 7 Converse of Theorem 7

The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius If a line is drawn perpendicularly to the radius
at the point of tangency. through the point where the radius meets the
circle, then this line is a tangent to the circle.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 87
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Theorem 8
If two tangents are drawn from the same point outside a circle, then they are equal in length.

Theorem 9 (Tan chord theorem) Converse of Theorem 9

The angle between the tangent to a circle and a If a line is drawn through the endpoint of a chord to
chord drawn from the point of tangency, is equal to form an angle which is equal to the angle in the
the angle in the opposite circle segment. opposite segment, then this line is a tangent.
Acute angle Obtuse angle

THREE WAYS TO PROVE THAT A QUADRILATERAL

IS A CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL
Prove that:

• one pair of opposite angles are supplementary

• the exterior angle is equal to the opposite interior angle
• two angles subtended by a line segment at two other vertices
of the quadrilateral, are equal.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 88
 Chapter 10
Euclidean geometry

Example 1

In the diagram alongside< O is the centre of circle DABMC.

BC and DM are diameters.
AC and DM intersect at T.
OT =3DT
ABǁDM

a Prove that T is the midpoint of AC.

b Determine the length of MC in terms of DT.
c � in terms of 𝑂�2.
Express 𝐷

Solution:
a 𝐴̂1 = 90° ∠ in semi ⊙
𝑇�1 = 90° int. ∠s suppl

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 89
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

REVISING THE CONCEPT OF PROPORTIONALITY

A 6 cm B 4 cm C

D 9 cm E 6 cm F

AB : BC = 6 : 4 = 3 : 2
DE : EF = 9 : 6 = 3 : 2

Although, AB : BC = DE : EF it does NOT mean that AB = DE, AC = DF or BC = EF.

GRADE 12 GEOMETRY

Theorem 1 Converse of Theorem 1

A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle If a line divides two sides of a triangle
that intersects the other two sides, will divide proportionally, then the line is parallel
the other two sides proportionally. to the third side of the triangle.

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
If DE ǁ BC then = If = then DE ǁ BC.
𝐷𝐷 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷 𝐸𝐸
or AD : DB = AE : EC

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 90
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Theorem 2 (Midpoint Theorem) Converse of Theorem 2

(Special case of Theorem 1)
The line segment joining the midpoints of two If a line is drawn from the midpoint of
sides of a triangle, is parallel to the 3rd side one side of a triangle parallel to another
of the triangle and half the length of that side. side, that line will bisect the 3rd side and
will be half the length of the side it is
parallel to.
1
If AD = DB and AE = EC, then DE ǁ BC and DE = BC. If AD = DB and DE ǁ BC, then AE = EC
2
1
and DE = BC.
2

Theorem 3 Converse of Theorem 3

The corresponding sides of two equiangular If the sides of two triangles are
proportional, triangles are proportional. then the triangles are equiangular.
𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴
If ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴 ||| ∆𝐷𝐷𝐷 then = = If = = then ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴 |||∆𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐷𝐷 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 91
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Theorem 4

The perpendicular drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right-angled triangle,
divides the triangle in two triangles which are similar to each other and similar to the
original triangle.

Corollaries of Theorem 4

∆𝐴𝐴𝐴|||∆𝐷𝐷𝐷 ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴|||∆𝐷𝐷𝐷 ∆𝐷𝐷𝐷|||∆𝐷𝐷𝐷

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷 𝐵𝐵 𝐷𝐷
∴ = = ∴ = = ∴ = =
𝐷𝐷 𝐵𝐵 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷

∴ 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝐵𝐵. 𝐵𝐵 ∴ 𝐴𝐴 2 = 𝐶𝐶. 𝐶𝐶 ∴ 𝐴𝐴 2 = 𝐵𝐵. 𝐷𝐷

Theorem 5 (The Theorem of Pythagoras)

Using the corollaries of Theorem 4, it can be proven that:

𝐵𝐵 2 = 𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐴 2

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 92
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Example
4
Given: 𝐴𝐷: 𝐷𝐴 = 2: 3 and 𝐴𝐷 = 3 𝐷𝐶.

Instruction: Determine the ratio of 𝐶𝑃: 𝑃𝐷.

Solution:
𝐴𝐴 5 5
In ∆𝐴𝐴𝐷 𝐾𝐴
=2 ∴ 𝐴𝐷 = 2 𝐾𝐷
4
But it was given that 𝐴𝐷 = 3 𝐷𝐶
4 5
∴ 3 𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝐾𝐷
𝐴𝐸 5 4 15
𝐾𝐴
=2÷3 = 8
𝐸𝑃 𝐸𝐴 15
In ∆𝐶𝐷𝐾 𝑃𝐴
= 𝐴𝐾 = 8
∴ 𝐶𝑃: 𝑃𝐷 = 15: 8

TIPS TO SOLVE A GEOMETRY PROBLEM

• READ-READ-READ the information next to the diagram thoroughly

• TRANSFER all given information on the DIAGRAM
• Look for KEYWORDS, e.g.
TANGENT: What do the theorems say about tangents?
CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL: What are the properties of a cyclic quad?
• Set yourself “SECONDARY” GOALS, e.g.
- To prove that two sides of triangle are equal (primary goal), first prove
that there are two equal angles (secondary goal)
- To prove that a line is a tangent, the secondary goal can be to prove that
the line is perpendicular to a radius
• For questions like: Prove that 𝐴̂1 = 𝐶̂2 . Start with ONE PART. Move to the
OTHER PART step-by-step stating reasons.
� 𝟏 = 𝐴̂2 ; 𝐴̂2 = 𝐶̂1 ; 𝐶̂1 = 𝑪
E.g. 𝑨 �𝟐 ; ∴ 𝑨 �𝟐
�𝟏 = 𝑪

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 93
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

Mixed Exercise on Euclidian Geometry

1 In the diagram, TBD is a tangent to circles BAPC and BNKM at B.

AKC is a chord of the larger circle and is also a tangent to the smaller circle at K.
Chords MN and BK intersect at F. PA is produced to D.
BMC, BNA and BFKP are straight lines.
Prove that:

a MN ǁ CA
b ∆𝐾𝑀𝑁 is isosceles
𝐴𝐾 𝐴𝑀
c 𝐾𝑃
= 𝑀𝐸

d DA is a tangent to the circle passing through

points A, B and K.

2 In the diagram below, chord BA and tangent TC of circle ABC are produced to meet at
R. BC is produced to P with RC=RP. AP is not a tangent.

Prove that:

a ACPR is a cyclic quadrilateral.

b ∆𝐶𝐴𝐴|||∆𝑅𝑃𝐴
𝐸𝐴.𝑅𝐴
c 𝑅𝐶 = 𝐴𝐸

d 𝑅𝐴. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶. 𝐶𝐴

e Hence prove that 𝑅𝐶 2 = 𝑅𝐴. 𝑅𝐴

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 94
 Chapter10
Euclidean geometry

3 In the diagram alongside, circles ACBN and AMBD

Intersect at A and B.
CB is a tangent to the larger circle at B.
M is the centre of the smaller circle.
CAD and BND are straight lines.
Let 𝐴̂3 = 𝑥

a � in terms of 𝑥.
Determine the size of 𝐷

b Prove that:

i CB ǁ AN

ii AB is a tangent to circle ADN.

4 In the diagram below, O is the centre of circle ABCD.

DC is extended to meet circle BODE at point E.
OE cuts BC at F. Let𝐷�1 = 𝑥.

a Determine 𝐴̂ in terms of 𝑥.

b Prove that:

i BE=EC

ii BE is NOT a tangent

to circle ABCD.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 95
 10
Chapter
Euclidean geometry

5 In the diagram alongside, medians AM and CN

of ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 intersect at O.

BO is produced to meet AC at P.

MP and CN intersect in D.

ORǁMP with R on AC.

𝑁𝐴
a Calculate, giving reasons, the numerical value of 𝑁𝐸 .

𝑅𝑃
b Use 𝐴𝑂: 𝐴𝑀 = 2: 3, to calculate the numerical value of 𝑃𝐸
.

6 In the diagram, AD is the diameter of circle ABCD.

AD is extended to meet tangent NCP in P.
Straight line NB is extended to Q and intersect AC
in M with Q on straight line ADP.
AC⏊NQ at M.

a Prove that NQǁCD.

b Prove that ANCQ is a cyclic quadrilateral.

c i Prove that ∆𝑃𝐶𝐷|||∆𝑃𝐴𝐶.

ii Hence, complete: 𝑃𝐶 2 = ⋯

d Prove that 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝐷. 𝑁𝐴

e If it is further given that PC=MC, prove that

𝐴𝑀2 𝐴𝑃.𝐴𝑃
1− = 𝐸𝐴.𝑁𝐴
𝐴𝐸 2

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 96
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

Overview

Unit 1 Page 266

Symmetrical and skewed data • Symmetrical data
• Skewed data

Unit 2 Page 270

Scatter plots and correlation • Bivariate data
• Correlation
Chapter 11 Page 262
• Examples of scatter
Statistics: regression and
plots and correlation
correlation
• Drawing scatter plots
• The least squares
method
• The correlation
coefficient
• Using a calculator to
find the regression line

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your text book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the text book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 97
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

UNGROUPED DATA GROUPED DATA

Mode = most frequent number Modal class = interval with highest frequency
∑ 𝑥𝑖 ×𝑓𝑖
Estimated mean =
Measures of central tendency

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

Mean = where 𝑥𝑖 = midpoint of class 𝑖
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
and 𝑓𝑖 = frequency of class 𝑖
NB: Data has to be arranged in ascending order

𝑄2 , Median = Middle value Median class interval = class/interval in which

(for an odd number of values) middle value lies
(𝑛+1)
Position of 𝑄2 = 2
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Or 2
(for an even number of values)
Percentiles (divide data into 100 equal parts)
30
E.g. the position of 𝑃30 = 100 (𝑖 + 1)
Measures of dispersion (indicates

𝑄1 , Lower quartile = Middle value of all the values Position of 𝑄1 =

(𝑛+1)
4
below the median (excluding median)
𝑄3 , Upper quartile = Middle value of all the values Position of 𝑄3 =
3(𝑛+1)
4
above the median (excluding median)
Range = Maximum – Minimum
spread of data)

Inter quartile range (IQR) = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1

𝑄3 −𝑄1
Semi Inter quartile range =
2
Five point summary (used to draw box-and-whisker
diagram): Min, 𝑄1 , Median, 𝑄3 , Max

DISTRIBUTION OF DATA
SYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION ASYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTIONS
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION NEGATIVELY SKEWED POSITIVELY SKEWED
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔 = 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒔𝒂𝒔 = 𝒎𝒄𝒅𝒆 𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑖 − 𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑖 < 0 𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑖 − 𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑖 > 0

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 98
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

OGIVE

Ogive = cumulative frequency graph

80 Ages

70

60

NB: When drawing the ogive:

50

• plot the (upper class boundary ; cumulative frequency) 40

• the graph has to be grounded 30

• the shape of the graph has to be smooth rather

20

10

than consist of “connected dots” Q1 Q3 Freq

5 10 15 20 25 30

THE OGIVE CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE THE MEDIAN AND QUARTILES.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION AROUND THE MEAN

VARIANCE 𝜎 2

Variance, 𝜎 2 , is an indication of how far each value in the data set is from the mean, 𝑥̅ .
∑(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ )2
𝜎2 = (for population)
𝑛

STANDARD DEVIATION 𝜎

Standard deviation (SD), 𝜎: SD = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑐𝑐

The larger the standard deviation, the larger the deviation from the mean would be.
A normal distribution is shown below:

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 99
 Chapter11
Statistics: regression and correlation

USING A TABLE TO CALCULATE VARIANCE

AND STANDARD DEVIATION

UNGROUPED DATA

First calculate the mean,𝑥̅ then the following columns.

DATA VALUES, 𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2

Calculate the total of this column,∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Variance = 𝑛

Standard variance = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑐𝑐

GROUPED DATA

∑ 𝑓×𝑚
First calculate the estimated mean, 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓

Class Frequency Midpoint

𝑓×𝑚 𝑚 − 𝑥̅ (𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2 𝑓 × (𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2
Interval 𝑓 𝑚

Calculate the total of this column

∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Variance = 𝑛

Standard variance = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑐𝑐

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 100
 Chapter 11
Statistics: regression and correlation

USING CASIO 𝒇𝒇-82ZA PLUS CALCULATOR

TO CALCULATE STANDARD DEVIATION

MODE
2 : STAT To switch on the frequency column
1 : 1 – VAR when calculating the SD for a frequency
table, first do the following:
Enter the data points: Push = after each data point
AC Shift Setup; Down arrow (on big REPLAY
button); 3: STAT; 2: ON
SHIFT STAT (above the 1 button)
4 : VAR
3: 𝜎𝑥𝑖

To clear screen: MODE 1: COMP

DETERMINING OUTLIERS

Inter quartile range, IQR = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1

An outlier is identified if it is:

• Less than 𝑄1 − 𝐼𝑄𝑅 × 1,5 or

• Larger than 𝑄3 + 𝐼𝑄𝑅 × 1,5

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 101
 Chapter 11
Statistics: regression and correlation

SCATTER DIAGRAMS (SCATTER PLOTS)

FOR BIVARIATE DATA

Scatter diagrams are used to graphically determine whether there is an association between
two variables.

By investigation one can determine which of the following curves (regression functions)
would best fit the diagram:

Linear (straight line) Quadratic (parabola) Exponential function

USING A CALCULATOR TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF THE

REGRESSION LINE (LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION LINE)

The standard form of a straight line equation is: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

where 𝑚 is the gradient and 𝑐 is the 𝑦-intercept.

NB: On the calculator the regression line is determined in the form:

𝒚 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝒙
(In this form 𝐴 = the gradient of the line and 𝐴 = the 𝑦-intercept)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 102
 11Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

On the calculator press:

MODE 2
2: A+Bx
Enter the data points (column X and Y): Push = after each data point
Press AC.
SHIFT STAT
5: REG
1: A = (to determine the 𝑦- intercept of the line)
SHIFT STAT
5: REG
2: B = (to determine the gradient of the line)
SHIFT STAT
5: REG
3: 𝑟 = (to determine correlation coefficient)

EXAMPLE

𝑥 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
𝑦 20 223 25 35 30 40 50 55

Using the calculator, the equation for the line of best fit (or regression line) can be
determined giving:

𝑦 = 1𝑥 + 12,25

100 y
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
NB: The line of best fit ALWAYS
55 goes through the point (𝑥̅ ; 𝑦�).
50
45
40 In this case it goes through the
point ( 23 ; 35 )
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 x

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 103
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

CORRELATION

The strength of the relationship between the two variables represented in a scatter diagram,
depends on how close the points lie to the line of best fit. The closer the points lie to this
line, the stronger the relationship or correlation.

Correlation (tendency of the graph) can be described in terms of the general distribution of
data points, as follows:

Strong positive Fairly strong positive Perfect positive No correlation

Correlation

Strong negative Fairly strong negative Perfect negative

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 104
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

The correlation between two variables can also be described in terms of a number, called the
correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient, 𝑟, indicates the strength and the
direction of the correlation between two variables. This number can be anything between
−1 and 1.

𝒓 Interpretation
𝟏 Perfect positive relationship
𝟎, 𝟗 Strong positive relationship
Fairly strong positive
𝟎, 𝟓
relationship
𝟎, 𝟐 Weak positive relationship
𝟎 No relationship
−𝟎, 𝟐 Weak negative relationship
Fairly weak negative
−𝟎, 𝟓
relationship
−𝟎, 𝟗 Strong negative relationship
−𝟏 Perfect negative relationship

Example

Refer to the previous example again.

For the given data set 𝑟 = 0,958 which means that there is a strong positive relationship
between the two variables.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 105
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

Mixed Exercise on Statistics

1 A national soccer team has participated against teams of other countries in a

competition for the past 14 years. Their results were as follows:

YEAR MATCHES WINS DRAWS LOSSES GOALS GOALS

PLAYED FOR AGAINST
1999 5 3 2 0 11 3
2000 3 1 1 1 2 22
2001 5 3 1 1 10 4
2002 4 2 0 2 8 6
2003 7 2 3 2 5 4
2004 7 6 1 0 14 5
2005 5 2 0 3 8 7
2006 7 5 1 1 15 4
2007 6 1 2 3 9 11
2008 4 2 1 1 4 2
2009 3 1 1 1 2 3
2010 3 1 0 2 5 10
2011 1 0 0 1 2 3
2012 5 4 0 1 18 9

a Determine the quartiles for:

i the matches played
ii the wins
iii the goals scored against the soccer team.
b Draw a box and whisker plot for the goals against the soccer team and comment on
the distribution of the data.
c Calculate the mean of the number of matches played.
d Calculated the standard deviation of the number of matches played.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 106
 11
Chapter
Statistics: regression and correlation

2 Fifty people were asked what percentage of their December holiday expenses were
related to transport costs. The responses were as follows:
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY (f)
10 < 𝑥 ≤ 20 6
20 < 𝑥 ≤ 30 14
30 < 𝑥 ≤ 40 16
40 < 𝑥 ≤ 50 11
50 < 𝑥 ≤ 60 3

a Draw an ogive to represent the data above.

b Use your ogive to determine the median percentage of the holiday expenses spent on
travel expenses.
c Calculate the estimated mean.
d Calculate the standard deviation of the data.

3 An athlete’s ability to take and use oxygen is called his VO2 max. The following table
shows the VO2 max and the distance eleven atheletes can run in an hour.

VO2 max 20 55 30 25 40 30 50 40 35 30 50
Distance(km) 8 18 13 10 11 12 16 14 13 9 15
a
Represent the data on a scatter graph.
b Determine the equation of the line of best fit.
c Draw the line of best fit on the scatter graph.
d Use your line of best fit to predict the VO2 max of an athlete that runs 19 km.
e Determine the correlation coefficient of the data and comment on the correlation.

4 Five number 4; 8; 10; 𝑥 and 𝑦 have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 4. Find 𝑥
and 𝑦.

5 The standard deviation of five numbers is 7,5. Each number is increased by 2. What
will the standard deviation of the new set of numbers be? Explain your answer.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 107
 Chapter 12
Probability

Overview

Unit 1 Page 282

Solving probability problems • Venn diagrams
• Tree diagrams
• Two-way
contingency tables

Chapter 12 Page 280 Unit 2 Page 288

Probability The counting principle • The fundamental
counting principle

Unit 3 Page 292

The counting principle and • Using the counting
probability principle to calculate
probability

REMEMBER YOUR STUDY APPROACH SHOULD BE:

1 Work through all examples in this chapter of your Learner’s Book.

2 Work through the notes in this chapter of the study guide.
3 Do the exercises at the end of the chapter in the Learner’s Book.
4 Do the mixed exercises at the end of this chapter in the study guide.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 108
 Chapter12
Probability

SUMMARY OF THEORY ON PROBABILITY

CONCEPT/DEFINITION MATHEMATICAL NOTATION/RULE EXAMPLE
Probability = the chance that an 𝑃 Values of probability can range from 0
event will occur to1
• For an event, K, that is certain NOT to
happen 𝑃(𝐾) = 0
• For an event, K that is CERTAIN to
happen 𝑃(𝐾) = 1
Sample Space = the set of all 𝑆
possible outcomes
The number of elements in the 𝑖(𝑆) If 𝑆 = {2; 4; 6} then 𝑖(𝑆) = 3
sample space
General rule for A and B inside the 𝑃(𝐴𝑜𝑟𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴𝑎𝑖𝑑𝐴)
sample space S
Intersection 𝐴 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝐴 or 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴

Union 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 or 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴

Inclusive events have elements in 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) ≠ 0

A B
common

Mutually exclusive/disjoint events 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) = 0

DON’T INTERSECT,
∴ 𝑃(𝐴𝑜𝑟𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴)
i.e. have NO elements in common

Exhaustive events = together they ∴ 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) = 1

contain ALL elements of S

Complement of A = all elements Complement of A = A’

which are NOT in A
Complementary events = mutually 𝑃(𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝐴) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴)
𝑃(𝐴′ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴)
exclusive and exhaustive
Or
(everything NOT in A, is in B)
𝑃(𝐴′ ) + 𝑃(𝐴) = 1

Independent events = outcome of 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐴) Tossing a coin and throwing a die
1st event DOES NOT influence the
outcome of 2nd event
Dependent events = outcome of 1st 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) ≠ 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐴) Choosing a ball from a bag, not
event DOES influence the outcome replacing it, then choosing a 2nd ball
of 2nd event

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 109
 Chapter 12
Probability

FACTORIAL NOTATION
The product 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 can be written as
5!

∴ 𝑖! = 𝑖 × (𝑖 − 1) × (𝑖 − 2) × … × 3 × 2 × 1

The Fundamental Counting Principle

RULE EXAMPLE
RULE 1 a) You have 3 pants and 4 shirts.
Where there are 𝒎 ways to do one thing and 𝒔 That means you have 3 × 4 = 12
ways to do another, then there are 𝒎 × 𝒔 ways to different outfits.
do both
RULE 2 b) 5 children have to be seated on 5
Where 𝒔 different things have to be placed in 𝒔 chairs in the front row of a class. The
positions, the number of arrangements is 𝒔! number of ways they can be seated is
5!=120
RULE 3 c) 8 students participated in a 100 m
Where 𝒔 different things have to be placed in 𝒓 race. The first three positions can be
𝒔!
positions, the number of arrangements is (𝒔−𝒓)! occupied in
8! 8!
(8−3)!
= 5! = 8 × 7 × 6 = 336 ways.

RULE 4 d) 3 girls and 4 boys have to be seated

When seating 𝒃 boys and 𝒈 girls in a row, the on 7 chairs, with girls together and boys
number of arrangements are: together.
• Boys and girls in any order: (𝒃 + 𝒈)! ways Number of ways = 2 × 3! × 4! = 288
• Boys together and girls together: 𝟐 × 𝒃! × 𝒈! e)5 Maths books and 2 Science books
ways have to be place on a shelf, but the
• Only girls together: (𝒃 + 𝟏)! × 𝒈! arrangements Maths books have to be placed together.
• Only boys together: (𝒈 + 𝟏)! × 𝒃! Number of ways = (2 + 1)! × 5! = 360
arrangements

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 110
 Chapter 12
Probability

LETTER ARRANGEMENTS

When making new words from the letters in a given word , one has to distinguish between:

Treating repeated letters as Treating repeated letters as IDENTICAL.

DIFFERENT letters.
The following rule applies:
The normal counting
principle (Rule 2) For 𝑛 letters of which 𝑚1 are identical, 𝑚2 are
identical, … and 𝑚𝑛 are identical, the number of
applies here.
arrangements is given by:

𝑛!
𝑚1 ! × 𝑚2 ! × … × 𝑚𝑛 !

Examples:

1 How many different arrangements can be made with the letters of the word
MATHEMATICS, if repeated letters are treated as different letters.
The letters are regarded as 11 different letters.
Number of arrangements 11!

2 How many different arrangements can be made with the letters of the word
MATHEMATICS, if repeated letters are treated as identical.
The letters are regarded as 11 different letters.
11!
Number of arrangements = 2!×2!×2! = 6 652 800 (The M, A and T repeat)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 111
 Chapter 12
Probability

Mixed Exercise on Probability

1 How many different 074- cell phone numbers are possible if the digits may not
repeat?
2 How many different 082- cell phone numbers are possible if the digits may only be
integers?
3 What is the probability that you will draw a queen of diamonds from a pack cards?
4 How many different arrangements can be made with the letters of the word
TSITSIKAMMA, if:
a repeating letters are regarded as different letters
b repeating letters are regarded as identical.
5 Four different English books, three different German books and two different
Afrikaans books are randomly arranged on a shelf.
Calculate the number of arrangements if:
a the English books have to be kept together
b all books of the same language have to be kept together
c the order of the books does not matter.
6 In how many different ways can a chairman and a vice-chairman be chosen from a
committee of 12 people?
7 The letters of the word MATHEMATICS have to be rearranged. Calculate the probability
that the “word” formed will not start and end with the same letter.
8 In how many different ways can the letters of the word MATHEMATICS rearranged so
that
a the H and the E stay together.
b the E keep its position.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 112
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

Chapter 1: Number patterns, sequences and series

1 a 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑖 − 1)𝑑
𝑎=5; 𝑑 =4
𝑇𝑛 = 5 + (𝑖 − 1)4 = 4𝑖 + 1
b 217 = 4𝑖 + 1
4𝑖 = 216
∴ 𝑖 = 54

2 a 9 = 𝑎𝑟 4
729 = 𝑎𝑟 8
729 𝑎𝑟 8
9
= 𝑎𝑟 4
4
𝑟 = 81
𝑟 = ±3
b 𝑇10 = 𝑟 × 𝑇9
𝑇10 = ±2187

3 a 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2
�5𝑥 − (2𝑥 − 4)� = �(7𝑥 − 4) − 5𝑥�
5𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 5𝑥 = −4 − 4
𝑥 = −8
b −20 ; −40 ; −60

4 a 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑖2 + 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑐
3
𝑎=2
3 1
𝑏 = 5 − 3 �2� = 2
3 1
𝑐 =2−2−2=0
3 1
𝑇𝑛 = �2� 𝑖2 + �2� 𝑖 Note: alternative methods can be used
3 1
b 260 = �2� 𝑖2 + �2� 𝑖
3𝑖2 + 𝑖 − 520 = 0
(3𝑖 + 40)(𝑖 − 13) = 0
𝑖 = 13
13𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑐𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 260.

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 113
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

5 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑖 − 1)𝑑
𝑎 = 17 ; 𝑑 = −3
−2785 = 17 + (𝑖 − 1)(−3)
−2802 = (𝑖 − 1)(−3)
934 = (𝑖 − 1)
𝑖 = 935
The sequence has 935 terms.

6 a 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑖2
b 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑖2 + 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑐
𝑎 =4÷2=2
𝑏 = 8 − 3(2) = 2
𝑐 =4−2−2 =0
∴ 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝑖2 + 2𝑖

7 a 𝑇1 = 3 ; 𝑇2 = −2 ; 𝑇3 = −7
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑖 − 1)𝑑]
2
𝑎 = 3 ; 𝑑 = −5
30
𝑆30 = [2(3) + (30 − 1)(−5)]
2
𝑆30 = −2085
1
b 𝑇1 = 2 ; 𝑇2 = 1 ; 𝑇3 = 2
1 9
�2 −1�
𝑆9 = 2
2−1
𝑆9 = 255,5

8 𝑖=6
𝑇𝑛 = 1 + (𝑖 − 1)4 = 4𝑖 − 3
1 + 5 + 9 + ⋯ + 21 = ∑6𝑘=1 4𝑘 − 3

9 a 𝑇5 = 0 ; 𝑇13 = 12
0 = 𝑎 + 4𝑑 …(1)
12 = 𝑎 + 12𝑑 …(2)
(2)-(1): 12 = 8𝑑
3
𝑑=2
3
𝑎 = −4 �2� = −6
21 3
b 𝑆21 = 2
�2(−6) + (21 − 1) �2��
𝑆21 = 189

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 114
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

10 a For it to be a converging sequence −1 < 𝑟 < 1.

𝑇 �𝑥 2 −9�
𝑟 = 𝑇2 = 𝑥+3
1
(𝑥+3)(𝑥−3)
𝑟=
𝑥+3
𝑟 =𝑥−3
∴ −1 < 𝑥 − 3 < 1
2<𝑥<4
𝑎
b 𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟
(𝑥+3)
13 =
1−(𝑥−3)
(𝑥+3)
13 = (−𝑥+4)
13(−𝑥 + 4) = (𝑥 + 3)
−13𝑥 + 52 = 𝑥 + 3
−13𝑥 − 𝑥 = 3 − 52
−14𝑥 = −49
7
𝑥=2

11 For series in numerator:

99 = 1 + (𝑖 − 1)2
𝑖 = 50 terms
50
𝑆50 = [2(1) + (50 − 1)2] = 2 500
2
For series in denominator:
299 = 201 + (𝑖 − 1)2
𝑖 = 50 terms
50
𝑆50 = [2(201) + (50 − 1)2] = 12 500
2
2 500 1
Value = 12 500
=5

12 𝑇9 = 𝑆9 − 𝑆8
𝑆9 = 3(9)2 − 2(9) = 225
𝑆8 = 3(8)2 − 2(8) = 176
∴ 𝑇9 = 225 − 176 = 49

13 a Let 𝑟 =constant ratio

7𝑟 3 = 189
𝑟 3 = 27
𝑟=3
𝑥 = 7 × 3 = 21
𝑦 = 21 × 3 = 63
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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 115
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

7(3𝑛 −1)
b 206 668 =
3−1
7(3𝑛 −1)
206 668 =
2
𝑛
413 336 = 7(3 − 1)
59 048 = 3𝑛 − 1
3𝑛 = 59 049
3𝑛 = 310
∴ 𝑖 = 10

Chapter 2: Functions

1 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 17 … (1)
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 15 … (2)
(2) × 3: 9𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 45 … (3)
(1) − (3) : − 7𝑥 = −28
𝑥=4
Substitute into (1):
2(4) − 3𝑦 = 17
𝑦 = −3
Intercept is (4; −3)

2 a 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 3
Substitute (−3; 0)
0 = 𝑚(−3) + 3
𝑚=1
∴ 𝑦 =𝑥+3
b 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 1
Substitute (2; −1):
−1 = 𝑚(2) + 1
𝑚 = −1
𝑔: 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1
c 𝑥 + 3 = −𝑥 + 1
2𝑥 = −2
𝑥 = −1
Substitute 𝑥 = −1:
𝑦 = −1 + 3 = 2
∴ 𝑃(−1; 2)
d Yes, because the products of their gradients is −1.
(−1 × 1 = −1)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 116
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

e 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 2

3 a Let 𝑦 = 0:
0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
0 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
∴ 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
𝐴(−1; 0) and 𝐴(3; 0)
Let 𝑥 = 0:
𝑦 = (0)2 − 2(0) − 3
𝑦 = −3
∴ 𝐶(0; −3)
𝑂𝐴 = 1 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡
𝑂𝐴 = 3 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑂𝐶 = 3 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠
−𝑏 2
b 𝑥= 2𝑎
= 2(1) = 1
Substitute 𝑥 = 1:
𝑦 = (1)2 − 2(1) − 3 = −4
𝐷(1; −4)
c 𝑐 = −3
−3−0
𝑚= 0−3
𝑚=1
d For the graph to have only one real root it has to move 4 units up.
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 + 4 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
∴𝑘=1

4 a Let 𝑦 = 0:
0 = −2(𝑥 + 1)2 + 8
0 = −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6
0 = (−2𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3
𝐴(−3; 0) and 𝐴(1; 0)
𝐴𝐴 = 4 units
b 𝐶(−1; 8)
c 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 6
𝐷(0 ; 6) 𝐷(−2; 6)
∴ 𝐷𝐷 = 2 units

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 117
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

5 a y

−1

−1

−2

b 𝑥∈𝑅
c 𝑥 ≤ −1

𝑎
6 a Substitute the point A into the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑎
2 = −2
𝑎 = −4
b 𝐴(2; −2)
−4
c 𝑦 = 𝑥−1 + 2

7 a 𝑦 = −(0)2 − 2(0) + 8 = 8
𝐴(0; 8)
b 0 = −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8
0 = (−𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4)
𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −4
𝐴(−4; 0) and 𝐶(2; 0)
c 𝐷(−1; 0)
𝐶𝐷 = 3 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠
d 𝑥 = −1
𝑦 = −(−1)2 − 2(−1) + 8
𝑦 = −1 + 2 + 8 = 9
𝐷(−1; 9)
𝐷𝐷 = 9 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠
e 𝐴(0; 8)
𝐷(−2; 8)
𝐴𝐷 = 2 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠
1
f −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 = 2 𝑥 − 1
−2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 16 = 𝑥 − 2
−2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 18 = 0
(2𝑥 + 9)(−𝑥 + 2) = 0
−9
𝑥= 2
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2
−9
𝑥= 2
at H

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 118
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

−9 1
Substitute 𝑥 = 2
into the equation 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 1
1 −9
𝑦 = 2� 2 �− 1
13
𝑦=− 4
−9 −13
∴ 𝐺�2 ; 4
�
𝐺𝐻 = 3,25 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠
1
g 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 − �2 𝑥 − 1�
5
= −𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 + 9
Minimum at turning point:
5
5
𝑥= 2
= −4
−2
5 2 5 −5 169
h 𝑅𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − �− 4� − 2 � 4 � + 9 = 16
i 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) > 0 ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥)
9
−2 < 𝑥 < 2

8 a 𝑦 = −4
b 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑐 = −4
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 − 4
Substitute the point (2; 5) into the equation:
5 = 𝑏2 − 4
𝑏2 = 9
𝑏=3
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 4
c 𝑦 = −1 ; 𝑥 = −2
𝑎
d 𝑦 = 𝑥+2 − 1
Substitute the point 𝐴(0; −3):
𝑎
−3 = 0+2 − 1
𝑎
−3 = 2 − 1
𝑎
2
= −2
𝑎 = −4
−4
𝑦 = 𝑥+2 − 1
e Substitute (−2; −1) into 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑘1 and 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑘2
−1 = −2 + 𝑘1 −1 = 2 + 𝑘2
𝑘1 = 1 𝑘2 = −3
𝑦 =𝑥+1 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 3
f 𝑥 > −2; 𝑥 ≠ 0
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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 119
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

9 a 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2
𝑥 = 2𝑦 2
𝑥
𝑦2 = 2
𝑥
𝑦 = ±�2
b 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0

10 a 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 c f
y
y=x

Substitute point 𝐴:
3 = 𝑎−1
1
𝑎=3
1 𝑥 x
𝑦 = �3�

b 𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = log �1� 𝑥 d 𝑥>0

3

11 𝑥 −intercept: (3; 0)
𝑦 −intercep𝑡: (0; −2)

Chapter 3: Logarithms

1 a 𝑥 = 32 = 9
1 2 1
b 𝑥 = �3� = 9
c log 4 𝑥 = −2
1 1
𝑥 = (4)−2 = (4)2 = 16
1 1
d 𝑥 = (5)−2 = (5)2 = 25
e 𝑥 3 = 106
𝑥 = 102
𝑥 = 100
f 81 = 3𝑥
3𝑥 = 34
𝑥=4

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 120
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

1
g 9
= 3𝑥
3𝑥 = 3−2
𝑥 = −2

9 9
2 a Substitute �2; 4�: 4
= 𝑎2
3
𝑎=2
b 𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = log �3� 𝑥
2
3 −𝑥
c 𝑔(𝑥) = �2�
d ℎ(𝑥) = − log �3� 𝑥
2

3 a i) 𝑔(𝑥) = − log 2 𝑥 b
ii) 𝑝(𝑥) = log 2 (−𝑥)
iii) 𝑞(𝑥) = − log 2 (−𝑥)
iv) 𝑓 −1 : 𝑦 = 2𝑥
v) 𝑔−1 : 𝑦 = 2−𝑥
vi) ℎ(𝑥) = log 2 (𝑥 + 2)
c For 𝑓 −1 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑔−1 :
Domain 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ;
Range 𝑦 > 0

4 a 𝑦 −coordinate = 0
0 = log 𝑏 𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑏0 = 1
𝐴(1; 0)
b Because graph is increasing as 𝑥 increases.
3
c Substitute 𝐴: 2
= log 𝑏 8
3
8 = 𝑏2
2
2 3 3
(8) = �𝑏 �
3 2

2 2
𝑏 = (8)3 = (23 )3 = 22 = 4
d 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥
e Substitute 𝑦 = −2: −2 = log 4 𝑥
1
𝑥 = 4−2 = 16

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 121
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

Chapter 4: Finance, growth and decay

1 a 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖. 𝑖)
𝐴 = 15 000�1 + (0,106)(5)�
𝐴 = 𝑅22 950
b 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
20
𝐴 = 15 000�1 + (0,024)�
𝐴 = 𝑅24 104,07
It is better to invest it at 9.6% p.a , interest compounded quarterly.

2 a Nominal interest rate

b 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
0,085 60
95 000 = 𝑃 �1 + 12
�
95 000
𝑃= 0,085 60
�1+ �
12
𝑃 = 𝑅62 202,48
c 𝑅95 000 − 𝑅62 202,48 = 𝑅32 797,52

3 a 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
𝐴 = 8 000(1 + 0.06)2
𝐴 = 𝑅8 988,80
𝑥[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1]
b 𝐷= [1 + 𝑖]
𝑖
0,07 4
2 000�� � −1� 0,07
2
𝐷= �1 + �
0.035 2
𝐷 = 𝑅8 724,93
She will NOT have enough money to buy the TV in two years.

𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑚
4 a 1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = �1 + �
𝑚
0.0785 12
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = �1 + 12
�
𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.08138 …
𝐷𝑓𝑓. 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑐 = 8.14%

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 122
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑚
b 1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓 = �1 + �
𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 4
1 + 0,0925 = �1 + �
4
4 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚
�1,0925 = �1 + �
4
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚
1.022 − 1 = 4
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 0.0894 …
Nom. rate= 8,95% p.a. compounded quarterly

5 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
179 200 = 350 000(1 − 𝑖)3
0,512 = (1 − 𝑖)3
3
1 − 𝑖 = �0,512
𝑖 = 0.2
Dep. rate= 20%

0.0975 7 0.0975 0.0995 15

6 𝐴 = �20 000 �1 + 4
� + 10 000 �1 + 4
�� �1 + 12
�
𝐴 = �23 672.43 + 10 243.75�(1.13185 … )
𝐴 = 𝑅38 388,36
OR
0.0975 6 0.0975 0.0995 15
𝐴 = �20 000 �1 + 4
� + 10 000� �1 + 4
� �1 + 12
�
𝐴 = �23 109.142 + 10 000�(1.024375)(1.13 … )
𝐴 = 𝑅38 388,36

7 a 𝐴 = 900 000(1 − 0.15)5

𝐴 = 𝑅399 334,78
𝐴 = 900 000(1 + 0.18)5
𝐴 = 𝑅2 058 981,98
𝑅2 058 981,98 − 𝑅399 334,78 = 𝑅1 659 647,20
𝑥�(1+0.02)61 −1�
b 1 659 647,20 = 0,02
0,02×1659647,20
𝑥= [(1+0,02)61 −1]
𝑥 = 𝑅14 144,81

8 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖. 𝑖) 2 yrs = 24 months

(24 × 85) = 1 500(1 + 𝑖. 2)
𝑖 = 0.18
rate= 18%
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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 123
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

𝑥[1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛 ]
9 a 𝑃=
𝑖
�6 500��1−(1+0,01)−240 �
𝑃= 0,01
𝑃 = 𝑅590 326,21
�6 500��1−(1+0,01)−96 �
b 𝑃= 0,01
𝑃 = 𝑅399 930,07

0,01 73
1 000��1+ � −1�
12
10 𝐷= 0,01
12
𝐷 = 𝑅99 915,81

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
0,01 5
𝐴 = 99 915,81 �1 + 12
�
𝐴 = 𝑅104 147,21

𝑥[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1]
11 𝐷=
𝑖
0,09 𝑛
300��1+ � −1�
12
48 000 = 0,09
12
2,2 = (1,0075)𝑛
𝑖 = log1,0075 2,2
𝑖 = 106
8 years and 10 months

12 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖. 𝑖)
𝐴 = 13 500�1 + (0.12)(4)�
𝐴 = 𝑅19 980
Repayment = 𝑅19 980 ÷ 48 = 𝑅416,25
Including insurance= 𝑅416,25 + 𝑅30 = 𝑅446,25

13 𝐴 = 400 000(1 + 0,02)4

𝐴 = 𝑅432 972,86 (amount owing after 1 year)

𝑥[1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
𝑥�1−(1+0,02)−16 �
432 972,86 = 0,02
𝑥 = 𝑅31 888,51

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 124
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

Chapter 5: Compound angles

1 a 2 cos 2 x = −1
1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = −
2
2𝑥 = ±120° + 𝑘. 360°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
∴ 𝑥 = ±60° + 𝑘. 180°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
b 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
=3
𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = 3
∴ 𝑥 = 71,47° + 𝑘. 180°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
c 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥
∴ cos(90° − 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥
90° − 𝑥 = ±3𝑥 + 𝑘. 360°
4𝑥 = 90° + 𝑘. 360° or 2𝑥 = −90° + 𝑘. 360°
𝑥 = 22,5° + 𝑘. 90° 𝑥 = −45° + 𝑘. 180°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
d 3
6 − 10𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 3(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = 0
∴ 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 10𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 3 = 0
∴ (3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1)(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 3) = 0
1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 3 (no solution)
3
∴ 𝑥 = ±70,53° + 𝑘. 360°; 𝑘𝜖𝑍
For 𝑥 ∈ [−360°; 360°] 𝑥 ∈ {−289,47°; −70,53°; 289,47°}
e 2(𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 0
2𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 0
(2𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)(𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = 0
1
𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = − or 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = 1
2
𝑥 = −26,57° + 𝑘. 180° or 𝑥 = 45° + 𝑘. 180°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
f 3(𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥) − 8𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 16𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0
∴ 3 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 8𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 16𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0
3(1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) − 8𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥(1 − 2𝑥𝑜𝑠𝑥) = 0
(1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)(3 − 8𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥) = 0
1 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = or 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 =
2 8
∴ 𝑥 = ±60° + 𝑘. 360° or 𝑥 = 22,02° + 𝑘. 360° or 𝑥 = 157,98° + 𝑘. 360°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 125
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

sin x
2 a LHS= cos x + × sin x
cos x

cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos x
1
=
cos x

=RHS

Not valid for x = 90 0 + k .180 0 ; k ∈ Z

sin 2 θ − cos θ (1 − cos θ ) sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ − cos θ 1 − cos θ 1

b LHS = = = =
(1 − cos θ )sin θ (1 − cos θ )sin θ (1 − cos θ )sin θ sin θ
=RHS

Not valid for θ = k .180 0 ; k ∈ Z

1 − cos 2 x sin 2 x sin x

c LHS = = = . sin x = tan x. sin x = RHS
cos x cos x cos x

Not valid for x = 90 0 + k .180 0 ; k ∈ Z

d LHS =
(
sin x sin 2 x + cos 2 x
=
)sin x
= tan x =RHS
cos x cos x

Not valid for x = 90 0 + k .180 0 ; k ∈ Z

sin x
1+
LHS = cos x = cos x + sin x × cos x
×
cos x + sin x
sin x cos x cos x − sin x cos x + sin x
1−
e cos x
cos x + 2 sin x cos x + sin 2 x 1 + 2 sin x cos x
2
= = = RHS
cos 2 x − sin 2 x cos 2 x − sin 2 x

Not valid for x = ±45 0 + k .180 0 ; k ∈ Z

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 126
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

f 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = sin(45° + 𝑥). sin(45° − 𝑥)

= (sin 45°. cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠45°) × (sin 45°. cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 . cos 45°)

√2 √2 √2 √2
= � 2 cos 𝑥 + 2
sin 𝑥� � 2 cos 𝑥 − 2
sin 𝑥�

2 2
√2 √2
= � 2 cos 𝑥� − � 2 sin 𝑥�

1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥
2 2

1
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥)
2

1
= cos 2𝑥
2

= 𝑅𝐻𝑆
sin 2𝜃−cos 𝜃
g 𝐿𝐻𝑆 =
sin 𝜃−cos 2𝜃

2 sin 𝜃.cos 𝜃−cos 𝜃

=
sin 𝜃−(1−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

cos 𝜃(2 sin 𝜃−1)

= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+sin 𝜃−1

cos 𝜃(2 sin 𝜃−1)

= (2
sin 𝜃−1)(sin 𝜃+1)

cos 𝜃
=
sin 𝜃+1

= 𝑅𝐻𝑆
cos 𝑥−cos 2𝑥+2
h 𝐿𝐻𝑆 =
3 sin 𝑥−sin 2𝑥

cos 𝑥−�2𝑎𝑜𝑠2 𝑥−1�+2

= 3 sin 𝑥−2 sin 𝑥.cos 𝑥

−2𝑎𝑜𝑠2 𝑥+cos 𝑥+3

=
3 sin 𝑥−2 sin 𝑥.cos 𝑥

(−2 cos 𝑥+3)(cos 𝑥+1)

= sin 𝑥(3−2 cos 𝑥)

cos 𝑥+1
=
sin 𝑥

= 𝑅𝐻𝑆

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 127
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

3 a
( )
sin 180 0 − x tan (− x )
=
sin x(− tan x )
= −1
( ) (
tan 180 + x cos x − 90
0 0
)
tan x(sin x )

b
( ) (
sin 180 0 + x tan x − 360 0
=
)
sin x. tan x
= 2 sin x
( )(
tan 360 − x − cos 60 tan 45
0 0 0
)( )
− tan x(− 0,5)(1)

4 a ( )
cos 730 = cos 90 0 − 17 0 = sin 17 0 = k

b cos(−163°) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠163° = −𝑐𝑜𝑠17° = −√1 − 𝑘 2

𝑘
c 𝑡𝑎𝑖197° = 𝑡𝑎𝑖17° =
√1−𝑘 2

d 𝑐𝑜𝑠326° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠34° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(17°) = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑖2 17° = 1 − 2𝑘 2

4
5 a 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = − 5

3  3   − 3  − 3
5 sin x + 3 tan x = 5  + 3  or = 5  + 3 
5  − 4  5  −4

9 3 9 3
= 3− = or = −5 + =−
4 4 4 4

2 tan x
b tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
 3 
2 
 −4 3 16 24 3 16 24
∴ tan 2 x = 2
=− × =− or tan 2 x = × =
 3  2 6 7 2 7 7
1−  
−4

6 a

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 128
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cos 𝑥. cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑥. sin 𝑦

−2√2 −4 −1 −3
= × + ×
3 5 3 5

8√2 1
= +
15 5

8√2+3
=
15

b cos 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑦

= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥 − (1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑦)

= 2𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑦 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑥

−3 2 −1 2
= 2� � − 2� �
5 3

18 2 112
= − =
25 9 225

1
7 a cos 2(22,5°) = cos 45° =
√2

1 1
b × 2 sin 22,5°. cos 22,5° = × sin 2(22,5°)
2 2

1 √2
= sin 45° =
2 4

1
c sin 2(15°) = sin 30° =
2

Chapter 6: Solving problems in three dimensions

2ℎ 2ℎ
1 a 𝐼𝑖 ∆𝐴𝐴𝐷 ∶ tan 𝛼 = 𝐴𝐴 ∴ 𝐴𝐷 = tan 𝛼

ℎ
b 𝐼𝑖 ∆𝐶𝐷𝐷: tan(90° − 𝛼) = 𝐴𝐴 ∴ 𝐷𝐷 = ℎ tan 𝛼

𝐼𝑖 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐷:

𝐴𝐷2 = 𝐴𝐷 2 + 𝐷𝐷2 − 2(𝐴𝐷)(𝐷𝐷). cos 𝐷

= (2ℎ. cot 𝛼)2 + (ℎ. tan 𝛼)2 − 2(2ℎ. cot 𝛼)(ℎ. tan 𝛼) cos 120°
1
= 4ℎ2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛼 + ℎ2 𝑡𝑎𝑖2 𝛼 − 4ℎ2 (cot 𝛼 . tan 𝛼) �− 2�

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 129
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

= ℎ2 (4𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑖2 𝛼 + 2)
4
= ℎ2 �𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑖2 𝛼 + 2�

ℎ2 �𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝛼+2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼+4�

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼

ℎ√𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝛼+2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼+4

𝐴𝐷 = tan 𝛼

𝐴𝐴 tan 𝛼
c ℎ = √𝑡𝑎𝑛4
𝛼+2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼+4

[Link] 42°
= √𝑡𝑎𝑛4
42°+2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 42°+4

𝐶𝐷 = 182,90 𝑚

2 a � 𝐴 = 180° − 𝑠 − 30° = 150° − 𝑠

𝐶𝐷
𝑝
b tan 𝑠 = 𝐸𝐴 ∴ 𝑝 = 𝐶𝐴. tan 𝑠

𝐸𝐴 8
sin(150°−𝜃)
= sin 𝜃

[Link](150°−𝜃)
𝐶𝐴 =
sin 𝜃

[Link]�180°−(150°−𝜃)�
= sin 𝜃

[Link](30°+𝜃)
=
sin 𝜃

[Link](30°+𝜃) [Link](30°+𝜃)
𝑝=� � tan 𝑠 =
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

3 𝐴𝐷 = 13(𝑃𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑠)

𝐴̂ = 180° − (𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝐸𝐴 13
∴ sin[180°−(𝛼+𝛽)] = sin 𝛼

𝐸𝐴 13
∴ sin(𝛼+𝛽) = sin 𝛼

13 sin(𝛼+𝛽)
∴ 𝐶𝐷 =
sin 𝛼

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 130
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

1
4 a 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝑚. 𝑝 sin(180° − 𝑠)

1
b 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝑖. 𝑝 sin 𝑠

𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶

1 1
= 2 𝑚𝑝 sin(180° − 𝑠) + 2 𝑖𝑝 sin 𝑠

1 1
= 2 𝑚𝑝. sin 𝑠 + 2 𝑖𝑝 . sin 𝑠

1
= 2 𝑝(𝑚 + 𝑖) sin 𝑠

1
c 12,6 = 2 (8,1)(5,9) sin 𝑠

sin 𝑠 = 0,527306968 …

𝑠 = 31,82° 𝑂𝑅 𝑠 = 180° − 31,82° = 148,18°

𝑝
5 a sin 𝑠 = 𝐴𝐸

𝑝
∴ 𝐴𝐶 = sin 𝜃

b 𝐴�1 = 180° − 2𝛼
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
c sin 𝐴�1
= sin 𝐴

𝑝
𝐴𝐸
sin(180°−2𝛼)
= sin 𝜃
sin 𝛼

𝑝 sin(180°−2𝛼) 𝑝.sin 2𝛼
𝐴𝐶 = = sin 𝜃.sin 𝛼
sin 𝜃.sin 𝛼

6 a 𝑅� = 180° − 30° − (150° − 𝛼) = 𝛼

12 𝑄𝑅
sin 𝑅�
= sin(150°−𝛼)

12 𝑄𝑅
sin 𝛼
= sin(30°+𝛼)

12 sin(30°+𝛼)
𝑄𝑅 =
sin 𝛼
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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 131
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

12(sin 30°.cos 𝛼+cos 30°.sin 𝛼)

=
sin 𝛼

1 √3
12� .cos 𝛼+ sin 𝛼�
2 2
=
sin 𝛼

6�cos 𝛼+√3 sin 𝛼�

= sin 𝛼

b 𝑃� = 180° − 90° − 𝛼 = 90° − 𝛼

𝑄𝑅 𝑃𝑄
sin 𝑃�
= sin 𝛼

6�cos 𝛼+√3 sin 𝛼�

𝑃𝑄
sin 𝛼
= sin 𝛼
sin(90°−𝛼)

sin 𝛼.6�cos 𝛼+√3 sin 𝛼�

𝑃𝑄 sin(90° − 𝛼) = sin 𝛼

6 cos 𝛼 6√3 sin 𝛼

𝑃𝑄 = cos 𝛼
+ cos 𝛼

𝑃𝑄 = 6 + 6√3 tan 𝛼

c 23 = 6 + 6√3 tan 𝛼

17 = 6√3 tan 𝛼

𝑡𝑎𝑖𝛼 = 1,64

𝛼 = 58,56°

Chapter 7: Polynomials

1 a 27𝑥 3 − 8 = (3𝑥 − 2)(9𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4)

b 5𝑥 3 + 40 = 5(𝑥 3 + 8) = 5(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4)

c 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 6

= 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 3) + 2(𝑥 + 3)

= (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 2)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 132
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

d 4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 4

= 𝑥 2 (4𝑥 − 1) − 4(4𝑥 − 1)

= (4𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 4)

= (4𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

e 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 5

= 2𝑥 2 (2𝑥 − 1) + 5(2𝑥 − 1)

= (2𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 2 + 5)

f 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1

= (𝑥 3 + 1) + (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)

= (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) + 2𝑥(𝑥 + 1)

= (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

g 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 + 40

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 20)

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 4)

h 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3)

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)

i 3𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 4

= (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4)

= (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

j 𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 + 30

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15)

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3)

k 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2

= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 133
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

2 a 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4) = 0

𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 ± √5

b (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3) = 0

1±√3
𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2

c (2𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥 − 6) = 0

2𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 6) − (𝑥 − 6) = 0

(𝑥 − 6)(2𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

1
𝑥 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ±�2

d (2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ) − (8𝑥 − 4) = 0

𝑥 2 (2𝑥 − 1) − 4(2𝑥 − 1) = 0

(𝑥 2 − 4)(2𝑥 − 1) = 0
1
𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2

e (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2) = 0

𝑥=1

f (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8) = 0

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 2) = 0

𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4

g (𝑥 3 − 20𝑥) + (3𝑥 2 − 60) = 0

𝑥(𝑥 2 − 20) + 3(𝑥 2 − 20) = 0

(𝑥 2 − 20)(𝑥 + 3) = 0

𝑥 = ±2√5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 134
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

3 𝑓(3) = 33 − 32 − 5(3) − 3

= 27 − 9 − 15 − 3 = 0

(𝑥 − 3) is a factor

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) = 0

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)2 = 0

𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

1 1 3 1 2 1
4 𝑔 �2� = 4 �2� − 8 �2� − 2 + 2

1 1
= −2− +2=0
2 2
(2𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2) = 0

(2𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

1 1
𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2

Chapter 8: Differential calculus

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
1 a 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = limℎ→0
ℎ

1−(𝑥+ℎ)2 −�1−𝑥2 �
= limℎ→0 ℎ

1−�𝑥 2 +2𝑥ℎ+ℎ2 �−�1−𝑥2 �

= limℎ→0 ℎ

−2𝑥ℎ−ℎ2
= limℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(−2𝑥−ℎ)
= limℎ→0
ℎ

= lim (−2𝑥 − ℎ)
ℎ→0

= −2𝑥

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 135
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
b 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = limℎ→0
ℎ

−3(𝑥+ℎ)2 −�−3𝑥2 �
= limℎ→0 ℎ

−3�𝑥 2 +2𝑥ℎ+ℎ2 �−�−3𝑥2 �

= limℎ→0 ℎ

−6𝑥ℎ−3ℎ2
= limℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(−6𝑥−3ℎ)
= limℎ→0
ℎ

= lim (−6𝑥 − 3ℎ)

ℎ→0

= −6𝑥

1
1 1
2 a 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 −2

1
𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑑𝑥
= 2 𝑥 −2 − 2 × −2𝑥 −3
1
1
= 2 𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 −3

1 1
=2 + 𝑥3
√𝑥

2𝑥 2 −𝑥−15
b 𝐷𝑥 � 𝑥−3
�

(2𝑥+5)(𝑥−3)
= 𝐷𝑥 � 𝑥−3
�

= 𝐷𝑥 [2𝑥 + 5] = 2

3 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 + 15

𝑓(−2) = −2(−2)3 + 3(−2)2 + 32(−2) + 15 = −21

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 32

𝑓 ′ (−2) = −6(−2)2 + 6(−2) + 32 = −4

Sub (−2; −21) into 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 𝑐

−21 = −4(−2) + 𝑐 𝑐 = −29 𝑦 = −4𝑥 − 29

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4
Point of
inflection

5 (2; 9) is a point on the graph and a turning point

∴ 𝑓(2) = 9 and 𝑓 ′ (2) = 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 4
0 = 3𝑎(2)2 + 10(2) + 4
∴ 𝑎 = −2

9 = (−2)(2)3 + 5(2)2 + 4(2) + 𝑏

∴ 𝑏 = −3

6 a Turning point where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 5

′′ (𝑥)
b Point of inflections is where 𝑓 = 0 , therefor where graph of 𝑓′ turns
c 𝑓 will decrease where its gradient 𝑓 ′ is negative (𝑓 ′ < 0)
−2 < 𝑥 < 5

7 a The graph bounces at 𝑥 = 1 and has an 𝑥-intercept at 𝑥 = −1

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝑎 = −1; 𝑏 = −1; 𝑐 = 1
b B is a turning point where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) = 0)
1
At B 𝑥 = − 3
1 1 3 1 2 1 32
𝑓 �− 3� = �− 3� − �− 3� − �− 3� + 1 = 27

1 32
𝐴 �− 3 ; 27�

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8 a If 𝑠(𝑡) is distance, then 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) is speed.

𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 3
b Speed is a minimum where 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡) = 6𝑡 − 4 = 0
2
𝑡=3
c 6𝑡 − 4 = 8
𝑡 = 2𝑠

9 a Volume = 2𝑥 2 ℎ = 24
12
ℎ = 𝑥 2 = 12𝑥 −2
b 𝐶(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 × 25 + 2𝑥 2 × 20 + 2 × 𝑥ℎ × 20 + 2 × 2𝑥ℎ × 20
= 90𝑥 2 + 120𝑥ℎ
= 90𝑥 2 + 120𝑥(12𝑥 −2 )
= 90𝑥 2 + 1440𝑥 −1
c 𝐶 ′ (𝑥) = 180𝑥 − 1440𝑥 −2 = 0
1440
180𝑥 − 𝑥2
=0
180𝑥 3 − 1440 = 0
𝑥3 = 8
𝑥=2

Chapter 9: AnalyticalgGeometry

1 a 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 𝑚𝐸𝐴
1−(−4) 0−2
= 5−3
−2−𝑝
5 −2
−2−𝑝
= 2
= −1
2+𝑝=5
𝑝=3
b 𝐴𝐴 = �(3 − (−2))2 + (−4 − 1)2 = 5√2
𝐶𝐷 = �(5 − 3)2 + (0 − 2)2 = 2√2
𝐴𝐴: 𝐶𝐷 = 5√2: 2√2 = 5: 2
c 𝑚𝑁𝐴 = 𝑚𝐸𝐴
𝑦+4
𝑥−3
= −1 ∴ 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 1 … (1)
𝑚𝑁𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴𝐸
𝑦−2
𝑥−3
=2 ∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4 … (2)
(1)-(2): 0 = 3𝑥 − 3
𝑥 = 1 𝑦 = −2
𝑁(1; −2)
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d B and D have the same 𝑥-coordinate, so it is a vertical line with equation 𝑥 = 3.

e Angle of inclination of a vertical line is 90°.
f Area of parallelogram = base x perpendicular height
𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐴𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 × 𝑝𝑐𝑟𝑝 ℎ𝑐𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 2√2 × 6 = 12√2
g 𝑚𝐴𝑅 = 𝑚𝐴𝐸
𝑞−1 1−0
−2+1
= −2−5
𝑞−1 1
−1
= −7
8
∴𝑞=7

2 a Substitute 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = −3 in LHS. If LHS=0, then the point 𝑁(1; −3) lies on the
circle.
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 – 8
= (1)2 + 4(1) + (−3)2 + 2(−3)– 8 = 0
∴ 𝑁 lies on the circle
b First determine the centre of the circle:
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 8 + 4 + 1
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 13
Centre of circle is 𝑀(−2; −1)
−1+3 2
𝑚𝑀𝑁 = −2−1 = − 3
MN⏊PN (radius⏊tangent)
3
∴ 𝑚𝑃𝑁 = 2
3
Substitute 𝑁(1; −3): 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 9
−3 = 2 (1) + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑐 = −2
3 9
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2
3
c 𝑠 = 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 �2� = 56,3°
d 𝑥 −intercept where 𝑦 = 0:
3 9
0 = 2𝑥 − 2 ∴𝑥=3
e 𝑦 −intercepts are where 𝑥 = 0:
(0)2 + 4(0) + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 – 8 = 0
∴ 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 – 8 = 0
(𝑦 + 4)(𝑦 − 2) = 0
The points are (0; −4) and (0; 2).

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−12
3 a 𝑚𝑅𝑂 = −6
=2
b PS⏊RN (RN is altitude of ∆)
𝑚𝑃𝑆 × 𝑚𝑅𝑁 = −1
1
∴ 𝑚𝑃𝑆 = − 2
c 𝑃(0; 6) (𝑦 −intercept of PR)
1
∴ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 6
1
d 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 �2� = 26,57°
Inclination of PS = 180° − 26,57° = 153,43°
3
e Substitute 𝑁(2𝑖; 3 5 + 𝑖) into equation of PS
3 1
3 5 + 𝑖 = − 2 (2𝑖) + 6
3
3 5 + 𝑖 = −𝑖 + 6
2 12
2𝑖 = 2 5 = 5
6
𝑖=5
f Find equation of SM. SM is the median, so M is the midpoint of PR.
−6+0 −12+6
𝑀� 2
; 2
� = (−3; −3)
𝑚𝑀𝑆 = 1 so equation of SM: 𝑦 = 𝑥
Solve equations of SM and PS simultaneously to calculate coordinates of S
1
𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 6 ∴ 𝑥 = 4; 𝑦 = 4
𝑆(4; 4)

4 a 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 – 2𝑦 = 4
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 – 2𝑦 + 1 = 4 + 4 + 1
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 9
Centre 𝑀(−2; 1) radius= 3
b Substitute 𝑁(𝑝; 1) into equation of circle.
𝑝 2 + 12 + 4(𝑝) – 2(1) – 4 = 0
𝑝2 + 4𝑝 − 5 = 0
(𝑝 + 5)(𝑝 − 1) = 0
∴ 𝑝 = 1 as 𝑝 > 0
c Radius through N is horizontal.
Therefore the tangent will be vertical.
Equation of tangent: 𝑥 = 1

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3−0
5 a 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = −3−0 = −1
AD goes through origin: So, equation is 𝑦 = −𝑥
b 𝐴𝐷2 = 𝐷𝐶 2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = (𝑥 − 6)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2
Substitute 𝑦 = −𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (−𝑥 − 3)2 = (𝑥 − 6)2 + (−𝑥 + 1)2
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 36 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
16𝑥 = 24
3 3
𝑥=2 ∴ 𝑦 = −2
3
3−(− )
c 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 3
2
=9
2−
2
Substitute 𝐴(2; 3) into 𝑦 = 9𝑥 + 𝑐
3 = 9(2) + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑐 = −15
𝑦 = 9𝑥 − 15
d Inclination of BD= 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 (9) = 83,7°
3−(−1)
𝑚𝐴𝐸 = = −1
2−6
Inclination of BC= 135°
∴ 𝑠 = 135° − 83,7° = 51,3°
3 2 3 2 √82
e 𝐴𝐷 = ��2 − 2� + �3 + 2� = 2

𝐴𝐶 = �(3 + 1)2 + (2 − 6)2 = 4√2

1
𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝐴𝐷 × 𝐴𝐶 × 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑠
1 √82
=2× × 4√2 × 𝑠𝑖𝑖51,3°
2
= 10 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑠

6 a First determine equation of AC

3−(−3)
𝑚𝐴𝐸 = = −2
2−5
Substitute (2; 3): 3 = −2(2) + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 7
7 7
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑡(𝑦 = 0): 𝑥 = 2 𝐷 �2 ; 0�
b 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶 2
(𝑝 − 5)2 + (0 + 3)2 = (5 − 2)2 + (−3 − 3)2
𝑝2 − 10𝑝 + 25 = 9 + 36
𝑝2 − 10𝑝 − 20 = 0
10±√180
𝑝= = 5 ± 3√5
2
𝑝 = 5 − 3√5
c 𝑚𝐴𝐸 = −2
𝐼𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑖 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 = 180° − 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 (2) = 116,6°
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d 𝐴(−1; 0)
3−0
𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 2+1 = 1
Inclination of 𝐴𝐴 = 45°
𝐴̂ = 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑖 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 − 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑖 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐴
= 116,6° − 45°
= 71,6°

7 The line will be a tangent if it intersects the circle in only one point.
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 into equation of circle and solve for 𝑥.
There should be only one solution.
𝑥 2 + (𝑥 + 1)2 + 6(𝑥 + 1) − 7 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 6𝑥 + 6 − 7 = 0
2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 = 0
𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = −4
The line is NOT a tangent.

8 a 𝑦 = 2 at C. Substitute into 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7 = 0
3𝑥 + 4(2) + 7 = 0
3𝑥 = −15
𝑥 = −15
∴ 𝐶(−5; 2) and the radius is 5.
(𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 25
b length of 𝐷𝐷 = 10
2+1
c 𝑚𝑃𝐴 = 0+1 = 3
1
𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 3
0−1 2−1 1 1
Midpoint of PE= � 2
; 2
� = �− 2 ; 2�
1
Substitute midpoint into 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 1 1
2
= − 3 �− 2� + 𝑐
1
𝑐=3
1 1
𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 3
1 1
d 3𝑥 + 4 �− 3 𝑥 + 3� + 7 = 0
4 4
3𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3 + 7 = 0
5 25
3
𝑥=− 3
𝑥 = −5
1 1
𝑦 = − 3 (−5) + 3 = 2 The lines intersect at (−5; 2)
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9 a Let the coordinates of S be (𝑥; 0)

ST⏊SR
4 4
𝑚𝑆𝑇 × 𝑚𝑆𝑅 = −𝑥 × 𝑥−4 = −1
𝑥(𝑥 − 4) = 16
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 16 = 0
4±�(−4)2 −4(−16)
𝑥= = 2 ± 2√5
2
But S is on positive 𝑥 −axis, so 𝑆�2 + 2√5; 0�
4−0
b 𝑚𝑆𝑇 = 0−�2+2√5� = −0,62
c Inclination of TS= 180° − 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 (0,62) = 148,20°
4+4
𝑚 𝑇𝑅 = 0−4 = −2
Inclination of TR= 180° − 𝑡𝑎𝑖−1 (2) = 116,57°
𝑅𝑇�𝑆 = 148,20° − 116,57° = 31,63°

10 a 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 – 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 3 = 0
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 = −3
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9 = −3 + 4 + 9
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 10
Centre is (2; −3)
−2+3 1
𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 5−2
=3
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = −3
Substitute (5; −2) into 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 𝑐
−2 = −3(5) + 𝑐
𝑐 = 13
∴ 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 13
b �(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = √20
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 20
Substitute 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 13 into equation above:
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (−3𝑥 + 13 + 3)2 = 20
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (−3𝑥 + 16)2 = 20
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 9𝑥 2 − 96𝑥 + 256 = 20
10𝑥 2 − 100𝑥 + 240 = 0
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 24 = 0
(𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 − 4) = 0
𝑥 = 6 or 𝑥 = 4
𝑦 = −3(6) + 13 = −5 or 𝑦 = −3(4) + 13 = 1
𝑇(6; −5) or 𝑇(4; 1)

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Chapter 10: Euclidian geometry

1 a 𝐴�1 = 𝑀�1 tan chord

𝐴�1 = 𝐶̂
∴𝑀 �1 = 𝐶̂
∴ 𝑀𝑁||𝐶𝐴 corr ∠s
b �1 = 𝑀
𝐾 �2 alt ∠s
�1 = 𝑁
𝐾 �2 tan chord
∴ ∆𝐾𝑀𝑁 is isosceles
c �4 = 𝑁
𝐾 �2 alt ∠s
𝑁�2 = 𝐴�3 ∠s in same segment
𝐴̂3 = 𝐴�3 ∠s in same segment
�
∴ 𝐾4 = 𝐴3 ̂
∴ 𝑁𝐾||𝐴𝑃 alt ∠s=
𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝐾
∴ 𝑁𝐴 = 𝐾𝑃 line || to one side of ∆
𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑀
But 𝑁𝐴
= 𝑀𝐸 line || to one side of ∆
𝐴𝐾 𝐴𝑀
∴ 𝐾𝑃 = 𝑀𝐸
d 𝐴̂3 = 𝐴�3 ∠s in same segment
𝐴�3 = 𝐴�2 equal chords subt equal ∠s
̂
∴ 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 �
∴ 𝐷𝐴 is a tangent to the circle through A, B and K

2 a 𝐶̂3 = 𝐶𝑃� 𝑅 ∠s opp equal sides

̂ ̂ ̂
𝐶3 + 𝐶2 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴� ext ∠ of ∆
𝐶̂2 = 𝐴� tan chord
̂
∴ 𝐶3 = 𝐴1̂
∴ 𝐴̂1 = 𝐶𝑃�𝑅 both = 𝐶̂3
ACPR is a cyclic quadrilateral (ext ∠ of quad)
b In ∆𝐶𝐴𝐴 and ∆𝑅𝑃𝐴:
𝑃�2 = 𝐶̂2 ∠s in same segment
= 𝐴� proven in 2 a
∴ 𝐴� = 𝑃�2
𝐶̂1 = 𝐴𝑅� 𝑃 ext ∠ of cyclic quad
𝐴̂1 = 𝐴̂3 3rd ∠ of ∆
∴ ∆𝐶𝐴𝐴|||∆𝑅𝑃𝐴 ∠∠∠

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𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝐴
c 𝐸𝐴
= 𝐸𝐴 from 2 b
𝐸𝐴.𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝑃 = 𝐸𝐴
but 𝑅𝑃 = 𝑅𝐶
𝐸𝐴.𝑅𝐴
∴ 𝑅𝐶 = 𝐸𝐴
d In ∆𝑅𝐴𝐶 and ∆𝑅𝐶𝐴:
𝐶̂2 = 𝐴� tan chord
𝑅�1 is common
𝑅𝐶̂ 𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴̂𝐶 3rd angle
∴ ∆𝑅𝐴𝐶|||∆𝑅𝐶𝐴 ∠∠∠
𝐴𝐸 𝑅𝐸
𝐸𝐴
= 𝑅𝐴 ∆𝑠 |||
𝑅𝐴. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶. 𝐶𝐴
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
e 𝑅𝑃
= 𝑅𝐴 from 2 b
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝑅𝐸
= 𝑅𝐴 RC=RP
𝐸𝐴.𝑅𝐴
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝐸
…(i)
𝑅𝐸.𝐸𝐴
From 2 d 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝐴
𝐸𝐴.𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐸.𝐸𝐴
∴ 𝑅𝐸
= 𝑅𝐴
2
∴ 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐴. 𝑅𝐴

3 a 𝐴�2 = 𝐴̂3 = 𝑥 ∠s opp equal sides

𝑀�1 = 180° − 2𝑥 sum ∠s of ∆
∴𝐷 � = 2𝑥
𝑀 �
bi 𝐶̂ = 21 ∠ at centre =2x∠circ
= 90° − 𝑥
𝐶𝐴� 𝐷 = 180° − (90° − 𝑥 + 2𝑥) sum ∠s of ∆
= 90° − 𝑥
𝑁�1 = 𝐶̂ = 90° − 𝑥 ext ∠ of cyclic quad
∴ 𝐶𝐴� 𝐷 = 𝑁 �1
∴ 𝐶𝐴||𝐴𝑁 corr ∠s
b ii � �
𝐶𝐴 𝐴 = 𝐷 = 2𝑥 tan chord
𝐶𝐴� 𝐴 = 𝐴̂2 alt ∠s
𝐴̂2 = 𝐷
�
∴AB is a tangent (∠betw line&chord= ∠sub chord)

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4 a 𝐴�3 = 𝐷�1 = 𝑥 ∠s in same segment

𝐴�3 = 𝐷�2 = 𝑥 ∠s opp = sides
�
𝐴𝑂𝐷 = 180° − 2𝑥 sum ∠s of ∆
𝐴̂ = 90° − 𝑥 ∠ at centre =2x∠circ
bi 𝐶̂1 = 90° − 𝑥 ext ∠ of cyclic quad
𝐷�2 = 180° − (𝑥 + 90° − 𝑥) sum ∠s of ∆
= 90°
In ∆𝐴𝐷𝐷 and ∆𝐶𝐷𝐷:
𝐷�1 = 𝐷�2 = 90° adj ∠s str line
BF = FC
FE is common
∆𝐴𝐷𝐷 ≡ ∆𝐶𝐷𝐷 s∠s
BE = EC (≡)
ii 𝐴�1 = 90° − 𝑥 sum ∠s of ∆
∴ 𝐴�1 = 𝐴̂
∴ BE is not a tangent �𝐴�1 + 𝐴�2 ≠ 𝐴̂�

5 a P is midpoint of AC medians concur

AB||PM midpt theorem
In ∆𝐴𝑁𝐶:
𝑁𝐴 𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
𝑁𝐸
= 𝐴𝐸
= 𝐴𝐸 line || 1 side of ∆
𝐴𝑀 1
= 2𝐴𝑀 = 2
b In ∆𝐴𝑀𝑃:
𝐴𝑂 2𝑂𝑀
𝑂𝑀
= 𝑂𝑀
𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝑃
𝑃𝐸
= 𝐴𝑃 BP is a median
𝑂𝑀
= 𝐴𝑀 line || 1 side of ∆
𝑂𝑀
= 3𝑂𝑀
1
=3

6 a 𝐶̂2 = 90° ∠ in semi ⊙

𝑀�2 = 90° AM⏊NM
∴ 𝑁𝑄||𝐶𝐷 corr ∠s=
b 𝐶̂1 = 𝑁
� || lines, corr ∠s
𝐴̂2 = 𝐶̂1 tan chord
=𝑁�
∴ ANCQ is a cyclic quad ∠s subt by same line segm
_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 146
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

ci In ∆𝑃𝐶𝐷 and ∆𝑃𝐴𝐶:

𝐶̂1 = 𝐴̂2 tan chord
𝑃� is common
𝐷�1 = 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝑃 3rd ∠
∴ ∆𝑃𝐶𝐷 ||| ∆𝑃𝐴𝐶 ∠∠∠
ii 𝑃𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝑃. 𝐷𝑃
d In ∆𝑁𝐴𝐶 and ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷:
𝑁� = 𝐴̂2 ∠s in same segm
= 𝐴�2 ∠s in same segm
𝐶̂4 = 𝐴̂1 tan chord
=𝐷 �2 ∠s in same segm
𝐴�1 = 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐷 3rd ∠
∴ ∆𝑁𝐴𝐶 ≡ ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 ∠∠∠
𝐴𝐸 𝐸𝐴
∴ 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐴
𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝐷. 𝑁𝐴
𝐴𝑀2 𝐴𝐸 2 −𝐴𝑀2
e 1− =
𝐴𝐸 2 𝐴𝐸 2
𝑀𝐸 2
= Pyth.
𝐴𝐸 2
𝑃𝐸 2
= 𝐴𝐸 2
𝐴𝑃.𝐴𝑃
= 𝐸𝐴.𝑁𝐴

Chapter 11: Statistics: regression and correlation

1 a
Lower Q Median Upper Q
Matches played 3 5 6
Wins 1 7 3
Goals scored against 3 4,5 9

Positively skewed (skewed to the right)

65
c 14
= 4,64
d Standard deviation = 1,72

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 147
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

2 a
% transport costs
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60

% transport costs

b Median = ±32%
c
Class midpoint Frequency FreqxMidpoint
15 6 90
25 14 350
35 16 560
45 11 495
55 3 165
TOTAL 50 1660
1660
Estimated mean 𝑥̅ = 50 = 33,2%

d
Class midpt 𝑥𝑖 Freq 𝑓 𝑥̅ − 𝑥𝑖 (𝑥̅ − 𝑥𝑖 )2 𝑓(𝑥̅ − 𝑥𝑖 )2
15 6 -18,2 331,24 1987,44
25 14 -8,2 67,24 941,36
35 16 1,8 3,24 51,84
45 11 11,8 139,24 1531,64
55 3 21,8 475,24 1425,72
TOTAL 50 5938

5938
Standard deviation= � 50
= 10,90

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 148
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

3 a&c 20 Di sta nce

15

10

VO2
10 20 30 40 50 60

b 𝑦 = 0,2432𝑥 + 3,6834
d Substitute 𝑦 = 19 then 𝑥 = 62,98 (VO2)
e 𝑟 = 0,8985 …
Strong positive correlation

4
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑐𝑟 (𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑐𝑟 − 𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑖)2
4 36
8 4
10 0
𝑥 (𝑥 − 10)2
𝑦 (𝑦 − 10)2

Mean= 10
4+8+10+𝑥+𝑦
∴ 5
= 10
Which simplifies to: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 28 … . (1)

Standard deviation = 4
36+4+0+(𝑥−10)2 +(𝑦−10)2
∴� =4
5
Which simplifies to: (𝑥 − 10)2 + (𝑦 − 10)2 = 40 … (2)
Substitute 𝑦 = 28 − 𝑥 from (1) into (2):
𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 192 = 0
(𝑥 − 12)(𝑥 − 16) = 0
𝑥 = 12 or 𝑥 = 16
𝑦 = 16 or 𝑦 = 12

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 149
 Answers to Mixed Exercises

5 The standard deviation will remain 7,5.

If all the numbers are 2 bigger, then the mean will also be 2 bigger.
The difference between each number and the mean will therefore remain the same
leaving the standard deviation unchanged.

Chapter 12: Probability

1 7 spaces that have to be filled using 7 digits without repetition(as 0,7 and 4 may not be
used again)
∴ 7! = 5040

2 7 spaces have to be filled – 10 digits are available for each space

∴ 107 = 10 000 000

1
3 P(Queen of diamonds)= 52

4 a 11!
11!
b 2!2!2!2!2!
= 1 247 400 (5 letters repeat)

5 a Regard the 4 English books as a unit. The number of arrangements for the English
books is 4!=24
Total number of arrangements= 4! × 6! = 17 280
b 4! × 3! × 2! × 3! = 1728
c 9! = 362 880

6 12 × 11 = 132

11!
7 First calculate the total number of words: 2!2!2! = 4 989 600
Now calculate how many of these WILL start and end on the same letter.
It can start and end with M, A or T
9!
∴ 2!2! = 90720
90 720 54
P(not start and end on same letter)= 1 − 4 989 600 = 55

10!×2 10!
8 a 2!2!2!
= 907 200 b 2!2!2!
= 453 600

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 150
 Exemplar Paper 1

Exemplar Paper 1 (3 hours; 150 marks)

1 a Solve for 𝑥:
2
i 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥+1 (4)

ii 𝑥 − √𝑥 = 6 (4)
(𝑥 2 +4)(2−𝑥)
iii 𝑥+2
≥0 (6)

iv 5𝑥−2 + 5𝑥+1 = 126 (5)

b Consider the equation: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 9𝑝
If (2𝑥 + 𝑝) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑝 ≠ 0, determine the value(s) of 𝑏. (5)
c 2 is a root of 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 𝑝 = 0. Determine the value of 𝑝 and hence the
other root. (4)
[28]

2 a The sum of the first 20 terms of an arithmetic progression is 410, while the
sum of the next 30 terms is 2865. Determine the first three terms of the
progression. (7)
b 3; 𝑥; 15; 𝑦; 35 is a quadratic sequence.
i Determine the values if 𝑥 and 𝑦. (4)
ii Determine formula for 𝑇𝑛 . (4)
c Find 𝑖 such that ∑𝑛𝑘=7(2𝑘 − 3) is equal to the sum of the first 6 terms of the
sequence −24; 48; −96; … (7)
d For which value(s) of 𝑥 will the following series be convergent?
(𝑥 + 2) + (𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑥 + 2)3 + ⋯ (2)
[24]

3 a Melissa decides to save R1 200 per month for a certain period. The bank offers
her an interest rate of 12% p.a. compounded monthly for this period.
Determine how long Melissa has to make this monthly payment if she wants to
have a lump sum of R200 000. (5)

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 151
 Exemplar Paper 1

b Richard plans to buy a house on a 20 year mortgage and can only afford to pay
R5 000 per month. If the interest rate is currently 12% per annum compounded
monthly, determine the size of the mortgage he can take, if he starts paying
one month after the mortgage was approved. (3)
c An amount of R300 000 is to be used to provide quarterly withdrawals for the
next 10 years. The withdrawal amount will remain fixed and the first
withdrawal will be in 3 months’ time. An interest rate of 15% p.a. compounded
quarterly applies. Determine the value of each quarterly withdrawal. (4)
[12]

1 1
4 In the diagram 𝑓 is the graph of 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 + 𝑘 cuts the 𝑥 −axis at B and C
3
and the 𝑦 −axis at D. 𝑔 is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 2 and cuts the 𝑥 −axis at B. ℎ is

the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 and cuts the 𝑦 −axis at D. QR and ST are parallel to the 𝑦 −axis.
1
𝐴 �𝑥; 4� is a point on ℎ and vertically above C.
y
h
g

Q S
D

A
x
P B F C

f
R

a Determine the values of 𝑘 and 𝑚. (6)

b Determine the value of 𝑎. (2)
c Calculate the length of QR if OP = 2 units. (4)
d Determine the length op OF, if ST = 4 units. (4)
e Determine the equation of ℎ−1. (2)
f Write down the domain of ℎ−1 . (2)
[20]

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 152
 Exemplar Paper 1

𝑎
5 The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 13 intersect each other. The

asymptotes of 𝑓(𝑥) intersect in(6; −8). 𝑓(𝑥) goes through (7; −4).

y
y = 2x - 13
x

·
(7;-4)

(6;-8)

a Determine the values of a, 𝑏 and 𝑐. (4)

b Determine the co-ordinates of the intersects of 𝑓 and 𝑔. (5)
c For which values of 𝑥 would 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥)? (3)
d Determine the equation of the dotted line which is the axis of symmetry of the
hyperbola. (3)
[15]

6 Determine:
𝑥 2 −1
a lim𝑥→1 1−𝑥
(3)

b 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 . (4)

1
c 𝑔′ (𝑡) if 𝑔(𝑡) = 2√𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 ; 𝑡 ≠ 0 (4)

[11]

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 153
 Exemplar Paper 1

7 The figure shows the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 3. The curve has a local
minimum turning point F at (2; −9).
y
D

A B C x

F (2;−9)

a Show that 𝑎 = −5 and 𝑏 = −4. (6)

b If it is given that 𝐴(−1; 0), calculate the coordinates of B and C. (5)
c Determine the equation of the tangent to the graph at 𝑥 = 3. (4)
[15]

8 A container firm is designing an open-top rectangular box that will hold 108 𝑐𝑚3 .
The box has a square base with sides 𝑥 and height ℎ.

𝑥
a Show that the total outside surface area of the 𝑥
432
box will be 𝑆 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
. (4)

b For which value of 𝑥 and ℎ will the outer surface area

be a minimum. (5)
[9]

9 a A six-member working group is to be selected from five teachers and nine

students. If the working group is randomly selected, what is the probability
that it will include at least two teachers? (4)

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 154
 Exemplar Paper 1

b 𝑃(𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴) = 0,6 and 𝑃(𝐴) = 0,2

i Find 𝑃(𝐴) given that events A and B are mutually exclusive. (2)
ii Find 𝑃(𝐴) given that events A and B are independent. (4)
c i In how many ways can the letters of the word PROBABILITY
be arranged to form different “words” – the word “probability” itself
is included? (3)
ii In how many ways can the letters of the word PROBABILITY
be arranged to form different “words” if the R and O have to be kept
together? (3)
[16]

MEMORANDUM: Exemplar Paper 1

2
1 a i 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥+1
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 + 3) = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3
ii 𝑥 − √𝑥 = 6
Let = √𝑥 , then 𝑘 2 = 𝑥
𝑘2 − 𝑘 − 6 = 0
(𝑘 − 3)(𝑘 + 2) = 0
𝑘 = √𝑥 = 3 or 𝑘 = √𝑥 = −2
𝑥=9 Not valid
(𝑥 2 +4)(2−𝑥)
iii 𝑥+2
≥0

(𝑥 2 + 4) > 0 for all values of 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

(2−𝑥)
(𝑥+2)
≥0
(𝑥−2)
(𝑥+2)
≤0
∴ −2 < 𝑥 ≤ 2

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 155
 Exemplar Paper 1

iv 5𝑥−2 + 5𝑥+1 = 126

5𝑥 . 5−2 + 5𝑥 . 51 = 126
1
5𝑥 �25 + 5� = 126
126
5𝑥 � 25 � = 126
5𝑥 = 52
𝑥=2
𝑝 −𝑝 3 𝑝 2 𝑝
b If (2𝑥 + 𝑝) is a factor, then 𝑓 �− 2� = 2 � 2 � + 𝑝 �− 2� + 𝑏 �− 2� − 9𝑝 = 0
𝑝3 𝑝3 𝑏𝑝
− + − − 9𝑝 = 0
4 4 2
× 2) 𝑏𝑝 = −18𝑝
÷ 𝑝) 𝑏 = −18
c Substitute 𝑥 = 2: 2(2)2 − 3(2) − 𝑝 = 0
∴𝑝=2
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
1
∴ 𝑥 = − 2 is the other root

2 a 𝑆20 = 410
𝑆50 = 𝑆20 + 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑥𝑡 30 𝑡𝑐𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 410 + 2865 = 3275
20
410 = [2𝑎 + 19𝑑]
2
41 = 2𝑎 + 19𝑑 … . (1)
50
3275 = [2𝑎 + 49𝑑]
2
131 = 2𝑎 + 49𝑑 … . (2)
(2)-(1): 30𝑑 = 90
∴ 𝑑 = 3 en 𝑎 = −8
b i 𝑥 = 8 ; 𝑦 = 24
ii T: 3 ; 8 ; 15 ; 24 ; 35
𝑓: 5 ; 7 ; 9 ; 11
𝑠: 2 ; 2 ; 2
𝑎 =2÷2=1 𝑏 = 5 − 3(1) = 2 𝑐 =3−1−2 =0
2
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑖 + 2𝑖

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 156
 Exemplar Paper 1

c −24; 48; −96; … is a geometric series with 𝑎 = −24 and 𝑟 = −2

−24�(−2)6 −1�
𝑆6 = −2−1
= 504
∑𝑛𝑘=7(2𝑘 − 3) = 11 + 13 + 15 + ⋯ + (2𝑖 − 3)
𝑛
504 = [2(11) + (𝑖 − 1)(2)]
2
2
𝑖 + 10𝑖 − 504 = 0
(𝑖 + 28)(𝑖 − 18) = 0
∴ 𝑖 = 18
d 𝑟 =𝑥+2
For convergent series −1 < 𝑟 < 1
−1 < 𝑥 + 2 < 1
−3 < 𝑥 < −1

0,12 𝑛
1200[�1+ � −1]
3 a 200 000 = 12
0,12
12
5
(1,01)𝑛 =
3
5
𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑖 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔1,01
3
= 51,33755

Melissa must make at least 52 payments

0,12 −240
5000�1−�1+ � �
12
b 𝑃= 0,12 = 𝑅454 097,08
12
0,15 −40
𝑥�1−�1+ � �
4
c 300000 = 0,15
4
0,15
300000×
𝑥= 4
0,15 −40
= 𝑅14957,84
�1−�1+ � �
4

4 a D is the 𝑦 −intercept of 𝑓 and ℎ .

Substitute 𝑥 = 0 into 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥
∴𝑦=1
∴𝑘=1
To find 𝑚 we need the coordinates of A.
First find the roots of 𝑓 os we can get the 𝑥-value of A.
1 1
− 2 𝑥2 + 2 𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 2 at C and A
_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 157
 Exemplar Paper 1

1
Sub 𝐴 �2; 4� into 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥
1
4
= 𝑚2
1
∴𝑚=2
3 3
b Sub 𝐴(−1; 0): 0 = 𝑎(−1) − 2 ∴ 𝑎 = −2

c 𝑥 = −2 at Q and R
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑦𝑄 − 𝑦𝑅
3 3 1 1
= − 2 (−2) − 2 − [ − 2 (−2)2 + 2 (−2) + 1]
7
=2
1 1 3 3
d − 2 𝑥2 + 2 𝑥 + 1 + 2 𝑥 + 2 = 4
1 3
− 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
∴ 𝑂𝐷 = 1
e ℎ−1 = log 1 𝑥
2

f 𝑥 > 0; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

5 a Asymptotes go through (6; −8)

∴ 𝑏 = −6 and 𝑐 = −8
𝑎
Substitute (7; −4) into 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−6 − 8
𝑎
−4 = 7−6 − 8
∴𝑎=4
4
b 𝑥−6
− 8 = 2𝑥 − 13
4
𝑥−6
= 2𝑥 − 5
4 = (2𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 6)
2𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 + 26 = 0
(2𝑥 − 13)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
13
𝑥= 2
or 𝑥 = 2

𝑦 = 0 or 𝑦 = −9
13
Intersects are � 2 ; 0� and (2; −9)
13
c 𝑥 ∈ [2; 6) or 𝑥 ∈ [ 2 ; ∞)

d Substitute (6; −8) into 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐

−8 = 6 + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑐 = −14 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 14
_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 158
 Exemplar Paper 1

𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
6 a lim𝑥→1 1−𝑥
= lim𝑥→1
−(𝑥−1)
= lim𝑥→1 −(𝑥 + 1) = −2
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
b 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = limℎ→0
ℎ
−2(𝑥+ℎ)2 −�−2𝑥 2 �
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
−2𝑥ℎ−2ℎ2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim − 2𝑥 − ℎ
ℎ→0
= −2𝑥
1
1 1
c 𝑔(𝑡) = 2√𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 = 2𝑡 2 + 2 𝑡 −2
1
1 1
𝑔′ (𝑡) = 2 × 2 𝑡 −2 + 2 × −2𝑡 −3
1 1
= − 𝑡3
√𝑡

7 a 𝑓(2) = −9 and 𝑓 ′ (2) = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
0 = 6(2)2 + 2𝑎(2) + 𝑏
4𝑎 + 𝑏 = −24 … . (1)
−9 = 2(2)3 + 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) + 3
2𝑎 + 𝑏 = −14…(2)
(1)-(2): 2𝑎 = −10
∴ 𝑎 = −5
𝑏 = −2𝑎 − 14
= −2(−5) − 14 = −4
b From (a) it follows that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
If 𝑥 = −1 is a root, then (𝑥 + 1) is a factor of 𝑓
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
= (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 3
= (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
1
𝑥 = −1, or 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = 3
1
𝐴 �2 ; 0� and 𝐶(3; 0)

c 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 4
𝑓 ′ (3) = 6(3)2 − 10(3) − 4 = 20
Sub (3; 0) into 𝑦 = 20𝑥 + 𝑐
Eq of tangent: 𝑦 = 20𝑥 − 60

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 159
 Exemplar Paper 1

8 a Volume = 108
𝑥 2 ℎ = 108
108
∴ℎ= 𝑥2
2
𝑆 = 𝑥 + 4𝑥ℎ
108
= 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 � 𝑥 2 �
432
= 𝑥2 + 𝑥

b 𝑆 will be a minimum where 𝑆 ′ (𝑥) = 0

𝑆 = 𝑥 2 + 432𝑥 −1
432
𝑆 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥2
=0
𝑥 3 = 216
108
𝑥 = 6 𝑚 and ℎ = (6)2 = 3 𝑚

14!
9 a Total number of different six-member groups= 7!
= 17 297 280
9!
Number of groups with no teacher= 3! = 60 480

Number of groups with one teacher only= 5 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 = 75 600

Total number of groups with less than two teachers= 136 080
Total number of groups with two or more teachers
= 17 297 280 − 136 080 = 17 161 200
17 161 200
P(two or more teachers)= 17297280
= 0,99

bi 𝑃(𝐴𝑜𝑟𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴) for mutually exclusive

0,6 = 0,2 + 𝑃(𝐴)
𝑃(𝐴) = 0,4
ii 𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐴) for independentevents
𝑃(𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝐴)
𝑃(𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐴)
0,6 = 0,2 + 𝑃(𝐴) − 0,2𝑃(𝐴)
0,4 = 0,8𝑃(𝐴)
𝑃(𝐴) = 0,5
11!
ci 2!2!
= 9 979 200
10!
ii 2!2!
= 907 200

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 160
 Exemplar Paper 2

Exemplar Paper 2 (3 hours; 150 marks)

1 Given the following box-and-whisker plot:

a Which quarter has the smallest spread of data?

What is the spread? (2)
b Determine the inter quartile range. (2)
c Are there more data in the interval 5-10 or in the interval 10-13?
How do you know this? (2)
d Which interval has the fewest data in it? Is it 0-2, 2-4, 10-12 or
12-13? How do you know it? (2)
[8]

2 A factory produces and stockpiles metal sheets to be shipped to a motor

vehicle manufacturing plant. The factory only ships when there is a minimum
of 3254 sheets in stock at the beginning of that day. The table shows the day
and the number of sheets in stock at the beginning of that day.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sheets 854 985 1054 1195 1204 1384

a Determine the equation of the least squares regression line for this set of
data rounding coefficients to three decimal places. (3)
b Use this equation to determine the day the sheets will be shipped. (3)
[6]

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 161
 Exemplar Paper 2

3 The ogive below represents the results of a survey amongst first year students on the
average time per day they spend exercising. Answer the questions that follow.

a How many students participated in the survey? (1)

b Approximately how many students spend more between 10 and 20 minutes
per day exercising? (1)
c Use the ogive to determine the median time spent on daily exercise. (2)
[4]

4 In the diagram, KC is a diameter of the circle

and 𝐾(1; 4); 𝐶(7; 2) and 𝐴(𝑥; 𝑦) are points
on the circle.

Determine:
a the equation of the circle (5)
1
b point B if the gradient of KB= 2 (9)

[14]

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 162
 Exemplar Paper 2

5 In the diagram, ABCD is a quadrilateral

with 𝐴(4; 12), 𝐴(1; 3), 𝐶(4; 2) and D(8;4).

a Determine the gradients of BC and CD. (4)

b Show that AB ⏊ BC. (3)
c Prove that ABCD is a cyclic
quadrilateral. (4)
d Determine the equation of the circle ABCD. (7)
[18]

6 Given the vertices 𝐴(2; 3), 𝐴(5; 4), 𝐶(4; 2) and 𝐷(1; 1) of parallelogram ABCD.
Determine:
a the coordinates of M, the point of intersection of diagonals AC
and BD (2)
b the equation of the median PM of ∆DMC (5)
[7]

5
7 a If 𝑠𝑐𝑐𝐴 = 4 and 180° < 𝐴 < 360°, determine the following without the use of a

calculator:
i 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 (1)
ii 𝑠𝑖𝑖2𝐴 (4)
𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑎73°
b If 𝑠𝑖𝑖17° = 𝑘, express 𝑎𝑜𝑠343°
in terms of 𝑘. (3)

[8]

8 a Determine the value of the following without using a calculator:

𝑐𝑜𝑠69°. 𝑐𝑜𝑠9° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠81°. 𝑐𝑜𝑠21° (4)
b Consider the following identity:
1+𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥+𝑎𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
i For which values of 𝑥 will the identity be undefined? (4)
i Prove the identity. (4)
[12]
_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 163
 Exemplar Paper 2

9 a Solve the following equations for the interval [−90°; 90°]:

i 2𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = −0,6842 (2)
ii 𝑠𝑖𝑖2𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 0,5 (2)
b Determine the general solution of:
1
cos �2 𝑥 + 15°� = sin(2𝑥 − 15°) (5)

[9]

10 The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 are drawn over the interval

y
2

−180 −150 −120 −90 −60 −30 30 60 90 120 150 180

−1

−2

a Write down the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏. (2)

b Use your graph to determine approximate values of 𝑥; 𝑥 ∈ [−180°; 180] for
1
which 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 2 (5)

[7]

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 164
 Exemplar Paper 2

11 In the diagram below, Q is the base of a vertical tower PQ, while R and S are points
in the same horizontal plane as Q. The angle of elevation of P, the top
of the tower, as measured from R, is 𝑥. Furthermore, 𝑅𝑄� 𝑆 = 𝑦, 𝑄𝑆 = 𝑎 𝑚𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑐𝑠
and the area of ∆𝑄𝑅𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑚2.

2𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
a Show that 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
(5)

b Calculate the value of 𝑦 if 𝑃𝑄 = 76,8𝑚; 𝑎 = 87,36; 𝐴 = 480,9𝑚2 and

𝑥 = 46,5°. (3)
[8]

12 a Write down the converse of the following theorem:

The angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord drawn through
the point of contact, is equal to an angle in the alternate segment. (2)

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 165
 Exemplar Paper 2

b The diagonal AC of quadrilateral ABCD bisects 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐷 while AD is

a tangent to the circle ABC at point A. Prove that AB is a tangent to
circle ACD.
(5)

c Two circles intersect at A and B. AB is produced to P. PQ is a tangent to the

smaller circle at Q. QB produced meets the larger circle at R. PR cuts the
larger circle at X. AX and AQ are drawn.
Prove that:
i Points A, X, P and Q are on the circumference of the same circle.
(5)
ii PQ is a tangent to the circumscribed circle of ∆𝑄𝑅𝑋. (3)

[15]

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 166
 Exemplar Paper 2

13 a In ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 and ∆𝐷𝐷𝐷, 𝐴̂ = 𝐷

� and 𝐴� = 𝐷� .
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
Prove the theorem that 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐴𝐸 . (8)

b In the diagram A, B, C and E are points on a circle.

AE bisects 𝐴𝐴̂𝐶 and BC.
AE intersect in D.

Prove that:

i ∆𝐴𝐴𝐷///∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 (4)

ii 𝐴𝐴. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐷. 𝐷𝐶 (7)

[19]

𝐴𝑅 3
14 In ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶 , P is the midpoint of AC, RS//BP and 𝐴𝐴 = 5.

CR and BP intersect at T.
Determine, giving reasons, the following ratios:
𝐴𝑆
a 𝑆𝑃
(4)
𝐴𝑆
b 𝑆𝐸
(3)
𝑅𝑇
c 𝑇𝐸
(3)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∆𝑇𝑃𝐸
d 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∆𝑅𝑆𝐸
(6)

[15]
TOTAL: 150

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 167
 Exemplar Paper 2

MEMORANDUM: Exemplar Paper 2

1 a Fourth quarter. Spread = 13 − 12 = 1

b IQR= 12 − 2 = 10
c More data in 10-13
Median = 10 and Max=13. Therefore 50% of the data lies in interval 10-13
25% of data lies between 2-10. Therefore less than 50% in 5-10
d 2-4 has fewest data
0-2, 2-10 ,10-12 and 12-13 all represent 25% of the data
2-4 will only be a part of 25% (less than 25%)

2 a 𝑦 = 767,867 + 98,514𝑥
b 3254 = 767,867 + 98,514𝑥
98,514𝑥 = 2486,133
𝑥 = 25,236
Shipping will be done on the 26th day.

3 a 100
b 80-20=60
c 14 minutes

1+7 4+2
4 a Midpoint= � 2
; 2
� = (4; 3)

Radius = �(4 − 1)2 + (3 − 4)2 = √10

(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 10
b KB ⏊ BC (𝐴� = 90°; angle in semi circle)
𝑚𝐴𝐸 = −2
𝑦−4 1
∴ 𝑚𝐾𝐴 = 𝑥−1 = 2 2(𝑦 − 4) = 𝑥 − 1 …..(1)
𝑦−2
∴ 𝑚𝐴𝐸 = 𝑥−7 = −2 (𝑦 − 2) = −2(𝑥 − 7) … … (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously yields:
𝑥 = 5 ;𝑦 = 6

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 168
 Exemplar Paper 2

3−2 1 4−2 1
5 a 𝑚𝐴𝐸 = 1−4 = − 3 𝑚𝐸𝐴 = 8−4 = 2
12−3 1
b 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 4−1
=3 ∴ 𝑚𝐴𝐴 × 𝑚𝐴𝐸 = − 3 × 3 = −1
∴ AB ⏊ BC
12−4 1
c 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 4−8
= −2 ∴ 𝑚𝐸𝐴 × 𝑚𝐴𝐴 = 2 × −2 = −1
∴ AD ⏊ CD
𝐴� = 90° from 5 b � = 90°
𝐷
𝐴� + 𝐷
� = 180°
ABCD is a cyclic quad (opp angles supp)
d AC is diameter of circle( angles in semi circle =90°)
4+4 12+2
Midpoint of AC= � 2
; 2
� = (4; 7)

Radius = 12 − 7 = 5
(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 7)2 = 25

2+4 3+2 5
6 a M� 2
; 2
� = �3; 2� (diagonals bisect each other)

b Median PM join M with point P on DC, where P is the midpoint of DC

1+4 1+2 5 3
P� 2
; 2
� = �2 ; 2�

1 4
7 a i 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝐴 = 5

ii 𝑠𝑖𝑖2𝐴 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑖𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
−3 4
=2× 5
×5
−24
= 25

b
1
𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑎73° 𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑎17° 1
17° = = 𝑘
=
𝑎𝑜𝑠343° cos 17° �𝑘2 −1 𝑘√𝑘 2 −1
1

8 a 𝑐𝑜𝑠69°. 𝑐𝑜𝑠9° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠81°. 𝑐𝑜𝑠21° = 𝑠𝑖𝑖21°. 𝑐𝑜𝑠9° + 𝑠𝑖𝑖9°. 𝑐𝑜𝑠21°

= sin(21° + 9°)
1
= sin 30 ° = 2

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 169
 Exemplar Paper 2

b i Undefined at asymptotes of tan 𝑥: 𝑥 = 90° + 𝑘. 180°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍

Also undefined where 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑖2𝑥 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥(1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = 0
1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 0 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = − 2

𝑥 = 𝑘. 360° or 𝑥 = ±120° + 𝑘. 360°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍

1+𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥+𝑎𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1+𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥+2𝑎𝑜𝑠2 𝑥−1
ii 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑎𝑜𝑠
𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥(1+2𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥)
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1+2𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝑎𝑜𝑠𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

9 a i 2𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = −0,6842
𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = −0,3421
𝑥 = −18,89°
ii 𝑠𝑖𝑖2𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 0,5
sin(2𝑥 − 𝑥) = 0,5
𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 0,5
𝑥 = 60°
1
b cos �2 𝑥 + 15°� = sin(2𝑥 − 15°)
1
cos �2 𝑥 + 15°� = cos[90° −(2𝑥 − 15°)]
1
cos �2 𝑥 + 15°� = cos[90° −(2𝑥 − 15°)]
1
cos �2 𝑥 + 15°� = cos(105° − 2𝑥)
1
�2 𝑥 + 15°� = (105° − 2𝑥) + 𝑘. 360°
1
or �2 𝑥 + 15°� = −(105° − 2𝑥) + 𝑘. 360°
𝑥 = 36° + 𝑘. 144°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 𝑥 = 80° − 𝑘. 240°; 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍

10 a 𝑎 = 2; 𝑏 = 2
1
b 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 2
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥 = 1
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑥
∴ It is where the two graphs meet.
𝑥 = 20° 𝑜𝑟 160°

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 170
 Exemplar Paper 2

𝑃𝑄
11 a 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑅 ∴ 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥
1
Area of ∆𝑄𝑅𝑆 = 2 𝑄𝑆. 𝑄𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑄𝑅� 𝑆
1
∴ 𝐴 = 2 𝑎 × 𝑄𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑦
2𝐴
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
2𝐴 2𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
2(480,9)𝑡𝑎𝑛46,5°
b 76,8 = 87,36𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
2(480,9)𝑡𝑎𝑛46,5°
𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑦 = 87,36(76,8)
= 0,151064
𝑦 = 8,69° 𝑜𝑟 171,31°

12 a If a line is drawn through the endpoint of a chord to form an angle which is

equal to the angle in the opposite segment, then this line is a tangent.
b 𝐴̂2 = 𝐴� = 𝑥 tan chord
𝐶̂1 = 𝐶̂2 = 𝑦 given
𝐴̂1 = 180° − (𝑥 + 𝑦) sum of angles of ∆𝐴𝐴𝐶
� = 180° − (𝑥 + 𝑦) sum of angles of ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶
𝐷
∴ 𝐴̂1 = 𝐷
�
∴ AB is a tangent to the circle
c i 𝑋�1 = 𝐴�2 angles in same segm
= 𝐴̂2 + 𝑄�3 ext angle of triangle
But
𝐴̂2 = 𝑄�1 + 𝑄�2 tan chord
∴ 𝑋�1 = 𝑄�1 + 𝑄�2 + 𝑄�3
∴ A,X,P,Q concyclic (ext angle = opp int angle)
ii 𝑄�1 = 𝐴̂1 AXPQ cyclic quad
= 𝑅� angles in same segm
∴ PQ is a tangent

_____________________________________________________________________________________
©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 171
 Exemplar Paper 2

13 a Book work
b i In ∆ABD and ∆AEC:
𝐴̂1 = 𝐴̂2 given
𝐴� = 𝐷� angles in same segm
∴∆ABD⦀∆AEC (AAA)
ii In ∆ABD and ∆CED:
𝐴� = 𝐷� proven
�1 = 𝐷
𝐷 �2 vert opp ⊾s
∴∆ABD⦀∆CED (AAA)
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
∴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐸
∴𝐴𝐴. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷. 𝐴𝐷
= (𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐷)𝐴𝐷
= 𝐴𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐷. 𝐷𝐷
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
But [Link]=[Link] (𝐴𝐸 = 𝐴𝐴 )
∴𝐴𝐴. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐷. 𝐷𝐶

𝐴𝑅 3
14 a 𝐴𝐴
= 5 given
Let 𝐴𝑅 = 3𝑘 and 𝐴𝐴 = 5𝑘
𝐴𝑆 3
∴ 𝑆𝑃 = 2 RS//BP
b Let 𝐴𝑆 = 3𝑚 and 𝐴𝑃 = 5𝑚
but AP=PC (given)
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑃𝐶 = 5𝑚
𝐴𝑆 3𝑚 3
∴ 𝑆𝐸 = 7𝑚 = 7
𝑅𝑇 2𝑚
c 𝑇𝐸
= 5𝑚 RS//TP
2
=5
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∆𝑇𝑃𝐸 𝑇𝐸.𝑃𝐸.𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐸̂ 𝑅
d = 21
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∆𝑅𝑆𝐸 𝑅𝐸.𝑆𝐸.𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐸̂ 𝑅
2
𝑇𝐸 𝑃𝐸 5 5 25
= 𝑅𝐸 . 𝑆𝐸 = 7 . 7 = 49

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©Via Afrika >> Mathematics Grade 12 172
 Via Afrika

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

If I see that a number of learners haven’t understood
something, I go back to the drawing board and see
Mathematical
how I can make it more exciting and approachable.
Sometimes we as adults think the material is easy Literacy
because we understand it so well, and therefore we
expect the learner to understand it.
Grade 12 Study Guide
C. Veremeulen, M. North, [Link],L.R. de Waal, A.C. Gilfillan,
— Wardiah Fakir, Teacher S.G. Ngobeni, M.M. Tshabalala, P.J. Templeton

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Mathematical Literacy

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 5 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 6 to 9 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 36 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 36 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 36 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 38 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.
8. A question bank with tests you may photocopy will help you assess your learners effectively. See the Question Bank on
the accompanying CD.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at mathematicalliteracy@[Link]?
Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
 Maths Literacy

Study Guide

Via Afrika Mathematical

Literacy

Grade 12
(To be used in conjunction with the Via Afrika Grade 12 Mathematical
Literacy Learner’s Book and Teacher’s Guide)

ISBN: 978-1-41546-332-1
Contents
Part 1 Content analysis ......................................................................... 2

CHAPTER 1 MEASUREMENT (CONVERSIONS, TIME) ............................................ 2

Section 1 Conversions …............................................................................ 2
Section 2 Working with travel timetables and tide tables ........................... 5

CHAPTER 2 FINANCE (TARIFF SYSTEMS AND BREAK-EVEN, INCOME AND

EXPENDITURE, COST AND SELLING PRICE) ..................................... 10
Section 1 Tariff systems and break-even analysis ................................... 10
Section 2 Income-and-expenditure statements and budgets ................... 15
Section 3 Running a small business ....................................................... 17

CHAPTER 3 DATA HANDLING .......................................................................... 29

Section 1 Making sense of national and global statistics ......................... 29
Section 2 Summarising data using quartile and percentile values and
interpreting box-and-whisker diagrams .................................... 30
Section 3 Develop opposing arguments using the same summarised
and/or represented data ........................................................... 38

CHAPTER 4 FINANCE (INTEREST, BANKING, INFLATION) .................................... 47

Section 1 Interest and banking: loans and investments ........................... 47
Section 2 Inflation .................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER 5 MAP AND PLANS (SCALE AND MAP WORK) ...................................... 62

Section 1 Comparing travel options ......................................................... 62
Section 2 Compass directions .................................................................. 66
Section 3 Scale ........................................................................................ 67

CHAPTER 6 MEASUREMENT (MEASURING AND CALCULATING LENGTHS, PERIMETER,

AREA AND VOLUME) ..................................................................... 73
Section 1 Measuring ................................................................................ 73
Section 2 Calculating perimeter, area and volume ................................... 76

CHAPTER 7 MEASUREMENT (MEASURING WEIGHT: BMI, MEDICINE DOSAGES) .... 89

Section 1 BMI growth charts for children .................................................. 89
Section 2 Using formulae to determine medicine dosage ........................ 92

CHAPTER 8 FINANCE (INCOME TAX) ................................................................ 98

Section 1 Understanding taxation ............................................................ 98
Section 2 Determining income tax ......................................................... 100
Section 3 IRP5 tax forms ....................................................................... 104
CHAPTER 9 FINANCE (EXCHANGE RATES) ..................................................... 109
Section 1 Ways of working with exchange rates and currency
conversions ............................................................................ 109
Section 2 Buying and selling currency ................................................... 111

CHAPTER 10 MAPS AND PLANS (PLANS AND SCALE) ........................................ 120

Section 1 Interpreting plans ................................................................... 120
Section 2 Determining scales ................................................................. 120

CHAPTER 11 PROBABILITY ............................................................................ 126

Section 1 Probability theory for understanding the Lottery ..................... 126
Section 2 Prediction ............................................................................... 130
Section 3 Expressions of probability in the press ................................... 133

CHAPTER 12 MAPS AND PLANS (MODELS) ....................................................... 139

Section 1 Creating a 3-D model ............................................................. 139

Part 2 Exam analysis ........................................................................ 142

REQUIRED STRUCTURE OF EXAMINATIONS .......................................................... 142

Paper 1 ................................................................................................ 146
Paper 1 Marking guidelines ........................................................................... 156
Paper 2 ................................................................................................ 166
Paper 2 Marking guidelines ........................................................................... 176
Introductory note
The purpose of this study guide is to provide further explanation and consolidation
of the concepts explained in the Via Afrika Grade 12 Mathematical Literacy
Learner’s Book. This guide is not a substitute or a replacement for the Learner’s
Book and should not be used in isolation of the Learner’s Book. Rather, this guide
aims to provide further explanation of the key concepts dealt with in each chapter in
the Learner’s Book and more opportunity for practice and consolidation through the
inclusion of additional questions. These questions will still draw on the contexts and
resources used in the Learner’s Book but focus on different areas of application.
This guide will also make more explicit the connection between the contents of
each chapter in the Learner’s Book and the curriculum as outlined in the CAPS
document. In this regard the study guide will help teachers to become more familiar
with the contents of the CAPS curriculum document.

The study guide is made up of two parts.

• Part 1 provides additional explanation of the concepts, skills and contexts

discussed in the teaching/theory component of the Learner’s Book.
Additional questions and exercises for consolidation of the selected
concepts, skills and contexts discussed are also included.
• Part 2 provides totally new Paper 1 and Paper 2 practice examinations with
analysis. These are in addition to the ones included on pages 308-318 in the
Learner’s Book.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 1

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

Section 1: Conversions

(LB pages 18-21)

Overview
Conversions, is part of the Measurement Topic. The content and specific skills
associated with working with this section are drawn from pages 62-63 in the CAPS
document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• convert between different systems of measurement, e.g. solid to liquid

conversions, including:
→ g and/or kg to ml and/or litres
→ cm2 and m2 to litres
→ mm3, cm3 and m3 to ml and litres.
• express ratios in different formats and use them to determine missing amounts
(from the Basic Skills Section).

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the context of complex projects in both
familiar and unfamiliar contexts (e.g. determining quantities of materials needed
to build an RDP house).
• Calculations involving conversions, especially between different systems, use
the concept of rates as found in the Basic Skills Topic on Numbers and
calculations with numbers.

1. Calculated volume to liquid volume conversions

• In everyday life volume is expressed in litres.
• When volume is calculated it is usually in cubic units (cm3, mm3, m3).
• Conversions between these two formats will always be given:
1 cm3 = 1 ml, 1 ℓ = 1 000 ml , 1 m3 = 1 kl

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 2

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

Example
The container alongside is roughly in the shape of a rectangular 20 cm
20 cm
box. Therefore its volume = l × b × h 5 cm
= 20 cm × 20 cm × 5 cm
= 2 000 cm3

Using the conversions 1 cm3 = 1 ml and 1 000 ml = 1 ℓ:

1 000 cm3 = 1 litre

×2 ×2
2 000 cm3 = 2 litres (ℓ)

2. Calculated area to liquid volume conversions

• Area is calculated in square units (cm2, mm2, m2).
• To calculate the volume of paint or other liquid needed to cover a surface,
we use a spread rate. This tells us how much area a litre of paint (or other
liquid) can cover. The spread rate will always be given (e.g. 7 m2 per litre).
• The spread rate depends on:
o the type and thickness of the paint (or other liquid)
o the texture (roughness) of the surface to be covered
o how absorptive the surface to be covered is.

Example
A weed pesticide states that it requires 60 ml of 20 m
concentrate for 100 m2 of land area. What volume
of pesticide will be required to treat the area
alongside?
12 m
Area = length × breadth
= 20 m × 12 m
= 240 m2

Pesticide required: 60 ml : 100 m2

× 2,4 × 2,4 (÷ 100 × 240)
144 ml: 240 m2

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 3

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

3. Other useful building conversions

• The ratios are always given. They can be given in two ways:
Visually:

or, in a ratio:

• Both representations show the same ratio. However the visual one is easier
to access for large volumes where a builder is using a wheelbarrow (e.g.
pouring concrete for a floor), while the number ratio is for smaller volumes
(e.g. pouring concrete for a small step).

Example
Using the above ratios, how much stone will be required to mix with ψ a bag of
cement? (Note: 1 bag of cement has a volume of 35 litres.)

Using the pictorial version: 1 bag mixes with 1 wheelbarrows of stone.

So 1 bag mixes with 1,25 wheelbarrows of stone.
So ψ a bag will need ψ × 1,25 = 0,625 wheelbarrows.
Using the ratio version: 1 part of cement mixes with 2ψ parts of stone.
ψ bag of cement = ψ × 35 litres = 17,5 litres of cement.
17,5 litres cement will need 17,5 × 2,5 = 43,75 litres stone.
Which is better? 0,625 wheelbarrows seems a rather difficult amount to
measure. However a normal bucket often holds about 5ℓ. So 43,75 litres is
approximately 9 buckets in volume.

For smaller amounts, it seems better to use the ratio, however if there were 3 bags
of cement it would be much faster to measure the sand and stone with a
wheelbarrow!

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 4

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

Section 2: Working with travel timetables and tide

tables

(LB pages 22-27)

Overview
The content of this section on Working with travel timetables and tide tables, as
part of the Measurement Topic, is drawn from pages 53-54 in the CAPS document.
The specific skills associated with working with time are described on pages 62-63
of the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• read, record and perform calculations involving time values, including:

→ timetables, transport timetables and tide timetables.

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the context of complex projects in both
familiar and unfamiliar contexts (e.g. Timetable for a road trip or ferry ride).
• Calculations involving timetables are also used in the topic Maps, plans and
other representations of the physical world in order to plan journeys.

The table below shows a comparison of the different types of time-based resources
that can be used to plan a journey. These are dealt with in Section 2 in the
Learner’s Book:

Travel Timetable Route Map Fare Table Tide Timetable

Purpose: Purpose: Purpose: Purpose:

To show the departure To show the To show the price of the To show the times of the

and arrival times of stations/stops on various travel options high and low tides at a

trains; buses; trams; several routes in a (e.g. single, return, seaside location

ferries pictorial way. weekly or monthly

tickets)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 5

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

Features: Features: Features: Features:

• Identifies the • Shows several • Often shows the • Shows the times of

stations/stops on routes in different stations/stops in the high and low

a specific route colours or types of the order that they tides for a

lines (e.g. dotted occur with the port/beach.

• Identifies the times
vs. solid lines) so relevant prices next • Specific to each
of departure &
that alternatives to them port (ports in
arrival at those
can be analysed. another area will
stops • Shows the different
have different
• Identifies • Sometimes shows price options for
times)
limitations of the the distance single, return,

route (e.g. only between weekly and

Mon - Fri) stations/stops monthly tickets

• Platforms/train • Shows places of

numbers for a interest/transport

route. interchanges and

other useful
information
Limitations: Limitations: Limitations: Limitations:

• Only shows certain • Does not show • Shows very limited • Only useful for craft

routes times route information on water

(usually only the • Times are specific

• Does not show all • Does not show
order of to that port (e.g.
possible routes to which stations are
stations/stops) times from New
get to a missed out
York cannot be
station/stop • Often does not
used for Cape
show when a route
Town).
is operating (e.g.
Mon - Fri only)

• Sometimes it gives
the accurate
distance between
stations/stops, but
not all the time

Example
A full, integrated example which uses the resources mentioned in this section is
explored in Chapter 5. Each of the resources mentioned above are explored in the
additional questions below.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 6

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

Additional questions

1. The foundation of an outside room is being laid. It is pictured alongside.

Wall
The volume of concrete required for the wall foundation is 2,7 m3 and the
Foundation:
volume of concrete required for the floor is 3 m3. Volume = 2,7 m3

1.1 The floor requires a medium-strength concrete mixture. On the

bag of cement it states that 7,7 bags of cement are required for
1 m3 of concrete. How many whole bags of Floor:
cement are required for the floor? Volume = 3 m3
1.2 The wall foundation requires low strength
concrete which is mixed as follows:

5,8 bags of cement are required to make 1 m3 of low strength concrete.

1.2.1 Calculate the total number of full wheelbarrows of stone that will
be required for the wall foundation. Round your answer to the
nearest full wheelbarrow.
1.2.2 A normal wheelbarrow can hold 65 ℓ. Use your answer to
Question 1.2.1 to calculate how many m3 of stone will need to be
purchased for the wall foundation. Remember that 1 m3 = 1 kl.
Round off to 1 decimal place.
1.3 Using the information from the previous questions, how many bags of
cement will need to be bought in total to complete the floor and wall
foundations? Show all working.
1.4 The floor is going to be painted with special floor paint. The floor area is
30 m2. The spread rate of floor paint is given as 1 ℓ covers 11 m2.
Floor paint is sold in 5 ℓ tins for R449,00 per tin. Calculate the total cost of
paint required to paint the floor with 2 coats.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 7

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

2. Use the picture of the concrete ratio from Question 1.2 and the information below
to answer the following question:
1 bag(bucket) of cement = 33,2 ℓ 1 wheelbarrow = 65 ℓ
Use the picture of the concrete mixture quantities to complete the following ratio:
1 bucket of cement : ….. buckets of sand : ….. buckets of stone
3. While on holiday in Greece, a family is staying in a town called Kavos on the
island of Corfu. They would like to have an outing to the small island of Paxoi
which lies to the south of Corfu. The following is a portion of the hydrofoil ferry
timetable for the trip between Corfu and Paxoi:

Days Kerkira (Corfu

( Corfu)
Corfu) – Paxo
Paxo i Paxo
Pax o i – Kerkira (Corfu
( Corfu)
Corfu)

Monday 8:20 - 14:45 - 18:00 7:00 - 9:45 - 16:15 - 19:15

Tuesday 6:45 - 14:30 8:00

Wednesday 9:30 8:00 - 17:30

Duration 55 minutes

Price € 17,00

3.1 What is the name of the port that the ferries leave from in Corfu?
3.2 At what times do the ferries leave on a Monday from Corfu?
3.3 At what times to the ferries leave on a Monday from Paxoi?
3.4 What time will a ferry arrive in Paxoi if it leaves at 8:20 from Corfu?
3.5 The family consists of 5 members (Mom, Dad and 3 children). How much
will the trip to Paxoi cost them in total?
3.6 The family would like to spend at least 4 hours on the island of Paxoi
before travelling back to Corfu on the same day. If they take the 14:45 ferry
on Monday from Corfu, will they be able to spend enough time on Paxoi
before having to return on the same day? Show all working.
3.7 The family intends to catch the 8:20 ferry on Monday. It is approximately
48 km from Kavos to the ferry terminal. They will only be able to travel at
an average speed of 40 km/h. What is the latest that they will have to
leave their hotel if they are to arrive with enough time to buy tickets and
get on the ferry? Show all working.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 8

 Chapter 1
Measurement (conversions, time)

Answers

1. 1.1 The floor requires 3 m3 of concrete. Therefore the number of bags of

cement = 3 × 7,7 bags = 23,1 bags ≈ 24 bags..
1.2 1.2.1 1,75 wheelbarrows of stone are required for every 1 bag of cement.
Therefore no. of wheelbarrows
= 2,7 m3 × 5,8 bags of cement × 1,75 = 27,405 ≈ 27 wheelbarrows full
1.2.2 Total litres = 65 ℓ × 27 = 1 755 ℓ = 1,755 kl ≈ 1,8 m3
1.3 Floor = 23,1 bags
Wall foundation = 2,7 m3 × 5,8 bags = 15,66 bags.
Total bags of cement required = 23,1 + 15,66 = 38,76 ≈ 39 bags
(note that in this case we only round off at the end of the calculation).
1.4 The total area to be painted = 2 × 30 m2 (for two coats) = 60 m2.
Volume of paint required = 60 m2 ÷ 11 m2/ℓ = 5,45 ℓ
Even though this amount is more than 5 litres, only 1 tin would need to be
bought as it is very close to 1 tin. So the total cost is R449,00.
2. 1 bag of cement = 33,2ℓ
1,75 wheelbarrows of sand = 1,75 × 65 ℓ = 113,75 ℓ
So the ratio of cement : sand : stone = 33,2 ℓ : 113,75 ℓ : 113,75ℓ
= 1 bucket : 3,4 buckets : 3,4 buckets
(after dividing the first number in the ratio by itself, we need to divide every other
number in the ratio by the same value.)
3. 3.1 Kerkira
3.2 8:20, 14:45, 18:00
3.3 7:00, 9:45, 16:15, 19:15
3.4 There is a travel time of 55 minutes, so the arrival time will be: 8:20 + 0:55 = 9:15
3.5 Total cost = 17 Euros × 5 people = €85
3.6 Arrival in Paxoi = 14:45 + 0:55 = 15:40. Latest departure is 19:15 on a
Monday. Therefore total time available = 19:15 – 15:40 = 3 hours 35
minutes. They will not have enough time on the island. They will have to
take an earlier ferry to Paxoi.
3.7 Time to get to Kerkira = 48 km ÷ 40 km/h = 1,2 hours = 1 hour 12 minutes.
They will need to be there at least half an hour before the departure,
therefore their latest departure time is: 8:20 – 1:12 – 0:30 = 6:38

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 9

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Section 1: Tariff systems and break-even analysis

(LB pages 34-41)

Overview
The content of this section on Tariff systems and break-even analysis, as part of
the Finance Application Topic, is drawn from page 50 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to compare two or more different options for a tariff system to determine the
most appropriate option for individuals with particular needs by:

• performing calculations
• drawing graphs to represent the different options and interpreting the points of
intersection and other regions on the graphs in relation to the context.

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the context of larger projects that take place
in the household, school or wider community. These could include several
contexts (e.g. municipal tariffs, telephone tariffs, transport tariffs, bank fees,
etc.).
• Drawing and interpreting graphs draws on the skills in the patterns, relationships
and representations section of the basic skills topic.

When comparing two or more tariff systems (e.g. water tariffs, cell phone contracts,
electricity systems, etc.), a standard approach can be used:

Example
Here are three contract options for a different photocopier supplier than the one
mentioned in the Learner’s Book:

Key costs for photocopy rentals

Monthly rental fee Additional fee Free pages
(per page per month)
Contract 1 R600,00 30 cents None
Contract 2 R850,00 20 cents 400 pages
Contract 3 R1 150,00 10 cents 800 pages

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 10

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Step 1: Analyse the options individually:

To calculate the total monthly cost for contract 1, we need to add the fixed
monthly rental fee to the total amount for the no. of pages copied made. We
can therefore express this situation with the following formula:

Contract 1:
Monthly cost = R600,00 + R0,30 × no. of pages copied

Fixed Amount Tariff

Variable Amount
This monthly rental This rate determines how
This amount will depend on
fee will need to be paid much the total amount
the number of copies made.
even if no copies are changes per copy.
The tariff is multiplied by the
made for the month. Note:
Note The units (Rands in
independent variable ([Link]. of
this case) must be the same
pages).
pages
as that of the fixed amount.

Contract 2:
• If 400 copies (or less) are made using contract 2, then only the monthly rental
fee of R850,00 will be paid.
• However if more than 400 copies are made then we would adjust the monthly
cost formula to look like this:
Monthly cost = R850,00 + R0,20 × (no. of pages copied – 400 copies)

Fixed Amount Tariff Variable Amount

The monthly rental for The tariff being used is Because the user will only start
contract 2 needs to be specific to contract 2 paying for copies after 400 copies,
paid regardless of the they need to be removed from the
total that is paid for.
Contract 3:
• If 800 copies (or less) are made using contract 3, then only the monthly rental
fee of R1 150,00 will be paid.
• However if more than 800 copies are made then we would adjust the monthly
cost formula to look like this:
Monthly cost = R1 150,00 + R0,10 × (no. of pages copied – 800 copies)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 11

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Step 2: Show the options in graph form

Considering the three options, the following observations can be made:

• Option1: There is only one graph portion and it will be a straight line graph due
to the constant tariff being applied.
• Option 2: There will be two sections to the graph:
o The first section will be constant graph due to one amount being
charged with no tariff applied. This will continue until 400 copies.
o The second section will be a straight line graph starting just after 400
copies due to the constant tariff being applied.
• Option 3: There will be two sections to the graph:
o The first section will be a constant graph due to one amount being
charged with no tariff applied. This will continue until 800 copies.
o The second section will be a straight line graph starting just after 800
copies due to the constant tariff being applied.
To aid in drawing the graphs, draw a table with the important values as the
independent variable. The important values are where the changes in each option
occur. Then fill in some other values in between to make drawing the graph easier:

Changing point for Changing point for

Always try to Option 2 Option 3
include 0 After 400 copies After 800 copies

Cost table for photocopy contracts

Copies 0 200 400 401 600 800 801 1 000
Contract 1 R600 R660 R720 R720,30 R780 R840 R840,30 R900
Contract 2 R850 R850 R850 R850,20 R890 R930 R930,20 R970
Contract 3 R1 150 R1 150 R1 150 R1 150 R1 150 R1 150 R1 150,10 R1 170

Drawing the graph we see that we have a problem

because we need to see where the options cross each
other:

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 12

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)
So, by continuing the number of copies to 4 000, we get a much clearer graph of
the three options:

Option 3 changes at
800 copies

Option 2 changes
at 400 copies

The crossing points

(points of intersection) are
now clearly visible

Step 3: Identify points of intersection and regions on the graph

Intersection of
Options 1 & 3
(2 350 copies)

Intersection of
Options 2 & 3
(3 000 copies)
Intersection of
Options 1 & 2
(1 700 copies)

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 13

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 Region 4

• Option 1 is the • Option 2 is the • Option 2 is still the • Option 3 is the
cheapest until cheapest between cheapest between cheapest between
1 700 copies 1 700 and 2 350 2 350 and 3 000 after 3 000 copies
(R1 110). copies (R1 110 to copies (R1 240 to (R1 370).
• Option 2 is the next R1 240). R1 370). • Option 2 is the next
cheapest. • Option 1 is the next • Option 3 is the next cheapest.
cheapest. cheapest.

The values for the number of copies can be read off the graph and then substituted
into the formulas to get the Rand-values.

Step 4: Using the analysis

Once the analysis is complete, the regions can assist in making decisions.

Example
A small business estimates that they will make between 1 500 and 2 500 copies
per month. Which option should they choose?

Answer: 1 500 copies occurs in Region 1 where Option 1 is cheapest, but if the
business is going to use up to 2 500 copies then Option 2 will ultimately be better
as it will allow them to make more copies than their minimum in a more cost
effective way.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 14

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Section 2: Income-and-expenditure statements and

budgets

(LB pages 42-47)

Overview
The content of this section on Income-and-expenditure statements and budgets, as
part of the Finance Application Topic, is drawn from pages 51-52 in the CAPS
document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to analyse the income and expenditure statements and budgets for small
businesses and larger organisations (e.g. government) by:

• analysing and preparing income-and-expenditure statements and budgets for a

small business (e.g. a spaza shop).
• analysing (not preparing) the income and expenditure statements and budgets
for a large organisation.

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the context of larger projects that take place
in the household, school or wider community. These could include several
contexts (e.g. a small business or a larger corporation).

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 15

 Chapter 2
Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)
This section follows on from similar discussions in Grade 11, but the context now
expands to include national statistics. The two documents that are examined in the
Learner’s Book are the budget and the income-and-expenditure statement. Here is
a summary of the two documents as used in the context of the government.

Budget Income-and-Expenditure Statement

Purpose: Purpose:

A yearly plan that sets out how the government A summary of the income taken in and money spent.
plans to spend money to achieve goals for the
country as well as the proposed income it is to
receive.
Features: Features:

• Divided in to key areas of expenditure (e.g. • Shows all of the actual incomes and
education, health, etc.) expenditures in a given year.

• Expected income is identified. • Values look as if they are shown in thousands,

• These are not actual incomes and but each value should then be multiplied by a

expenditures, but rather expected income and million (e.g. R3 745 means R3 745 000 000)
expenditures. • Shows the data for two different periods (e.g.

• Based on the information from the Income-and- 2011 and 2012) so that the two years can be

Expenditure statement of past years as well as compared.

the needs of the country.

• Can be a deficit spending budget but will then

need to be financed by loans which will need to
be paid off in the future
Limitations: Limitations:

• Expected amounts and not actual amounts. • Does not show the precise amount spent on
Estimates could change during the year or each sub-section, but rather shows broad
money not be spent as expected or income not headings (e.g. provinces and municipalities,
received as expected. but not specifically the Free State’s Mangaung
municipality)

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Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Section 3: Running a small business

(LB pages 48-57)

Overview
The content of this section on Running a small business, as part of the Finance
Application Topic, is drawn from page 51 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to analyse the income and expenditure statements and budgets for small
businesses by:

• analysing and preparing income-and-expenditure statements and budgets for a

small business (e.g. a spaza shop or fudge business).

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the context of larger projects that take place
in the household, school or wider community. These could include several types
of small business.
• The skills involved in analysing the operations of a small business draw on
several sections of the Finance Topic (including financial documents, break-
even analysis, profit/loss, etc.)

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Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)
The aim of any business is to make a profit and it is with this aim in mind that the
previous two sections can be used when running a small business.

Costs
Types of cost
In order to make a profit, all of the costs need to be matched by income. There are
three types of costs: start-up costs, monthly costs and production costs (cost price).

Type of cost Notes

• Include:
o Electrical appliances
o Equipment
o Furniture
Start-up costs
o Shop fittings
o Computer equipment
o Other once-off expenses
• These are normally covered by a loan which is paid back monthly.

• Include:
o Rent
o Loan repayments
Monthly o Water & electricity
Operating costs o Transport
o Advertising
o Salaries/wages
o Other monthly expenses

• Include:
o Ingredients/raw materials
Production
o Packaging
costs
o Other expenses incurred on a day-to-day basis in the direct
production of the item or service.

Budget and Income and expenditure statement

A budget for a small business estimates the expected costs based on other similar
businesses or historical data (as the business becomes more established).

An Income-and-expenditure statement reports the actual expenditure and income

and is used to more accurately analyse and prepare a budget.

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selling price)

Income
In terms of a retail business (which sells goods), the main source of income is from
sales of the items. Determining the Selling Price becomes very important in order
to make a profit. Selling price is the price that a product or service is sold for.

Other sources of income include:

• renting or sub-letting part of the business property

• advertising for other businesses
• other activities that cause money to come into a business.

Profit
The break-even point for a business is when the income generated equals the
total costs for that business for the month (or individual project).

At the break-even point: Income = Costs

Note: At the break-even, the business is just covering the costs. The business
needs to make more than the break-even in order to make a profit.

Profit = Total Income – Total of all costs

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Finance (tariff systems and break-even, income and expenditure, cost and
selling price)

Additional questions

1. A man is buying a car. The cash price for the car is R220 000. The bank offers him
two different finance options over 48 months:
Option 1 (No Deposit): R5 772,48 per month
Option 2 (With Deposit): R4 919,58 per month after a 15% deposit.

The man draws a graph of the two options:

1.1 Write an appropriate title for the graph.
1.2 Calculate the value of the deposit for Option 2.
1.3 How much more money per month will the man have to pay if he chooses
Option 1 rather than Option 2?
1.4 What situation could force him to choose Option 1 (assuming that he can
pay the monthly instalments)?
1.5 Line B represents Option 2. Give TWO reasons for this from the graph.
1.6 The two options break-even at a point. Give the approximate month and
Rand values at that point.
1.7 Which option is the more expensive one after 24 months?

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selling price)

1.8 What is causing that option to be more expensive at that point?

1.9 Which option is cheaper overall? Explain how we can see this from the
graph.

2. As the man begins to consider his options, he remembers that he has R50 000 in
an investment that he can cash out and use as a deposit. He also decides to take
the option of a balloon payment (this is a portion of the loan that is held back
and only paid on the last month). The bank adjusts the finance quote as follows
(for 48 months):
Option 3: R3 746,33 per month after a R50 000 deposit and with a Balloon
payment of R44 000 added to month 48.
2.1 How much will the man pay to the bank in month 47?
2.2 How much will the man pay to the bank in month 48?
2.3 How much will the man have paid to the bank in total over the
48 months? Show all working.
2.4 Using the information for Option 3 above, complete the table below:

No. of
0 6 12 30 36 47 48
months
Total paid
R72 477,98 R184 867,88
(in Rands)

2.5 Copy the graphs from Question 1 and draw and a graph to represent
Option 3 on the same axes.
2.6 Use your graphs from Question 2.5 above to answer the following
questions:
2.6.1 After how many months does Option 3 become cheaper than
Option 2?
2.6.2 After how many months does Option 3 become cheaper than both
Options 1 and 2?
2.6.3 Referring to the graphs, which option is cheaper overall after
48 months?
2.6.4 If the man intends to sell the car after 2 years which payment
option should he choose? Referring to the graph, give full
reasoning.

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selling price)

3. In the Learner’s Book, a fudge business is analysed. The most important

ingredient in fudge is sugar. A local supermarket sells sugar in three sizes:
1 kg bag: R12,00
5 kg bag: R49,50
10 kg bag: R98,50
A safe assumption in business is ‘bulk is cheaper’, but that is not always so.

3.1 A graph comparing the prices of the 5 kg and 10 kg bags is shown below.
Use it to answer the questions which follow:

3.1.1 Why do the graphs go up in ‘steps’ (as opposed to a normal straight

line graph)?
3.1.2 Which bag of sugar is cheaper when 12 kg’s of sugar are required?
3.1.3 Which bag of sugar is cheaper when 18 kg’s of sugar are required?
3.1.4 What can we conclude about the size of bag of sugar to buy?
3.2 Using the same axes as above, draw a graph representing the total cost for
the 1 kg bag of sugar for the first 20 kg’s bought. (Hint: use a straight line
graph and do not bother drawing a step function).
3.3 Using the newly drawn graphs, answer the following questions:
3.3.1 Which size is cheaper if 12 kg of sugar is needed?
3.3.2 Which size is cheaper if 18 kg of sugar is needed?

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selling price)

3.3.3 At times it is more expensive to buy the 10 kg bags of sugar, but

why might it still be a better idea to buy the larger bag of sugar
anyway?

4. A woman invests in an ice-cream cone stall on the beach front. She already has
full-time employment and this is an extra income for herself. In order to ensure
that the stall remains open during the week and weekends, she employs a helper
who works during the week and on some weekends.
Her first month’s income statement looked like this:

Start Up Costs Production Costs

Kitchen Equipment R 2 357,00 Milk R 4 375,50
Counters & furniture R 12 550,00 Cones R 1 350,00
Freezer & ice cream machine R 11 675,00 Toppings R 5 517,40
Total: R26 582,00 Total: R11
R11 242,90

Total Expenditure R 21 164,24

Operating Costs
Stall Rental R 3 500,00 Income
Security Guard Company R 120,00 Ice cream sales R15 462,50
Electricity R 723,45 Total: R15 462,50

Loan Repayment for Start-up costs R 577,89

Wages R 5 000,00
Total: R 9 921,34 Total Income R15 462,50

Refer to the income statement and answer the questions which follow:
4.1 Show how the total expenditure amount was calculated.
4.2 Explain why the Start-up Costs were not included in the costs.
4.3 The start-up costs do have an effect on the total expenditure. In what way
do they affect total expenditure?
4.4 Did this business make a profit during this month? Give full reasoning.
4.5 Ice creams were sold at a price of R12,50 per ice cream. How many ice
creams were sold during this month?
4.6 The production costs include the extra ingredients that have not been
used yet. The production costs for one ice cream is R7,25. Using the

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selling price)

answer to Question 4.5, calculate the value of the ingredients that have
not yet been used.
4.7 The equation for calculating the total expenditure can be given as:
Total Expenditure = R9 921,34 + R7,25 × no. of ice creams sold
Explain where each of the numbers in the formula comes from.
4.8 Use the formula from Question 4.7 and the formula for the total income to
complete the following table:

No. of Ice creams sold 0 300 1 000 1 600 2 000 2 400

Total Expenditure R17 171,34
Total Income R12 500,00

4.9 Use the values from the table to draw graphs of the total income and total
expenditure vs. the no. of ice creams sold.
4.10 Referring to your graphs, state the break-even point as the number of ice
creams that need to be sold. Round your answer to the nearest 100 ice
creams.
4.11 Give TWO ideas for improving the sales of the ice creams.
4.12 Give TWO other ways of making more income (besides selling more soft-
serve ice creams).
4.13 Besides getting more income, give TWO other things that could be done in
order to make more profit.

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selling price)

Answers

1 1.1 There are many possibilities here. A good example is ‘Total Paid on car vs.
no. of months’ (referring to the two variables and the context that they occur
in).
1.2 15% of R220 000,00 = R33 000,00
1.3 R5 772,48 per month - R4 919,58 per month = R852,90
1.4 He might not have enough money for the deposit and so he will have to
choose Option 1 (assuming that he can afford the monthly payment).
1.5 The line does not start at R0 (due to the R33 000,00 deposit) and the line is
not as steep (due to the lower monthly rate).
1.6 Approximately 39 months and R225 000.
1.7 Option 2
1.8 Even though the rate is lower, the deposit still causes Option 2 to be more
expensive at that point.
1.9 Option 2. After 48 months it has a lower value.

2 2.1 R3 746,33
2.2 R47 746,33 (monthly amount + balloon payment)
2.3 R3 746,33 × 48 months + R50 000 (deposit) + R44 000 (balloon payment)
= R273 823,84
2.4 After 0 months: R50 000 (Before the process even begins, the deposit will
need to be paid).
After 12 months: Total = 12 x R3 746,33 + R50 000,00 = R94 955,56
After 30 months: Total = 30 x R3 746,33 + R50 000,00 = R162 389,90
After 47 months: Total = 47 x R3 746,33 + R50 000,00 = R226 077,51
After 48 months: Total = R273 823,84 (from question 2.3)

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selling price)

2.5

2.6 2.6.1 After 15 months

2.6.2 After 25 months
2.6.3 Option 2 (It is still the lowest overall amount after 48 months.)
2.6.4 2 years = 24 months. He would have paid the least for Option 1 by
that time (although Option 3 would be a close second).

3 3.1. 3.1.1 You will pay the same amount for a part of the 5 kg bag (or the 10 kg
bag) as you would for the entire bag. So it is the same price until you
need the next bag.
3.1.2 5 kg bag
3.1.3 The 10 kg bag is very slightly cheaper, but both options are so close
in price that either could be used.
3.1.4 Overall it would probably be better to purchase 5 kg bags as they are
roughly the same price per kg as the 10 kg bags but are more
versatile in that there will be less waste.

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selling price)

3.2

3.3 3.3.1 1 kg bag is slightly cheaper than the 5 kg bag

3.3.2 Either the 10 kg or the 5 kg (although the 10 kg bag is a little
cheaper)
3.3.3 Something that has not been factored into this analysis is the cost of
transport. A 10 kg bag will mean less need to travel to obtain more
supplies. This will ultimately affect profitability.

4 4.1 R9 921,34 + R11 242,50 = R21 164,24

4.2 Start-up costs are once-off costs and they are not included in on-going expenditure.
4.3 Start-up costs were covered by a loan. The loan repayment is included in
the on-going expenditure until it is fully paid off.
4.4 No. The total expenditure is greater than the total income.
4.5 R15 462,50 ÷ R12,50 = 1 237 ice creams
4.6 Total ingredients used = 1 237 × R7,25 = R8 968,25
Left over ingredients = R11 242,90 – R8 968,25 = R2 274,65
4.7 The value of R9 921,34 is the value for the operating costs and it is included
in the expenditure regardless of how many ice creams are being sold.

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4.8

No. of Ice creams sold 0 300 1 000 1 600 2 000 2 400

Total Expenditure R9 921,34 R12 096,34 R17 171,34 R21 521,34 R24 421,34 R27 321,34
Total Income R0,00 R3 750,00 R12 500,00 R20 000,00 R25 000,00 R30 000,00

4.9

4.10 The Break-even is closest to 1 900 ice creams.

4.11 Any two sensible reasons (e.g. lower the prices; advertise better,
promotions, etc.)
4.12 Any two sensible reasons (e.g. sell cool drinks/chips/sweets as well, increase prices).
4.13 Any two sensible reasons (e.g. pay the assistant less/have them work less
days, try to negotiate cheaper rent, etc.)

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 Chapter 3

Data handling

Section 1: Making sense of national and global

statistics

(LB pages 62-77)

Overview
The content of this section on Making sense of national and global statistics, as
part of the Data Handling Application Topic, is drawn from pages 83-86 in the
CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• summarise, represent and analyse data that contain multiple sets of data and
multiple categories (e.g. working with vehicle statistics containing information on
the number of different types of non-roadworthy vehicles in each province in
South Africa).
• work with data that contains complex values (i.e. values expressed in millions or
large data values) for which estimation may be necessary to determine values
on graphs and in tables.
• work with data that also relates to national and global issues.

Contexts and integrated content

• The scope of the data should include the personal lives of learners, the wider
community, national and global issues.
• Some of the data representation and interpretation should include some skills
from the Basic Skills topic (e.g. percentage, etc.).

In this section there are no new skills. Rather, the existing skills are applied to more
than two sets of data and more than two categories of data. These are applied to
more complex sets of data which deal with national and global statistics.

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Section 2: Summarising data using quartile and

percentile values and interpreting box-and-
whisker diagrams

(LB pages 78-89)

Overview
The content of this section on Summarising data using quartiles and percentiles, as
part of the Data Handling Topic, is drawn from pages 84-85 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• work with quartile and percentile values, together with various measuring
instruments in the following contexts:
o growth patterns of a baby/toddler
o health status of a child using Body Mass Index values
o analysing the performance of a group of learners in a test/exam.

Contexts and integrated content

• The scope of the data should include the personal lives of learners, the wider
community, national and global issues.
• Some of the data representation and interpretation should include some skills
from the Basic Skills topic (e.g. percentage, etc.).

1. Measures of central tendency

Two sets of data can be compared by looking at their measures of central tendency
(mean, median and mode), but they do not always give the full picture. In Grade 12,
a more complete analysis is required.

Example
Here are final exam results (in percentages) for two groups of matrics (grade 12’s):

Group 1: 28 36 37 42 48 52 53 55 56 58 59 60 61 62 63 63 65 78 79 93 97

Group 2: 50 52 53 54 54 54 57 58 58 60 63 63 64 65 65 66 72 81

Which group performed best? One way of analysing this is to calculate the
measures of central tendency for each group:

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Method Group 1 Group 2

Total of all data 1 245 ÷ 21 = 59,3% 1 089 ÷ 18 = 60,5%

Mean
No. of data

Middle value in The value in the middle There are two values in
an ordered data of the data: the middle of the data, so
set. we average them:
Median 59,0%
(58 + 60%) ÷ 2
= 59,0%

Most frequent
Mode 63% 54%
value

Analysis

Mean According to the mean, Group 2 performed slightly better than

Group 1. However, it is not enough of a difference to say that they
performed significantly better.

Median Both Group 1 and Group 2 have the same median so this measure
could not decide between them.

Mode According to the mode, Group 1 did better, but in this type of data,
mode is not a useful measurement. There are too few of the modal
data to declare it to be a good indicator.

Limitations of measures of central tendency

Mean This averages the total of the data by the number of pieces of data
and is the most used measurement, but it is strongly affected by
outliers (a piece of data that is either much larger or smaller than
the main body of data)

Median This is the most accurate measure of the centre of the data, but it
can be very difficult to calculate with a large dataset.

Mode This is often not a useful measure of the ‘average’. It is only useful
when the data is categorical (e.g. shoe sizes or favourite colours).

So the measures of central tendency are not enough to obtain a clear picture. At
best, they are saying that the two groups performed equally well. However, if we

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look at the data without performing any calculation, we can see that Group 1 has
two very high results but also some very low results. The spread of results can give
us a clearer picture:

2. Measures of spread
There are four measures of spread: range, quartiles, inter-quartile range and
percentiles.

2.1 Range
This method has been addressed in previous grades:
Range = Maximum value - Minimum value
Group 1: Range = 97% - 28% = 69%
Group 2: Range = 81% - 50% = 31%
Analysis: Group 1’s results are very spread out. This indicates a wide spread
of ability (i.e. some learners did really well, while others performed really badly).
Group 2 has a much smaller range and so they are of a similar ability. However,
this does not tell us how well (or badly) the group has done (e.g. if the maximum
was 41% and the minimum was 10%, the range would still be 31% even though
these results are clearly much worse than Group 2’s results).

2.2 Quartiles
Quartiles are, as their name suggests, values which occur a quarter of the way
through the data. While the median divides the data in half and allows us to see
which the middle value is, quartiles divide the data into quarters. In order to
calculate the quartiles we ignore the median value of the dataset.
Here is a data set with an odd number of data values:
Bottom half of the data Top half of the data
(without the median) (without the median)

Group 1: 28 36 37 42 48 52 53 55 56 58 59 60 61 62 63 63 65 78 79 93 97

Quartile 1 Median Quartile 3

The middle valuesof the Also referred to as The middle of the top half of
bottom half of the data: “Quartile 2” the data:
(48 + 52) ÷ 2 = 50% (63 + 65) ÷ 2 = 64%

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Here is a data set with an even number of data:

Bottom half of the data Top half of the data

Group 2: 50 52 53 54 54 54 57 58 58 60 63 63 64 65 65 66 72 81

Median
Due to it being an Quartile 3
Quartile 1 average of two
Due to the number of data in The middle number: 65%
values, we simply
the bottom half being an odd split the data in half
number, we simply find the
middle number: 54%

• Quartile 1 is the value of the way through the data. This means that 25%
of the data is below it and 75% of the data is above it.
• Quartile 3 is the value of the way through the data. This means that 75%
of the data is below it and only 25% of the data is higher than it.

Analysis: Group 1 Group 2

Bottom 25%
28% to 50% 50% to 54%
of the data
Top 25% of
64% to 97% 65% to 81%
the data

The bottom quarter of Group 1 scored at most 50%, while the bottom
quarter of Group 2 scored at least 50%, but at most 54%.
The top quarter of Group 1 scored at least 64% which is almost the
same as Group 2, but Group 1’s results were as high as 97%, while
Group 2’s results peaked at 81%.

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2.3 Inter-Quartile Range (IQR)

This is a measure of spread of the middle 50% of the data.
IQR = Quartile 3 - Quartile 1
Group 1: IQR = 64% - 50% = 14%
Group 2: IQR = 65% - 54% = 11%

Analysis: We can see that although Group 2’s range was very large, the IQR is
much smaller indicating that the middle 50% of the group is of a
similar ability. The same can be said of the ability of Group 1 as it
also has a small IQR.
This indicates that Group 2 has some strong candidates and some
weaker candidates, but overall the group is of a similar ability.
Group 1 is generally a group of similar ability because it’s range is
also relatively small.

2.4 Box-and-whisker plots

Looking at the calculated values can be a bit confusing at times and so it is often
easier to see them in picture form:

Analysis: The box-and-whisker plot provides the same information we have

worked with but now it is much easier to see that Group 1 has a
compact middle 50%, while the top 25% and the bottom 25% are
very spread in terms of ability.

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It is also easier to see that Group 2 is much closer in ability and also
that the middle 50% of the group is slightly better than the middle
50% of Group 1, but Group 1 has more higher ability learners (the
top 25%).

Conclusion: While neither group is necessarily better than the other one, each of
the two groups is stronger in a certain area (Group 2 is more
consistent, while Group 1 has more higher ability learners).

2.5 Percentiles
A final measure of spread is percentiles. As the name suggests, percentiles divide
a group of data into a hundred equal parts.

Data Set

th Quartile 1 Median Quartile 3 th

90 Percentile=
Percentile the value
10 Percentile
th th th
= the value that lies at 10% in (25
25 Percentile)
Percentile (50
50 Percentile)
Percentile (75
75 Percentile)
Percentile that lies at 90% in the data
the data set, i.e. 10% of the set, i.e. 90% of the value in
values in the data lie below and the data lie below and 10%
90% lie above the 10th lie above the 90th Percentile.
Percentile.

Example
A student earned a mark of 73% for an exam and it is in the 92nd percentile of the
grade.
This means that 92% of the grade obtained a mark of 73% or less for the exam and
only 8% of the grade achieved a mark that was higher than (or equal to) 73%.

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2.6 Growth Charts

Growth charts are a series of percentile curves that are drawn from data taken from
thousands of children and then plotted.

Example
The following growth chart compares the age to height for girls aged 2 to 20 years.
The following meanings apply:
3rd: This is the curve of the 3rd percentile of heights for the various ages. This
means that any girl whose height is below this curve has a height which is
shorter than the 3% of all of the data collected for that specific age.
50th: This is the curve of all of the medians for each of the ages.
90th: This is the curve of the 90th percentile of heights for the various ages. This
means that any height above it is taller than 90% of the data collected for
that age group.

Consider the portion of the growth chart below (the original can be found in the
Learner’s Book on page 82).

The vertical lines allow us to read off the various values for a certain age of girl. In

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the above example, a girl of 9-years-old is chosen. If we follow the vertical line we
can see where it meets the various percentile curves and read off the values on the
scale at the side of the graph:

Percentile 3rd 5th 10th 25th 50th 75th 90th 95th 97th

Height (in cm) 121 123 125 129 133 137 141 144 146
• Therefore if a 9-year old had a height of 124 cm, her height would be
between the 5th and 10th percentiles for her age. In other words, she would
be considered short for her age.
• Consider the girl who is 12 years and 6 months old and who is 151cm tall.
On the growth curve her age and height meet at the point marked X. Her
height lies between the 25th and 50th percentile growth curve. A ‘normal’ (or
‘average’) girl would have a height that fell between the 25th and 75th
percentile (in the middle 50% of the data). So this girl is ‘normal’ although
she is at the shorter end of the range for her age.

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Section 3: Develop opposing arguments using the same

summarised and/or represented data

(LB pages 90-93)

Overview
The content of this section on Develop opposing arguments using the same
summarised and/or represented data, as part of the Data Handling Topic, is drawn
from page 87 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• compare different representations of multiple sets of data and explain

differences.
• develop opposing arguments using the same summarised and/or represented
data.

Contexts and integrated content

• The scope of the data should include the personal lives of learners, the wider
community, national and global issues.
• Some of the data representation and interpretation should include some skills
from the Basic Skills topic (e.g. percentage, etc.).

It is often possible to interpret statistical information in different ways. People

present or justify different viewpoints based on their interpretations. In this section
we will explore the ways in which the same information can be interpreted
differently by different groups.

Consider the graph to the right.

It is found in the Learner’s Book
on page 78. This graph of
learners’ results could be
interpreted in various ways:

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Correct Interpretations:

Looking at the first half of the graph only:

‘Class 1 did much worse than Class 2 because Class 2 does not
have any marks less than the 40% – 49% range.’

Looking at the second half of the graph only:

‘Class 2 did much better than Class 1 because Class 1 does not
have any mark higher than the 60% – 69% range.’

Considering the whole graph:

‘Class 2 is more consistent than Class 1 because their values are

grouped closer together.’

All of the above are correct interpretations which are drawn from a selective view of
the information.

Incorrect Interpretations:

• ‘Class 2 did better than Class 1 because their graphs are taller’. The heights of
the bars only indicate how many pieces of data occurred in that range. They do
not indicate ‘better’ or ‘worse’.
• ‘Class 2 has higher marks in the 50% – 59% range, but lower marks in the 60%
– 69% range because of the heights of the bars in those ranges’. The ranges
do not specify how many low values and how many high values each class has
in that range. They only indicate that a value occurred in that range. They could
all be low.

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Additional questions

1. Barry takes both Geography and Life Science as subjects. He is trying to

determine in which subject he performs better.
1.1 Barry has the following percentages for his Geography tests during this
year:
35 36 38 43 56 58 58 60 60 60 61 95

The 5-number summary (min - Q1 - median - Q3 - max) of the above data is

as follows:
35 ; 40,5 ; 58 ; 60 ; 95
1.1.1 By using calculations, explain why the value for the first quartile
(Q1) is a decimal when all of the values in the data set are whole
numbers.
1.1.2 Explain what a third quartile (Q3) value of 60% means.

1.2 These are Barry’s Life Science test results from this year:
35 36 50 51 53 58 60 60 64 65 73

1.2.1 Calculate the mean of both sets of test results and explain why the
mean is not a useful way to determine his stronger subject in this
case.
1.2.2 Determine the 5-number summary (min – Q1 – median – Q3 – max)
of the Life Science data.
1.2.3 Use your answer to Question 1.2.2 to answer Barry’s question about
which of the two subjects is his stronger subject.

2. These were the final results of a group of matric students (as percentages):

74 75 60 52 75 68 67 76 42 70 58
78 75 65 55 75 76 55 49 81 69 60

2.1 Calculate the mean of these results.

2.2 Work out the median for these results.
2.3 Work out the 5-number summary for the results (min – Q1 – median
– Q3 – max).

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2.4 Use your answer to Question

2.3 to compare these results
with the two sets of results
from the example in Section 2
under Measures of central
tendency. How did this group
of matric learners perform
when compared with the other
two groups? Give a detailed analysis.

3. The table below contains the prices of houses that were sold in two areas during
the first six months of a year. The house prices have been arranged in ascending
order.
Dawnview Cicily
R150 000 R525 000 R300 000 R510 000
R160 000 R530 000 R320 000 R512 000
R175 000 R540 000 R320 000 R515 000
R190 000 R550 000 R340 000 R518 000
R212 000 R570 000 R360 000 R520 000
R225 000 R570 000 R365 000 R523 000
R400 000 R580 000 R400 000 R690 000
R520 000 R440 000

3.1 For Dawn view, the mean house price is R393 133,33, the median house
price is R520 000 and modal house price is R570 000. Explain which
measure of central tendency provides the most accurate indication of the
average house price in Dawnview. In your answer you must also explain
why the other measures of central tendency are not appropriate.

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3.2 The graphs below show the minimum, maximum, median, 1st quartile and
3rd quartile house prices for Dawnview and Cicily. Compare the 5-number
summaries for the two areas and give an overview of the house prices in the
two areas.

4. Patrick came home one day and proudly announced that he had achieved the 75th
percentile in his class for a test. His parents were happy as they had agreed that
his goal should be a Level 6 (70 – 79%) mark. However, Patrick’s mark was 62%.
4.1 What is another name for the ‘75th percentile’?
4.2 How is it possible that Patrick got 62%, but his mark is in the 75th
percentile?
4.3 How did his parents interpret his statement?

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5. The results of the 2011 Census of the South African population have been
released. The graph below shows the highest level of education achieved by the
population who were 20 years and older. Use it to answer the questions which
follow:

5.1 Why does this question about the highest level of education only apply to
persons who are 20 years or older?
5.2 The following statements are flawed. State where the error lies with reasons:
5.2.1 The percentage of people who have only completed primary has
decreased from 1996 to 2011; therefore people have become less
educated over this time period.
5.2.2 The number of people in the category ‘some secondary’ has improved
compared to the levels in the 1996 survey.
5.2.3 Women have become more educated over this time period.

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Answers

1 1.1 1.1.1 The first quartile occurs between the values 38 and 43, so the value
for Q1 is (38 + 43) ÷ 2 = 40,5.
1.1.2 This means that he achieved 60% or more in a quarter of his tests
(25%) or that he achieved 60% or less in three quarters (75%) of his
tests.
1.2 1.2.1 Geography: Mean = total of all data ÷ no of data = 660 ÷ 12 = 55%
Life Science: Mean = 605 ÷ 11 = 55%
Therefore the mean is the same for both sets of data and cannot be
used to decide in which subject he performed better.
1.2.2 Minimum = 35 %
Quartile 1 = 50 % (halfway through the bottom half of the data; 58% is
excluded as it is the median)
Median = 58% (the value in the middle of the data)
Quartile 3 = 64% (Halfway through the top half of the data)
Maximum = 73%
1.2.3 Overall, it seems as if he did better in Life Science. This is due to the
minimum and median being the same for both Geography and Life
Science. However, in Life Science the quartiles were both higher
which indicated that his middlemost results are better in Life Science.
The higher maximum in geography was a once-off result and does not
indicate an overall trend. Therefore it can be ignored in this analysis.
2.1 66,14% (same method as question 1.2.1)
2.2 The results first need to be sorted into ascending order:
42 49 52 55 55 58 60 60 65 67 68
69 70 74 75 75 75 75 76 76 78 81
The middlemost value occurs between 68 and 69, therefore the
median = (68 + 69) ÷ 2 = 68,5%
2.3 The data is already arranged in ascending order for the previous question,
so the values can be read from their relative positions:
Minimum = 42 %
Quartile 1 = 58 % (halfway through the bottom half of the data; 68% is
included as the median occurs between it and the next number in the
dataset)

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Median = 68,5%
Quartile 3 = 75% (Halfway through the top half of the data)
Maximum = 81%
2.4 CAPS does not require the student to draw a box-and-whisker plot but it
can be a very useful analytical tool. Here we see the box-and-whisker plot
of the third group’s data next to the two existing box-and-whisker plots:

Group 3

It can be immediately seen from the analysis that Group 3’s ‘box’ is higher
than both of the other groups. This can also be seen in the Quartile 1 and 3
values being higher than the related values in Groups 1 & 2. The Median
for Group 3 is also higher, indicating that the average student in Group 3
did better than the average student in both of the other groups. The other
groups may have an advantage in terms of the minimum and maximum
values but where it is most important (i.e. the middle values of the data
set), Group 3 performed better overall.

3 3.1 The median is the most accurate measure of the central tendency for
Dawnview as the data set is rather small and can be distorted by outliers (in
this case, the lower values in the data set).
The mean is especially distorted by outliers (it is far lower than expected).
The mode is simply the value that occurs most often and is not a good
measure of central tendency for continuous quantitative data.
3.2 Cicily seems to have a steady increase in prices across the 5-number
summary, while Dawnview has two distinct groupings of houses (a low
income group and a high income group). The ‘average’ house in Dawnview

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is of higher value than in Cicily indicating that it is a more affluent

neighbourhood, but not by much. The two neighbourhoods seem to be
similar, except that Dawnview has a much larger range of house prices.

4 4.1 Quartile 3
4.2 Patrick’s mark is three quarters of the way through the dataset and
therefore he is simply stating the position of his test result relative to the
rest of the class. If the class did not do well in the test then he too would
probably not have done well.
4.3 His parents interpreted ‘75th percentile’ as ‘75%’. This was not correct
(although he was not going to tell them)!

5 5.1 Anyone younger than 20 years old is most likely still in school.
5.2 5.2.1 This is not true because the decreases in the ‘complete primary’ have
become increases in later categories which indicates that people are
more educated now than they were before.
5.2.2 This graph does not deal in numbers of people, but rather
percentages so the correct statement would read “The percentage of
people in the …”
5.2.3 This graph does not differentiate between men and women in the
sample. Both genders are mixed in the results. Such a conclusion
would need a different analysis.

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 Chapter 4

Finance (interest, banking, inflation)

Section 1: Interest and banking: loans and investments

(LB pages 102-119)

Overview
The content of this section on Loans and Investments, as part of the Finance
Application Topic, is drawn from pages 55-57 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• investigate the effect of changes in the interest rate on the cost of a loan and on
the final/projected value of an investment.
• investigate the effect of changes in the monthly repayment amount on the real
cost of a loan.
• investigate the effect of changes in the monthly investment amount on the value
of the final investment.

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the various contexts relating to loans in
investments (e.g. payments on a housing loan, a car loan, an annuity
investment, etc.)

1. Loans

A loan is where a lump sum is borrowed from a

bank or other loan agent in order to make a large
purchase (e.g. a house, car, etc.). This loan
amount is repaid in smaller monthly amounts that
have interest added to them. This interest is Deposit: 15%
calculated at a set rate on the remaining money Loan Length: 20 years
owed. Interest Rate: 11,0% p.a.

In order to explore the important terms, we will look at the purchase of the house
above according to the listed conditions.

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Important terms:
Term Explanation

Sale Price The stated price of the item to be purchased (e.g. sale price of a
house, cash price of a car, etc.)
Answer: R895 000,00
Deposit An amount that must be paid upfront before the loan is guaranteed. It
is often stipulated as a percentage of the loan amount.
Answer: 15% of R895 000 = 15 ÷ 100 × R895 000 = R132 450,00
Loan Amount The actual amount owed to the bank or loan agent.
Loan Amount = Sale Price – Deposit
Answer: Loan Amount = R895 000,00 – R132 450,00
= R760 750,00
Interest Rate The percentage of the loan amount that will be charged as a ‘fee’ for
borrowing the money. It is calculated on the balance owed.
Answer: 11,0% p.a.
However, interest is worked out on a monthly basis, so the
monthly rate = 11,0% ÷ 12 = 0,916666% per month.
Interest The amount paid for loaning the money. Calculated on the amount
owed at the end of each month.
Answer: First month = R760 750,00 x 0,916666% = R6 973,54
(This calculation is performed every month on the balance
in the account. As it changes so will the interest charged.)
Loan length The amount of time a person has to pay back the loan (e.g. 5 or 6
years for a car or 15 or 20 years for a house). Also known as the ‘life of
the loan’.
Answer: 20 years
Monthly repayments The amount of money that must be paid back to the bank or loan agent
every month. A table of values is used to calculate the monthly
repayment according to the following method:
Monthly repayments = loan amount ÷ 1 000 × factor
The factor is obtained from a table of values such as this one:
Factor values
Loan INTEREST RATE
Period 10% 10,25% 10,5% 10,75% 11% 11,5% 12%
15 years 10,75 10,9 11,05 11,21 11,37 11,68 12
20 years 9,65 9,82 9,98 10,15 10,32 10,66 11,01
25 years 9,09 9,26 9,44 9,62 9,8 10,17 10,53
Answer: Monthly repayment = R760 750,00 ÷ 1 000 × 10,32
= R7 850,94
(Note: this will always be larger than the first month’s interest as
it must cover all of the interest and a little more which will reduce
the balance owed.)

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Real Cost of the loan The total amount that will be paid for the loan over the whole life of the
loan.
Real cost = Monthly repayment amount × number of repayments made
Answer: Real Cost = R7 850,94 × (20 years × 12 months per year)
= R1 884 225,60
Interest paid on a loan The total of all interest that is charged on the loan.
Interest Paid = Real cost – Original Loan amount
Answer: Interest Paid = R1 884 225,60 – R760 750,00
= R1 123 475,60

Modelling a loan scenario in a table

In order to see what is happening to a loan, we could draw up a table such as the
one below:

Loan model table

House price R895 000 Interest rate (per year) 11,0%
Loan
Deposit 15% (R132 450) Interest rate (per month) 0,916666%
Conditions
Loan amount R750 760 Loan period 20 years or 240 months
Changes to the amount owing on the loan over the life of the loan
Month Opening Balance Interest Balance with interest Repayment Closing balance
1 R750 760,00 R6 973,54 R767 723,54 R7 850,94 R759 872,60
2 R759 872,60 R6 965,50 R766 838,10 R7 850,94 R758 987,16
--- --- --- --- --- ---
100 R620 248,60 R5 685,61 R625 934,21 R7 850,94 R618 083,27
--- --- --- --- --- ---
239 R16 706,58 R153,14 R16 859,72 R7 850,94 R9008,78
240 R9008,78 R82,58 R9 091,36 R9 091,36 R0,00

Notes:
• The closing balance of the previous month becomes the opening balance of
the next month.
• Interest is calculated on the opening balance of each month.
• Interest is first calculated. Then it is added to the opening balance and only
then does the repayment amount get subtracted to get the closing balance.
• The final month’s repayment is often slightly larger
than the normal monthly repayment. This will
increase the Real Cost of the loan slightly.
• The graph of the closing balances vs. no. of
months is shown alongside:
(Notice that is decreases slowly at first, but faster
as it draws closer to the end of the loan.)

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Factors that reduce the total amount owed

The total amount owed over the life of the loan must include both the deposit and
the small amount extra that is paid on the final payment:

Total cost of Loan = Real Cost + Deposit + extra payment

= R1 884 225,60 + R132 450,00 + (R9 191,36 – R7 850,94)

= R2 018 016,02

This total amount owed is affected by certain factors. It can be reduced in several
ways by manipulating these factors. The table below shows the effect of these
factors on the original example:

Factor Effect
Deposit The larger the deposit, the lower the loan amount. Therefore there is less borrowed and
thus less interest is paid on the loan.
Scenario:
Instead of paying a 15% deposit, a 20% deposit was paid (R179 000).
Effect:
Loan paid off in 197 months
Total cost = 197 × R7 850,94
+ R179 000,00
+ R955,73
= R1 726 590,91
(a saving of R291 425,11)

Graph:
The original loan is in blue and the
higher deposit’s effect is the dotted
red line.

Comment:
Due to the lower initial loan amount
that graph decreases faster.
Interest Rate The lower the interest rate, the lower the amount of interest that is charged on the loan.
Scenario:
The interest rate drops to 10,0% (due to lower interest rates).

Effect:
Loan still paid off in 240 months, but monthly payment is less:

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Monthly payment = 760 750,00 ÷ 1 000 × 9,65

= R7 341,24
Total cost = 240 × R7 341.24 + R132 450,00 + R123,25
= R1 896 270,85 (a saving of R121 745,17)

Graph:
The original loan is in blue and the
higher deposit’s effect is the dotted red
line.

Comment:
Although the time period is the same,
the graph has a lower curve than the
original and this means an overall
saving over the life of the loan.

Note: The interest rate will very rarely stay the same over the course of a home loan. It
frequently changes and so the monthly amount will change whenever the interest rate
changes (but NOT the life of the loan).
Loan length The shorter the period of the loan, the shorter amount of time to earn interest.

and/or Scenario:
Life of the loan is changed from 20 to 15 years.
monthly
Effect:
repayments
The life of the loan shortens and the monthly repayment increases.
Monthly payment = 760 750,00 ÷ 1 000 × 11,37
= R8 649,73
Total cost = 180 x R8 649,73
+ R132 450,00
- R1 395,42
= R1 689 805,98
(A saving of R328 210,04)

Graph:
The original loan is in blue and the higher
deposit’s effect is the dotted red line.

Comment:
The effect of decreasing the time period on the loan is effectively the same as
increasing the monthly amount. The loan is paid off faster. Even though the monthly
amount is larger, the total cost of the loan ends up being smaller.

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2. Investments

An investment is where money is paid into a fund which then gains interest and
increases the value of the original money to the benefit of the investor. This is
unlike the loan, where the interest is to the benefit of the bank or loan agent.

Interest is calculated on the closing balance of the account and paid into the
investment on a monthly basis. In this way both the funds invested and the interest
earned gather additional interest.

Two types of investments are analysed in the Learner’s Book:

• Retirement annuities
• Stokvels

2.1. Retirement annuities

• Money is placed into a special fund.
• Every month a payment is made to this fund.
• The fund earns interest and it grows in a compound way.
• At a certain age (normally at age 65), the investor can draw a monthly payment
as an income replacement in their retirement.

The table below shows a retirement investment where R400,00 per month is
invested at a growth rate of 6% p.a.:

Retirement Investment example

Opening Balance with Interest Closing
Month Payment
Balance payment Earned balance
1 R0,00 R400,00 R400,00 R2,00 R402,00
2 R402,00 R400,00 R802,00 R4,01 R806,01
--- --- --- --- --- ---
360 R401 406,01 R400,00 R401 806,01 R2009,03 R403 815,04
--- --- --- --- --- ---
479 R791 835,11 R400,00 R792 235,11 R3 961,18 R796 196,29
480 R796 196,29 R400,00 R796 596,29 R3 982,98 R800 579,27

Note the following:

• The investment grew to R403 815,04 in the first 30 years (360 months).
However, it almost doubled in value 10 years later. The effect of compound
interest means that the size of the investment is increasing at an increasing
rate. So the earlier you start saving the better!

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• A total of R192 000,00 was invested over 40 years and it grew to R800 579,27.
The value grew simply by investing it wisely.

2.2. Stokvels
• A group of people pool their money and make regular contributions to the pool.
• In a ‘shared investment scheme’ they then either share the pool (and the
interest earned) amongst the members or they take turns to withdraw the whole
pool (e.g. saving towards Christmas shopping or a holiday or home repair).
• Another type of stokvel is a ‘shared buying scheme’. Here the group pools their
money so that they can buy in bulk and qualify for savings on those bulk
purchases (e.g. buying groceries at a trader’s depot where goods are sold in
large amounts only).
• Due to the short term nature of this type of investment there is not usually a
large amount of interest earned. For higher interest amounts, the money would
need to be invested for a much longer period of time.

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Finance (interest, banking, inflation)

Section 2: Inflation

(LB pages 120-123)

Overview
The content of this section on Inflation, as part of the Finance Application Topic, is
drawn from page 58 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• interpret and analyse graphs showing changes in the inflation rate over time and
understand that a decreasing graph does not necessarily indicate negative
inflation (deflation) or a decrease in price.
• critique situations involving proposed price increases (e.g. salary negotiations,
school fee increases).

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in contexts relating to inflation (e.g. salary
negotiations, school fee increases, etc.)
• Graphs are used as sources of information and a resource which needs to be
critically analysed. Therefore the skills contained in the Patterns, relationships
and representation basic skills topic will becomes necessary.

1. Making sense of graphs showing inflation rates

Inflation is the increase in the price of goods over time and is sometimes presented
as graphs.

Remember the following points about calculating inflation:

• Inflation is calculated from January of one year to January of the next year.
• Inflation is reported backwards so to calculate the 2007 inflation rate, the
values of 2006 and 2007 have to be used.
• The following calculation is used:

ℎ   
%   = × 100
  
• Inflation is presented as a percentage in order to compare various years.

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Consider the following two graphs which show how the price of bread has changed
from 2006 to 2012.

Prices of brown bread Notes

!4,62 & !4,45(

1 Inflation rate = × 100
!4,45
)*,+,
= )-,-. × 100

= 3,8%

2 Largest increase in price

Prices graph: steepest upward slope
Inflation graph: highest value

3 Smallest increase in prices

Prices graph: shallowest upward slope
2 3 4
1 Inflation graph: lowest value

4 Decrease in prices
Prices graph: downward slope
Inflation graph: negative value

5
5 Downward slope on inflation graph
This indicates that the rate is decreasing
although the actual price is still
increasing but at a lower rate.

Inflation rates of brown bread

2. Inflation rates inform salary negotiations

The reported inflation rate is calculated as an average increase for a total of 5 000
goods and services, not just one item (e.g. the price of brown bread is only one of
the 5 000 items which is averaged).

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Example
A person earns R16 750,00 per month and has the following living expenses:

Expense Item Previous monthly cost Current monthly cost Inflation

Transport (petrol) R1 800,00 R2 300,00 27,78%
Groceries R3 450,00 R3 600,00 4,35%
Medical Aid Insurance R1 875,00 R2 062,00 9,97%
Car Insurance R427,30 R427,30 0,00%
Electricity R620,00 R660,00 6,45%
Clothing R500,00 R580,00 16,00%
Accommodation rental R3 200,00 R3 520,00 10,00%
0Total R11 872,30 R13 149,30 10,76%

This person will receive an annual salary increase of 7,5%. This is a little better
than the national inflation rate (currently 6% p.a.). Has the financial position of this
person stayed the same, improved or worsened?

Answer:

Salary increase = 7,5% of R16 750,00 = R1 256,25

Increase in living expenses = R13 149,30 – R11 872,30 = R1 277,00
Therefore we can say that the financial situation has remained approximately the
same (the difference of R19,75 is not significant)
To cover the increased costs exactly, what percentage increase would this person
actually need?

01
/  01 = × 100
  23
)+ 4,,
= )+5 ,.* × 100

=7,6%
Notes:
• The inflation of the expenses does not mean that the salary must increase by
the same amount. Rather, it would depend on their original salary. For
example, if their original salary was R15 000,00 then they would have needed
an 8,5% increase to maintain their financial position.
• Inflation therefore affects poorer people worse than richer people.
• If all of the inflation percentages of the listed items were averaged
((27,78% + 4,35% + 9,97% + 0,0% + 6,45% + 16,0% + 10,0%) ÷ 7 = 10,65%
we see that this is different from the overall reported average of 10,76%. This
is due to each item having a different starting total with some larger than the
others.

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Additional questions

1. A person would like to buy the car alongside. The bank is

offering a loan at the terms listed.

1.1 Calculate the value of the deposit.

1.2 Calculate the loan amount once the deposit has been
taken into account.
1.3 Using your answer from Question 1.2 and the
following table of loan factors calculate the monthly
payment.
Monthly payment = loan amount ÷ 1 000 ×loan factor

1.4 Using your answer to Question 1.3, calculate the total amount that will be
paid to the bank for the car.
1.5 Using the answer to Question 1.4, calculate the total interest paid to the
bank.

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2. A person bought a house for R770 000,00 and obtained a home loan from a bank
in order to pay for it. The loan period was 240 months. The progressive closing
balance is shown in the graph below:

2.1 Why does the graph curve? (as opposed to being a straight line)
2.2 What would the graph look like if:
2.2.1 The amount borrowed was R450 000?
2.2.2 The person had paid a deposit of R220 000?
2.2.3 The person paid an extra R1 000 into the home loan every month?
2.2.4 The interest rate (at which the money was borrowed) decreased by
2% p.a. after 60 months (but they still carried on paying the same
monthly amount)?

3. The South African consumer price inflation was recorded as follows:

2007: 7,6% 2008: 9,4% 2009: 6,0% 2010: 3,4%

3.1 Assuming that the price of computers increased according to inflation,

calculate what a basic computer should have cost in 2010 if it cost R5 000 in
2006.
3.2 A basic computer actually cost R4 200 in 2010.
3.2.1 Does this mean that the inflation figures are wrong? Give a reason for
your answer.
3.2.2 Why did computer prices decrease over this period when food prices
rose dramatically over the same period?

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4. Below is a graph which shows the inflation rate for various years. Use it to answer
the questions which follow:

4.1 Felicia looks at the graph and says: “Prices dropped from 2008 to 2010”. She is
incorrect. What is actually happening between 2008 and 2010?
4.2 What would the graph look like if there was an overall decrease in prices in a
year?
4.3 Miriam received an annual increase of 6% in her salary every year from 2004
to 2008. She went on strike in 2008 for a greater increase. Why did she do this?

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Answers

1 1.1 15% of R132 180 = R19 827,00

1.2 Loan amount = cash price – deposit = R132 180 – R19 827 = R112 353
1.3 Loan factor = 21,49 (the value for 10,5% for 5 years)
Monthly amount = R112 353 ÷ 1 000 × 21,49
= R2 414,47
1.4 Total Amount = Deposit + Total of all monthly amounts + balloon payment
= R19 827 + R2 414,47 × 60 + R0
= R19 827 + R144 868,20 + R0
= R164 695,20
1.5 Interest = Total Amount paid – Cash amount
= R164 695,20 – R132 180
= R32 515,20

2 2.1 The amounts being deducted each month are not constant as would be the
case with a straight line. Instead they are increasing monthly, hence the
graph is getting steeper as it goes along.
2.2 2.2.1 It would start lower down, but it
would still end 240 months later as
the terms of the loan would still be
20 years. Like this:

2.2.2 If they paid a deposit of R220 000, then the amount owed would be
R550 000 and so the graph would look very similar to 2.2.1.

However, if they agreed to the

terms and then in the first
month they paid in an extra
R220 000 then the graph would
look like this (but only if they
paid the original monthly
instalments):

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 Chapter 4

Finance (interest, banking, inflation)

2.2.3 The graph would start from the same place, but it would decrease
much faster, like this:

2.2.4 The new graph will follow the

original graph until 60
months and then it will drop
more steeply as the loan is
being paid off faster than the
bank’s original calculated
monthly amount.

3 3.1 2006: R5 000

2007: R5 000 + 7,6% of R5 000 = R5 380
2008: R5 380 + 9,4% of R5 380 = R5 885,72
2009: R5 885,72 + 6,0% of R5 885,72 = R6 238,86
2010: R6 238,86 + 3,4% of R6 238,86 = R6 450,98
3.2 3.2.1 No. The inflation percentage is calculated on a basket of goods and
not one single item. Some of the items in the basket of goods will
increase while some will decrease in price.
3.2.2 The manufacturing cost of computers decreased over this time while
food became more expensive to produce.

4 4.1 The inflation rate is decreasing during that time. This means that prices still
increased, but at a lower rate than before.
4.2 The inflation rate would be negative and so the graph would register
negative values.
4.3 In order for Miriam to maintain her standard of living, her increase in salary
would need to be larger than the inflation rate. This was not the case.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Section 1: Comparing travel options

(LB pages 128-137)

Overview
The content of this section on Comparing travel options, as part of the Maps, plans
and other representations of the physical world Application Topic, is drawn from
pages 74-75 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• determine the ‘operating cost’ of a vehicle using the fixed, running and operating
cost tables distributed by the Automobile Association of South Africa.
• plan and cost trips using timetables, fare charts, distance charts and budgets.

Contexts and integrated content

• There is integration of content from the Basic Skills Topic of Patterns,
relationships and representations with respect to using equations.
• There is also integration with the Measurement Application Topic with respect to
measuring length (km) and volume (ℓ).

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

1. Mode of transport #1: Car

1.1 Planning the route

Considerations that would need to be analysed when considering a route are:

• How far is the trip via various routes?
• How long might the trip take via various routes? A highway would take less
time than gravel roads even if it were a longer distance.
• How many rest stops are available on the route for food, fuel and toilet breaks?
• Are there extra costs that might have to be paid (e.g. toll fees)?
• What time of day or night do you expect to arrive? (Will you arrive too late to
book into the hotel?)
• Whether to split the journey over two days for convenience and for practical
reasons. If so, then where would the accommodation be located?

1.2 Determining travel costs

Total travel costs include both the fixed costs (depreciation, licensing and other
one-off costs) and running costs (fuel, tyres, maintenance).

Example

A car is traveling from Durban to Cape Town. Determine the total travel costs for
that trip. The following information is needed:

Purchase Price R125 000,00

Distance travelled in a year 26 000 km
Engine Capacity 1 600 cc
Current fuel price R11,88 per litre
Fuel type Petrol
Distance from Durban to
1 663 km
Cape Town

Referring to the tables below (which appear in the Learner’s Book on pages 123-
124) we can calculate the fixed and running costs of a vehicle. The factors in the
tables are all in cents.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Fixed costs

Total Fixed costs for the journey = 118 c/km x 1 663 km

= 196 234 c
= R1 962,34

Running Costs

A B C

Running costs = A x petrol price + B + C

= 8,03 x 1188 c + 22,73 + 16,70
= 95,3964 + 22,73 + 16,70
= 134,8264 c/km Leave all the decimal
Total running costs for the journey = 134,8264 c/km x 1663 km places during the
calculation.
= 224 216,3032 c
Only round off the final
= R2 242,16 answer.
Total costs = Fixed costs + running costs
= R1 962,34 + R2 242,16
= R4 204,50
Note: This is the actual cost of the journey including wear and tear. Usually when
a person uses a car they only consider the cost of petrol.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

2. Mode of transport #2: Bus

Travelling by bus (or by train) utilises the skills outlined in Chapter 1. Travel by bus
is a form of mass transport and as such it needs to be run according to a timetable
(for organisation) and along limited routes (for affordability). Travelling by car is
much more flexible, but also much more expensive (unless a group of people
travels together and shares the cost of the petrol).

Making sense of a bus timetable and fare table

Example
Using a bus, which would be the best way to travel from Johannesburg to
Bloemfontein?

6
Source: [Link]

The above table is taken from the Intercape bus company booking site. It combines
all three information tables into one (route map, travel timetable and fare table).
Ultimately the decision will be made according to three criteria:
• Most convenient departure time: All the times seem early enough in the day,
although options 5 & 6 are in rush hour.
• Most convenient arrival time: Options 4, 5 & 6 arrive very late in the evening.
Even option 3 is late for someone to come to pick you up from the bus
stop.
• Cost and availability of tickets: Options 1 & 6 have the best prices and they
seem to be available.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Section 2: Compass directions

(LB pages 138-141)

Overview
The content of this section on Compass directions, as part of the Maps, plans and
other representations of the physical world Application Topic, is drawn from page
74-75 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be able to:

• make sense of directions and signboards on roads and in map books that refer
to compass directions (e.g. ‘Travel North on the M3’).
• interpret elevation plans of buildings that include the words ‘North Elevation’,
‘South Elevation’, ‘East Elevation’ and ‘West Elevation’.
• inform decisions on where to position a house or a garden in relation to the
position of the sun at different times of the day.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include any situation where a journey (on foot or in a vehicle) needs
to be planned.

Compass directions and applications

• There are four basic directions: North, South, East and West
aligned at 90° to each other.
• Exactly halfway between the four basic directions (at 45° to
each of the basic directions) are the secondary directions North
East, South East, South West and North West. ‘North West’
means that it is exactly halfway between North and West.
• Compass directions can be used to indicate exact location
when used in lines of latitude and longitude (e.g. Cape Town is at 33° 55’ 31’’S,
18° 22’ 26’’ E)
• Directions on major highways indicate the direction of travel
to assist motorists in making the correct decision.
• Compass directions are used in construction to refer to the
direction a building is facing (e.g. ‘South Elevation’ refers to
the side that phases South, so a person looking at it from Knowing the direction of a road allows
the motorist to be in the correct lane
the outside would be facing North).
• In the Southern hemisphere, buildings are built with many rooms North-facing to
get the most sun-exposure. The opposite is true in the Northern hemisphere.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Section 3: Scale

(LB pages 142-145)

Overview
The content of this section on Scale, as part of Maps, plans and other
representations of the physical world Application Topic, is drawn from page 73 in
the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• calculate map and/or plan measurements when actual lengths and distances
are known using a given scale to inform the drawing of 2-dimensional plans
and pictures and the construction of 3-dimensional models.
• determine the most appropriate scale in which to draw/construct a map, plan
and/or model, and use this scale to complete the task.
• determine the scale in which a map and/or plan has been drawn in the form
1 : .… and use the scale to determine other dimensions on the map and/or
plan.
Contexts and integrated content
• Determine contexts including any situation where a map or plan is used to
determine distance.
• At times learners will be required to convert between different units which will
draw on the skills found in the Measurement Application Topic.

Scale is referred to here and in Chapter 10. The contexts are different in the two
chapters, but the skills are similar.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Scale: Basics
• A scale has two sides to it: The left side always refers to a measurement on the
Map (or Plan), while the right side always refers to the measurement in real life
(Actual measurement). We can summarise this as the ‘MA rule’ (Map-Actual).

M A
1 : 30 000
• A scale does not have units as the units on both sides will be the same.

Example
A scale of 1 : 30 000 means that 1 cm measured on the Map represents 30 000 cm
in real life (Actual).

Determining the equivalent number scale for a bar scale

To determine the number scale we need a measurement from the bar scale and
the actual (real life) value of the same measurement. We then follow this
procedure:

1. Measure the bar scale and record both the bar scale and real life
measurements in their correct places in the scale (M : A)
2. Convert both measurements to the same units. Convert to the smaller unit for
ease of calculation.
3. Divide both by the Map value.

Example 0m 10 km 20 km
In the bar scale alongside you can see that a
1
measurement of 4 cm on the bar scale is
equivalent to 20 km in real life

Therefore the scale is: 4 cm : 20 km

2 20 km = 2 000 000 cm, therefore if we write the measurements in the same

units, we see that the scale is: 4 cm : 2 000 000 cm

Divide both sides by the Map measurement (to get the Map side of the scale to
3
be 1): 4 cm ÷ 4 cm = 1 and 2 000 000 cm ÷ 4 cm = 500 000, therefore the
scale is: 1 : 500 000

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Checking the accuracy of the number scale

The method that would be used would be the method outlined above and will be
the same operation as the example below therefore we will not deal with it here.

Determining the scale of a map

Question: Why can we NOT determine the scale by measuring a straight line
from Kimberley to Trompsberg?
Answer: The real life distance between those two points is not known.

In order to calculate the scale of a map we require a measurement from the map
and the actual value of the measurement. It is better to have two points which are
in a straight line from each other, but if they are not, use a piece of string to get the
approximate measurement on the map.

Example
This is the same map as the one in the
Learner’s Book on page 144, to the same
scale. To confirm this we measure the
distance from Kimberley to Heuningneskloof
(marked with red stars).
The measurement between the two
1
points is approximately 2,4 cm and if we
add up the distances indicated on the
map we get 20 + 16 + 22 = 58 km.
Therefore the scale is: 2,4 cm : 58 km
58 km = 5 800 000 cm, therefore if we
2 write the measurements in the same
units, we see that the scale is:
2,4 cm : 5 800 000 cm
Divide both sides by the Map
3
measurement (to get the Map side to 1): 2,4 cm ÷ 2,4 cm = 1 and 5 800 000 cm
÷ 2,4 cm =2 416 667, thus the scale is: 1 : 2 416 667 ≈ 1 : 2 400 000

Note: There are several reasons why the scale is different to the textbook:
• The map distances cannot be measured to an appropriate degree of
accuracy (e.g. it would be more accurate if the measurement was in mm or
if we could zoom in and measure with greater skill).
• The real life distances are rounded off.
• We are finding an approximate scale. The map scale would be better.

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Additional questions
BLOEMFONTEIN
1. Hloni is a taxi owner. He operates a route that takes passengers

from Norvalspunt to Bloemfontein and back again. He needs to know

what to charge his passengers in order to make a decent profit.

His route takes him down the N1 and the section of the map alongside
shows his start and end points (indicated by the red stars).

1.1 Calculate the total distance between the two points by adding up
the blue numbers on the map. These indicate the distance (in
km) between various points on the route.
1.2 Hloni measures the distance between the two stars on a map as
12,4 cm. Use this distance and the answer to Question 1.1 to
calculate the scale of the map alongside.
1.3 The map alongside is taken from the map on the previous page.
Explain why the scales of the maps are not the same.
1.4 Is the scale of the map alongside larger or is it smaller than the
map on the previous page? Give a reason for your answer.
2. In order to calculate the fixed and running costs of the vehicle he
needs to work out the total distance that he will be driving in a year.
2.1 Using your answer to Question 1.1 calculate the total time it will take him to
do one trip to Bloemfontein. He will be travelling at approximately 90 km/h
on average and it will take him 15 minutes to get to the taxi rank once he
arrives in Bloemfontein.
2.2 He estimates that each trip will take him 2 hours. With loading, unloading
and waiting for passengers, he calculates that he will be able to do 4 trips
in a day (To Bloemfontein and back twice). He will operate for 320 days of
the year. Calculate the total annual distance that he will drive.
3. Hloni drives a Toyota Quantum minibus. Its engine capacity is 2 700 cc and it cost
R303 000 to buy. It is a petrol vehicle.
3.1 Use the following table to determine his Fixed Cost amount (in c/km):

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

3.2 Use the following table to work out his Petrol Factor (A), Service/Repair costs

(B) and Tyre costs (C). All of the factors are in c/km.

3.3 Petrol currently costs R11,88. Use this fact and your answers from Questions
3.1 and 3.2 to work out the Total Operating Vehicle Cost (TOVC) using the
following equation:
TOVC = Fixed Cost amount + A × Fuel Price + B + C
3.4 He rounds off the TOVC amount to R4,20 / km. Using this value he
calculates that his operating costs to travel to Bloemfontein will be
approximately R700. Show how this was calculated.
3.5 Hloni takes an average of 12 passengers on each trip. He aims to make 30%
profit. How much should he charge each passenger (use R700 as the
operating cost of the vehicle)?

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 Chapter 5
Map and plans (scale and map work)

Answers

1 1.1 They total 167 km.

1.2 Map : Actual
12,4 cm : 16 700 000 cm (Both measurements need to be converted to the
same units)
1 : 1 346 774 (16 700 000 ÷ 12,4)
1 : 1 350 000 (Rounded off to the nearest sensible round
number)
1.3 This map is enlarged.
1.4 It is larger: the smaller the number of the scale, the larger the scale.
2 2.1 167 km ÷ 90 km/h = 1,86 hours = 1 hour 51 minutes + 15 minutes
= 2 hrs 6 mins
2.2 167 km × 4 trips/day × 320 days = 213 760 km
3 3.1 224 c/km (His vehicle falls in the R300 001-R350 000 bracket and he travels
more than 40 000 km per year.)
3.2 A = 10,96
B = 35,97
C = 31,70 (His vehicle is in the 2 501-3 000 cc bracket.)
3.3 TOVC = 224 + 11,88 × 10,96 + 35,97 + 31,70
= 224 + 103,20 + 35,97 + 31,70
= 421,87 c/km
3.4 R4,20 / km × 167 km = R701,4 ≈ R700
3.5 R700 ÷ 12 = R58,33 + 30% of R58,33 = R75,83 ≈ R75
This will be a nice round number. A side note is that this is too high a figure
for the average person to pay so Hloni is going to have to charge less and
maintain his vehicle less. This is why long-haul taxis are often not
roadworthy. They cover too long a distance for too little money.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
Section 1: Measuring

(LB pages 162-165)

Overview
The content of this section, as part of the Measurement Application Topic, is drawn
from page 64 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• estimate lengths and /or measure lengths of objects accurately to complete

tasks.
• determine the appropriateness of estimation for a given context/problem.

Contexts and integrated content

Learners need to be able to work in the context of larger projects that take place in
the household, school or wider community.

In the next section, formal methods are used for calculating perimeter, area and
volume; however it is always important to have a method for checking how sensible
an answer is. The following two sub-sections outline methods for estimating
lengths, distances, area and volume.

1. Measuring lengths and distances

The following body measurements could be used to estimate basic lengths and
distances:

Indigenous methods of measurement

Measurement Description Approximate length
Cubit From the tip of the outstretched hand to the elbow ψ m (actually 47 cm)
Hand The width across all 5 fingers of the hand 10 cm
Digit The width across the knuckle of the middle finger 2 cm
Pace One good-sized step 1 m (actually 90 cm)
Foot The length of an average foot 30 cm

There are also other common measurements that most people are familiar with that
can be used to check how sensible an answer is.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
Example

A standard soccer pitch can have the following dimensions:

100 m
1. Calculate the total perimeter of the soccer pitch.

Answer: 100 m + 80 m + 100 m + 80 m

= 360 m 80 m

2. A learner was asked to calculate the length of fencing

around the perimeter of his school and his answer
was 250 m.

Referring to the dimensions of the soccer pitch, does this answer make sense?

Answer: No this does not make sense. A soccer pitch has a total perimeter of
360 m and his answer is smaller than this. It would have to be a really
small school in order for this to be true.

Measuring area and volume

Area refers to two dimensions being multiplied by each other while volume refers to
three dimensions multiplied together.

The previous measurement estimates can be used to estimate area and volume as
well:

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)

1 litre Estimating Volume 1 square meter

1 litre = 1000 cm3 1m

10 cm = 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm
= 1 hand x 1 hand x 1 hand

1m
Estimating Area
1 square metre = 1 m2
=1mx1m
= 1 pace x 1 pace
or = 2 cubits x 2 cubits

Example
Is it incorrect to estimate the area of the ceiling of a normal classroom to be 10 m2?

Answer: Yes, it is incorrect. Even a small classroom would be approximately

4 paces by 5 paces. This would be an area of 20 m2.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
Section 2: Calculating perimeter, area and volume

(LB pages 166-177)

Overview
The content of this section, as part of the Measurement Application Topic, is drawn
from pages 68-69 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• Calculate the perimeter, area and volume of rectangles, triangles, circles,

rectangular prisms, cylinders of known formulae as well as objects that can be
decomposed into those shapes
• Calculating the cost of materials to complete a project.

Contexts and integrated content

• Learners need to be able to work in the context of larger projects that take
place in the household, school or wider community.

• Analysis and interpretation of plans is a skill that is required for success in this
section. This involves the Maps, plans and other representations of the
physical world Application Topic.

Calculations involving perimeter

Perimeter is the length around the outside of a figure. Normally we only look
at 2-dimensional figures, however the concept of total length can also apply
to 3-dimensional figures which have a framework as well as any covering which
will be attached to that framework.

Example
Consider the metal archway alongside. 0,6 m

1. Metal is sold in 6m lengths. How many lengths will

need to be purchased to make the archway alongside?
1,6 m

0,4 m

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
Answer:

Break the complicated figure down into more manageable pieces and then
calculate the total:

2× +2× + 11 ×
Total frame =

+
= 2 × ( × π × diameter) + 4 × 1,6 m + 11 × 0,4 m
4

= 2 × (0,5)(3,14)(1,2 m) + 6,4 m + 4,4 m

= 3,768 m + 6,4 m + 4,4 m

= 14,57 m

Therefore 3 lengths of steel bar will need to be purchased to create the archway.

2. The steel frame is going to be covered with wooden tiles that are
20 cm wide and overlap each other by 3 cm as in the diagram
alongside. How many will be required to cover the outside of the 20 cm
frame?

Answer:
Overlap:
3 cm
The total outside length to be covered needs to be calculated first:

Total length of the front of the frame:

+
= ( × π × diameter) + 2 × 1,6 m
4

= (0,5)(3,14)(1,2 m) + 3,2 m

= 1,88 m + 3,2 m

= 5,08 m

Because they overlap, the width of the tile cannot be used as it is. The overlap of

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
adjacent tiles needs to be taken into account in order to use the effective width of
the tiles:

Effective Width = 20 cm – 3 cm = 17 cm

No. of tiles needed = Total length ÷ Effective width

= 508 cm ÷ 17 cm (Note that the units must be the same)

= 29,88 tiles

≈ 30 tiles

Calculations involving area

Most complex areas can be broken down into simpler areas. Once a larger area is
calculated, other calculations can be performed on it such as seeing how many of a
smaller area can fit into it.

Example
Skateboarders often enjoy performing tricks on a special
13 m
ramp called a halfpipe (shown alongside).

1. Use the diagrams alongside to calculate the area of the Radius of

curved skating surface of the halfpipe. Quarter circle:
2,74 m
Answer:

If a surface has the same width all along its length, it then 3,6 m
forms a large rectangle, so we can calculate the length of the
edge and use it as the length of the rectangle:

+
Total length of the edge = 2 × × π × d + 3,6 m
-

= 2 × (0,25) × (3,142) × (5,48 m) + 3,6 m

= 8,61 m + 3,6 m

= 12,21 m

Therefore total area of ramp surface = length × breadth

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
= 12,21 m × 13 m

= 158,73 m2

2. A special board is used on the surface. The board is sold in rectangular pieces
(width: 1,5 m, length: 3,0 m). Use the area of the board to estimate the number of
boards needed to cover the skate surface of this halfpipe.

Answer:

We can only estimate the number of boards as we would need to check how the
boards fit together, but an estimate is useful when getting a rough idea of how
many boards might be needed:

We can estimate the number of boards by dividing the area of one board into the
total area of the ramp:

Area of 1 board = length × breadth = 1,5 m × 3,0 m = 4,5 m2

Number of boards = Total area ÷ Area of 1 board

= 158,73 m2 ÷ 4,5 m2 = 35,27 boards ≈ 36 boards needed.

Calculations involving volume

Volume is the amount of 3-dimensional space inside a shape. If the Prism
shape is a prism we can use the area of the end to calculate the A 3-dimensional shape
volume. We can use the following formula:
that has the same
shape (and size) on
Volume of a prism = Area of base × height
both ends and the same
thickness along the
Example
entire shape.
The refuse skip in the picture below is 1,75 m wide and its other
dimensions are shown in the diagram alongside it.

0,7 m
0,7 m
3,6 m

1,75 m 0,9 m

0,9 m
0,9 m

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
1. Calculate the volume of the skip in m3.

Method 1: Using the formula Method 2: Splitting up the volume

In order to calculate the area, it will The shape can be split up into different,
need to be split up into smaller pieces: smaller volumes:

0,7 m 0,7 m 1,75 m

2,9 m
2,9 m
0,7 m B 0,7 m 0,7 m B 0,7 m
A A

0,9 m 1,8 m 0,9 m

0,9 m 1,8 m 0,9 m

C D 0,9 m E C D 0,9 m E

Area A = 0,5 × 0,7 m × 0,7 m Each smaller volume has the same
thickness (or width): 1,75 m.
= 0,245 m2

Area B = 2,9 m × 0,7 m

Volume A = 0,5 × 0,7 m × 0,7 m × 1,75 m
= 2,03 m2
= 0,42875 m3
Area C = 0,5 × 0,9 m × 0,9 m
Volume B = 0,7 m × 2,9 m × 1,75 m
= 0,405 m2
= 3,5525 m3
Area D = 1,8 m × 0,9 m
Volume C = 0,5 × 0,9 m × 0,9 m × 1,75 m
= 1,62 m2
= 0,70875 m3
Area E = Area C = 0,405 m2
Volume D = 0,9 m × 1,8 m × 1,75 m
Total Area of base = 0,245 + 2,03 +
0,405 + 1,62 + 0,405 = 4,705 m2 = 2,835 m3

Volume = Area of base × height Volume E = Volume C = 0,70875 m3

= 4,705 m2 × 1,75 m Total volume = 8,23375 m3

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
= 8,23 m3 = 8,23 m3

(Note: The ‘height’ is actually the (Note: The volume of each segment is
‘thickness’ of the prism) only rounded off at the end.

Notice that either method can be used to get the same answer. Simply use the
method that you are most comfortable with.

2. Approximately how many rubbish bags should be able to fit into the above skip
if a normal rubbish bag can hold 120 ℓ of refuse? 1 m3 = 1 000 ℓ.

Answer:

Volume of skip = 8,23 m3 x 1 000 = 8 230 ℓ

No. of rubbish bags = 8 230 ℓ ÷ 120 ℓ = 65,58 bags ≈ 65 bags.

However, the skip will be able to hold a lot more than that number as the bags are
usually not totally filled with trash and so more will be able to fit in.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
Additional questions

The following formulas might be useful in the questions which follow:

1. A man wants to extend his driveway to the sides to create some new parking
areas. He is going to remove the grass that is already there and put down stones.

1.1 Firstly, he has to remove the grass and replant it in other areas of his yard.
Calculate the total area of grass that will be removed from both areas. You
may choose to use some of the formulas above.
1.2 He will then put down stones to a depth of 5 cm. Stone is sold in units of
0,5 cubic metres (m3). Use your answer to Question 1.1 to work out how
many whole units of 0,5 m3 of stone he will need to buy.
1.3 To keep the stones in position he is going to lay some bricks along the
edges marked in bold. The other edges are next to the house or bordering
on the existing driveway and will not require bricks.
1.3.1 Calculate the total length of all the edges where he is going to lay
bricks. (Hint: you will need to use the Theorem of Pythagoras.)
1.3.2 Each brick is 22 cm long. How many bricks is he going to lay along the
given edges?

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
1.4 Using your answers to Questions 1.2 and 1.3.2 calculate the total amount
that this project is going to cost. Each unit of stone (per 0,5 m3) costs
R280,00 and each brick costs R2,00.
2. A woman is planning to establish a vegetable garden in the corner of her
property. It has the following shape:

2.1 Using the formulas given at the start of these questions calculate the total
area of the vegetable garden.
2.2 She is going to cover the area with compost. Each bag of compost will cover
15 m2. Use your answer in Question 2.1 to work out how many bags of
compost she must buy.
2.3 She is going to put up fencing around the perimeter of the garden. The
fencing that she is planning to buy is sold in rolls that are 5 m long. To
ensure that the fence encloses the area well, she will be overlapping the
sections of fencing by 20 cm on each end like this:

2.3.1 Calculate the length marked ‘L’ on the diagram using the Theorem of
Pythagoras.
2.3.2 The length of 1 roll of fencing is 5 m. However, due to the overlap of
each section, what is the effective length of each roll of fencing?
Answer in m.
2.3.3 Using your two previous answers, calculate how many rolls of fencing
will need to be bought to surround the vegetable patch.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
3. A man is remodelling his garden and decides to
create a simple swimming pool. He plans to dig a
rectangular hole and line it with spray-on
cement.
3.1 Use the measurements in the diagram
alongside to calculate the surface area that
will need to be covered by the spray-on
cement.
3.2 During the winter, he plans to pump all of the water from the pool
into a storage tank (such as the one in the picture alongside).
The large storage tank can hold 5 000S ℓ of water. If a full tank was
emptied into his pool, how high would the water level be? Answer
in m. (1 m3 = 1 000 ℓ)
4. Swimming pools come in many different shapes and sizes. A homeowner wants
to place a swimming pool in the garden. The h0meowner decides on the
following pool design (drawing NOT to scale):

4.1 Calculate the volume of water that the pool can hold. Give your answer in
m3.
4.2 The homeowner guesses that it is going to cost ‘a few thousand Rand’ to fill
the pool for the first time. Is he 0r she correct?
(Water costs 0,92 c/ ℓ S and 1 m3 = 1 kl)

4.3 A bed of compressed sand (10 cm thick)

is laid underneath the pool to cushion it.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
4.3.1 Calculate the surface area of the bottom of the pool (only the bottom,
NOT the sides). Answer in m2.
4.3.2 Sand is sold at a price of R375 per m3. You can also purchase decimal
amounts (e.g. 1,325 m3 or 1,78 m3, etc.). Calculate the total cost of the
sand required for the bed of compressed sand.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
Answers

1 1.1 Rectangular area = 6,4 m × 6,2 m = 39,68 m2

Triangular area = ½ × 6,2 m × 3 m = 9,3 m2
Total area = 39,68 m2 + 9,3 m2 = 48,98 m2
1.2 Volume of stone = Area of top × depth of stone
= 48,98 m2 × 0,05 m (this needs to be in m)
= 2,449 m3
No. of units of stone = 2,449 m3 ÷ 0,5 m3 = 4,898 units ≈ 5 units
1.3 1.3.1 Edge of the triangle is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle:
Length = 6 3(4 + 6,2(4
= √9 + 38,44
= √47,44
= 6,89 m
Edges of rectangle = 6,4 m + 6,2 m = 12,6 m
Total length to be covered = 12,6 m + 6,89 m = 19,49 m
1.3.2 One brick = 22 cm = 0,22 m
No. of bricks = 19,49 m ÷ 0,22 m = 88,59 bricks ≈ 90 bricks
1.4 Stone = 5 units × R280,00 = R1 400,00
Bricks = 90 × R2,00 = R180,00
Total = R1400,00 + R180,00 = R1 580,00
2 2.1 The area can be split up into a long rectangle and a triangle:
Area of rectangle = 15 m × 3 m = 45 m2
Area of triangle = ½ × 2 m × 4 m (worked out by subtracting lengths)
= 4 m2
Total area = 45 m2 + 4 m2 = 49 m2
2.2 Bags of compost = 49 m2 ÷ 15 m2/bag
= 3,27 bags ≈ 4 bags (although by spreading it a bit thinly,
you could get by with 3 bags)
2.3 2.3.1 Length = √44 + 24
= √16 + 4
= √20
= 4,47 m

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
2.3.2 5 m — 0,2 m = 4,8 m (we only count the overlap on one end).
2.3.3 Total length of fence = 4,47 m + 5 m + 15 m + 3 m + 11 m
= 38,47 m
No. of rolls of fencing = 38,47 ÷ 4,8 m = 8,01 rolls
We can consider this as 8 rolls exactly because we can move the
overlap a little to accommodate the shortfall.
3 3.1 We will only consider those areas that need to be covered. These are all
sides except the top side (as the water will be open in the pool.
Total surface area = 2 × 5 m × 1,5 m + 2 × 1,5 m × 3 m + 5 m × 3 m
= 15 m2 + 9 m2 + 15 m2
= 39 m2
3.2 5 000 ℓ = 5 m3
Volume = Area of base × height
5 m3 = 5 m × 3 m × height
5 m3 = 15 m2 × height
0,33 m = height
(So the water in that large tank will only fill the pool up to 33 cm. the pool
itself holds 22 500 ℓ or 4 ½ tanks of water!)
4 4.1 The volume can be divided up into various parts: 3 rectangular prisms and
a triangular prism.
Volume of rectangular prism 1 = Area of end × length of prism
= 1,8 m × 3 m × 4 m
= 21,6 m3
Volume of rectangular prism 2 = 1,2 m × 3,5 m × 4 m
= 16,8 m3
Volume of rectangular prism 3 = 1,2 m × 4 m × 4 m
= 19,2 m3
Volume of triangular prism = ½ × 3,5 m × 0,6 m × 4 m
= 4,2 m3
Total volume = 21,6 + 16,8 + 19,2 + 4,2
= 61,8 m3
4.2 61,8 m3 = 61 800 ℓ
Total cost = 0,92 c/ℓ × 61 800 ℓ = 56 856 c = R568,56
So, although it is not cheap, it is also not ‘a few thousand rand’.

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 Chapter 6
Measurement (measuring and calculating lengths,
perimeter, area and volume)
4.3 4.3.1 Sloped length will need the theorem of Pythagoras:
Length = 6 0,6(4 + 3,5(4
= 60,36 + 12,25
= √12,61
= 3,55 m
Total length of side of pool = 3 m + 3,55 m + 4 m = 10,55 m
Area of bottom = length of side × width
= 10,55 m × 4 m
= 42,2 m2
4.3.2 Volume of sand = Area × depth
= 42,2 m2 × 0,1 m
= 4,22 m3
Cost of sand = 4,22 m3 × R375/m3
= R1 582,50

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

Section 1: Understanding income tax

(LB pages 182-185)

Overview
The content of this chapter, as part of the Measurement Application Topic, is drawn
from page 65 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• use recorded mass (weight) data, recorded length data, calculate Body Mass
Index values and appropriate growth charts to monitor growth problems in
children.

Contexts and integrated content

The scope of the measured data should include the personal lives of learners, the
wider community, national and global averages.

The skills that are used in this chapter are the same as those covered in Chapter 3.
Skills that will be needed for success in this chapter would be:

• an understanding of the concept of percentiles

• an understanding of percentile curves
• basic graph reading and interpretation skills
• using equations.

BMI is calculated in the same way as for adults (as in Grade 11):

? ℎ  @ (
=>0 =
A ℎ  B((4

However the interpretation is different when considering children. In adults, their

height stays constant after a certain age (approximately 23 years of age). Therefore
the only measurement that changes is weight.
In children, their height changes often. This will affect the results of the BMI
calculation. In other words, a BMI that might be considered very low for an adult
could be the median for a child. Therefore the BMI of a child will need to be
checked against an appropriate set of BMI curves. The calculation itself is not
sufficient.

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

Example
Consider two girls: Amy is 9 years old. She is 1,29 m tall and weighs 33 kg.
Nontando is 12 years old. She weighs 46 kg and is1,52 m tall.
Their BMI’s are as follows:
Amy Nontando
CDEFGH IF( MM IF MM IF CDEFGH IF( -5 IF -5 IF
=>0 = = = =>0 = = =
JDEFGH K(L +,4N(L +,55-+ IFL JDEFGH K(L +,.4(L 4,M+*- IFL

= 19, 83 kg/m2 = 19, 91 kg/m2

Notice that they both have the same BMI. According to adult BMI assessments
from Grade 11, both girls are perfectly normal. Now we reference the appropriate
BMI growth curve for girls and plot each girl’s age versus her BMI:

95 90

85
Body mass index (BMI)
index-for-age percentiles
2 to 20 years: Girls
75

50
Amy
Nontando

25

10

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

We can see that Amy’s BMI occurs on the 90th percentile curve, while Nontando is
a little lower than the 75th percentile curve. To interpret the real meaning of these
results, we can reference the following table:

Weight status classifications

Weight status Percentile range position on the growth chart
Underweight Less than the 5th percentile
Healthy weight ≥ 5th percentile and < 85th percentile
At risk of overweight ≥ 85th percentile and < 95th percentile
Overweight ≥ 95th percentile

We can now see that Amy is at risk of being overweight while Nontando actually
has a fairly healthy weight.

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

Section 2: Using formulae to determine medicine

dosage

(LB pages 186-187)

Overview
The content of this chapter, as part of the Measurement Application Topic, is drawn
from page 65 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• calculate medicine dosages using formula supplied and appropriate growth

charts.

Contexts and integrated content

The scope of the measured data should include the personal lives of learners, the
wider community, national and global averages.
The skills used in this chapter relate to the application of specific formulae using
known measurements. The required dosage is calculated in different ways
depending on the formulae applied. An example and exercise are provided in the
Learner’s Book and there is no new content.

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

Additional questions

1. The BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) is the minimum amount of energy that a body
needs to function. The BMR (in calories) for a woman can be calculated by using
the following formula:

BMR = 10 × weight(in kg) + 6,25 × height(in cm) – 5 ×age(in years) – 161

1.1 Calculate the BMR for a 17-year old woman who weighs 46 kg and is 1,43 m tall.
1.2 The woman in the previous question managed to keep her weight at 46 kg
and her height remained 1,43 m. Will she require more calories or fewer
calories for her BMR as she grows older? Prove your answer with
calculation.
1.3 One of the formula’s for calculating a woman’s ideal weight is the J.D.
Robinson formula:
Ideal weight = 49 kg + 0,7 kg ×(Height (in cm) – 150)
1.3.1 According to the Robinson formula, what is the ideal weight for a
woman who is 1,65 m tall?
1.3.2 What possible factors could make the Robinson formula inaccurate?
List TWO factors.
2. The BMI (Body Mass Index) of a person who is over 20 years of age can be
calculated by using the following formula:
? ℎ  @ (
=>0 =
A ℎ  B((4
According to this value, an adult can be classified according to the following
table:

BMI Classification
Less than 18,5 Underweight
From 18,5 to 24,9 Normal
From 25 to 29,9 Overweight
From 30 upwards Obese

2.1 Calculate the BMI of the following two people:

Person 1: Weight: 65 kg; Height: 1,54 m
Person 2: Weight 122 lb; Height: 70 inches tall.
(Conversions: 2,2 lb = 1 kg ; 1 inch = 2,54 cm)

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

2.2 How much would a person who is 1,82 m tall have to weigh to be
considered obese? Show all working. (Hint: You can use Trial and error or
any other method).
2.3 Use the above table to comment on the weight status of the two people in
Question 2.1 if they are adults.
2.4 Use the BMI percentile graph for girls in the worked example and the
weight status table below to answer the following questions:

Weight status classifications

Weight status Percentile range position on the growth chart
Underweight Less than the 5th percentile
Healthy weight ≥ 5th percentile and < 85th percentile
At risk of overweight ≥ 85th percentile and < 95th percentile
Overweight ≥ 95th percentile

2.4.1 If Person 1 (from Question 2.1) is a 12 year old girl, what would her
weight status be?
2.4.2 If Person 1 is a 19 year old girl, what would her weight status be?
3. On the next page are BMI and Height/Weight percentile curves for boys. Use them
to answer the following questions:
3.1 If Person 2 (from Question 2.1) is a boy 16 years old, what percentile would
his height fall into? What does this indicate about his height? Give a reason
for your answer.
3.2 If Person 2 is a boy 16 years old, what percentile would his weight fall into?
What does this indicate about his weight? Give a reason for your answer.
3.3 Use the BMI graph to determine his weight status (as a 16-year old boy).
3.4 Use your answers to Questions 3.1 and 3.2 to explain his weight status from
Question 3.3.

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

Body mass index (BMI) index- Stature (Height) for age /

for-age percentiles Weight for age percentiles
2 to 20 years: Boys 2 to 20 years: Boys

95
AGE (Years)

AGE (Years)

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

Answers

(Note: This initial set of questions is not in the book, but it is worthwhile looking at a
set of unfamiliar equations and seeing if we can interpret their answers)
1. 1.1 BMR = 10 × 46 kg + 6,25 × 143 cm – 5 × 17 –161
= 460 + 893,75 – 85 – 161
= 1 107,75 calories
1.2 She will require fewer calories because as her age increases the value of the
‘5 × age’ term increases. For example, at 40 years of age:
BMR = 460 + 893,75 – 5 × 40 – 161
= 460 + 893,75 – 200 – 161
= 1 002,75 calories
1.3 1.3.1 Ideal weight = 49 kg + 0,7 kg × (165 – 150)
= 49 kg + 0,7 kg × (15)
= 49 kg + 10,5 kg
= 59,5 kg
1.3.2 It could be based on one race group (the ideal weight for one race
group is not the same as for another). Also, it takes height into
account, but it does not identify if the person is large-boned or small-
boned which will affect any ideal weight calculation.
2. 2.1 Person 1: BMI = Weight (kg) ÷ (Height (in m))2
= 65 kg ÷ (1,54 m)2
= 27,4 kg/m2
Person 2: Mass = 122 lb ÷ 2,2 lb/kg = 55,45 kg
Height = 70 in. × 2,54 in/cm = 177,8 cm = 1,778 m
BMI = 55,45 ÷ (1,778 m)2
= 17,5 kg/m2
2.2 To be considered obese their BMI should be at least 30, so the equation will
look like this:
BMI = mass ÷ height2
30 = mass ÷ (1,82)2
30 = mass ÷ 3,3124
By Trial and error or by equation solving methods we can find 99,4 kg.

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 Chapter 7
Measurement (Measuring weight: BMI, medicine dosages)

2.3 Person 1: This person is considered to be overweight. This would seem to be

a bit harsh as 65 kg is an average weight.
Person 2: This person is considered to be underweight. This makes sense
because the person is very tall but yet weighs very little.
2.4 2.4.1 Person 1 has a BMI of 27,4 kg/m2. By using the graph we can see that a
12-year old girl with that BMI would be above the 95th percentile
which would mean that she would be drastically overweight.
2.4.2 By using the graph we can see that this BMI for a 19-year old is
between the 85th and 95th percentile. This means that she would be at
risk of being overweight (but not obese)
3. 3.1 Height = 177,8 cm.
Looking at the right hand graph we can see that for a 16-year old boy this
height occurs on or about the 75th percentile curve. This means that he is
above average height (which would be the 50th percentile curve) and that
he is taller than 75% of boys his own age.
3.2 Weight = 55,45 kg
Looking at the lower part of the graph on the right we can see that for a 16-
year old boy his weight is between the 10th and 25th percentile (although
closer to the 10th percentile. This would indicate that he is underweight for
his age.
3.3 BMI = 17,5 (previously calculated)
For a 16-year old boy, a BMI of 17,5 occurs between the 5th and the 10th
percentile. The table of weight status identifies this as a healthy weight.
3.4 His BMI is so low relative to his age because the boy is tall and thin and so
he might seem to be bordering on being unhealthy. However he might
simply be going through a growth spurt.

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

Section 1: Understanding taxation

(LB pages 216-221)

Overview
The content of this section on Income Tax, as part of the Finance Application Topic,
is drawn from page 59 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• work with various financial documents (payslips, IRP5 forms, etc.) in order to
determine an individual’s taxable income, personal income tax and net pay.
• investigate the effect on an increase in salary on the amount of income tax
payable.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include several types of job where a salary is earned.
• There is integration of content from the section on reading of tables and in the
topic Patterns, relationships and representations.

Important terminology
It is very important that you understand the terminology used in the context of
income tax. These are explained in the table on the following page.

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

Term Meaning

The total amount earned in a month. This includes all types of salary (e.g. salary,
Gross Salary
overtime, bonuses, etc.)

These are amounts that need to be subtracted from the gross salary before
Deductions money is deposited into the employee’s bank account. These include items such
as UIF, Pension, Medical Aid, Trade Union Fees, Loan repayments, Tax, etc.

Also known as ‘take home pay’. This is the amount that is deposited into an
Net Salary employee’s bank account. It is calculated as follows:

Net Salary = Gross Salary - Deductions

This is a tax on all sources of income (e.g. salary, interest income, rental income,
Income Tax
etc.). It is calculated on the taxable income.

This is different from Net Salary although the calculation looks similar.
Taxable Income
Taxable Income = Gross Income – Tax-deductible Deductions

This is different from gross salary (above) because it includes all forms of
Gross Income
income, e.g. salary, rental income, textbook royalties, etc.

These are specific deductions that are subtracted from the gross income before
tax is calculated. There are two types of taxable deductions:

Salary-based deductibles: subtracted from the gross salary by the employer

Tax deductible before the salary is paid. These include: UIF, Pension fund contributions, etc.
Deductions Non-Salary deductibles: These may be paid out of an employee’s take-home
pay, e.g. donations to charities, certain medical expenses.

There are limits placed on deductibles, e.g. the maximum amount that can be
deducted for pension is 7,5% of the gross salary.

The majority of expenses are not tax deductible. These are generally living
Non-tax Deductible
expenses, e.g. food, rent, fuel, entertainment, etc. Only tax deductible deductions
Expenses
reduce the amount of taxable income owed.

Some deductions subtracted from an employee’s payslip are taxable. Although

the employee receives less money they still have to pay tax on the larger amount
Taxable Deductions
of money that they earned. Examples include: loans from an employer, a
garnishee order, monthly payments to the employer for services rendered, etc.

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

Section 2: Determining income tax

(LB pages 222-231)

Overview
As for Section 1, the content of this section on Determining Income Tax is also
drawn from page 59 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• work with various financial documents (payslips, IRP5 forms, etc.) in order to
determine an individual’s taxable income, personal income tax and net pay.
• investigate the effect on an increase in salary on the amount of income tax
payable.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include several types of job where a salary is earned.
• There is integration of content from the section on reading of tables and in the
topic Patterns, relationships and representations.

Once a person’s taxable income has been determined, there are two ways to
calculate the total amount of tax owed: deduction tables and income tax formulae.

Deduction tables

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

Example
A person calculates that their taxable income is R14 803,00 per month and they are
68 years of age. How much will they need to pay in income tax per month?

Answer: R1 280,00 per month

Income tax formulae

Income tax is calculated in ‘tax brackets’ which means that different amounts of
taxable income are calculated according to the range that they fall into. Below is an
example of a tax table for the 2012/2013 tax year:

Important terminology for tax tables

Term Meaning

• A range of taxable incomes that are charged according to a set rate of tax.
• The values are the annual taxable amounts.
Tax Bracket
• The higher the bracket, the higher the tax rate for that portion of the taxable
income.
• An amount that is deducted from the tax that has to be paid.
• It is a maximum amount. Therefore if someone owes less tax than the total
tax rebate they will pay no tax but will NOT receive the amount left over in
cash.
Tax Rebate
• Only people who pay tax are eligible for the rebate.
• There are three rebates. Everyone is eligible for the primary rebate. Tax
payers who are 65 years and older qualify for the additional secondary
rebate. Tax payers who are 75 years and older qualify for all three rebates.
• This is the minimum salary a person must earn before tax is charged.
Tax Threshold
• Below the threshold, the person’s tax will be cancelled by the tax rebate.

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

How do the tax brackets work?

Here is how the tax brackets calculate the tax on R400 000:

R0 R160 000 R250 000 R346 000 R400 000

This part falls in Tax This part falls in Tax This part falls in Tax This remaining part falls
Bracket 1 and tax is Bracket 2 and tax is Bracket 3 and tax is into Tax Bracket 4 and is
charged at 18%:
18% charged at 25%:
25% charged at 30%:
30% charged at 35%:
35%
18% × (R160 000 – 25% × (R250 000 – 30% × (346 000 – 35% × (R400 000 –
R0) R160 000) R250 000) R346 000)
= 18% × R160 000 = 25% × R90 000 = 30% × R96 000 = 35% × R54 000
= R28 800 = R22 500 = R28 800 = R18 900

Notice that R400 000 occurs in Tax Bracket 4 and the formula for that bracket is:

Annual Tax = R80 100 + 35% of the amount above R346 000

= (R28 800 + R22 500 + R28 800) + 35% × (R400 000 – R346 000)

So the fixed amount in the formula is the total of all the previous tax brackets.

Example
Using the tax tables, calculate how much tax a 68-year old person should pay if
their monthly taxable income is R14 803,00.

Answer:

The annual taxable income = R14 803,00 × 12 = R177 636,00

Referring to the tax table that follows, this amount occurs in Tax Bracket 2.

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

The formula for Tax Bracket 2:

Annual tax = R28 800 + 25% of the amount above R160 000

= R28 800 + 25 ÷ 100 × (R177 636 – R160 000)

= R28 800 + 25 ÷ 100 × (R17 636)

= R28 800 + R4 409,00

= R33 209,00

Apply the rebate:

The tax payer is over 65 years of age but less than

75 years of age, so they qualify for the primary and secondary rebates:

Total Tax owed = R33 209,00 – R11 440 – R6 390

= R15 379,00 per year

Monthly Tax owed = R15 379,00 ÷ 12 = R1 281,58

Note: See that this amount is very similar to the amount from the deduction tables.
The value in the deduction tables is rounded down to the nearest R5,00.

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 Chapter 8
Finance (income tax)

Section 3: IRP5 tax forms

(LB pages 234-235)

Overview
Again, this section on IRP5 tax forms is drawn from page 59 in the CAPS
document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• work with various financial documents (payslips, IRP5 forms, etc.) in order to
determine an individual’s taxable income, personal income tax and net pay.
• investigate the effect on an increase in salary on the amount of income tax
payable.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include several types of job where a salary is earned.
• There is integration of content from the section on reading of tables and in the
topic Patterns, relationships and representations.

IRP5 forms
These contain a summary of:

• the total amount that an employee has earned

• any deductions that were made (e.g. pension, UIF, etc.)

• any tax deducted from the employee’s salary

The information on the IRP5 will be used by the employee to fill out a tax return at
the end of the tax year.

An employee has to obtain an IRP5 certificate from each employer that they have
worked for in any given tax year and total all of the information across all of them.

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Additional questions

The following Income tax tables are for the 2012/2013 tax year. Use them to answer
the questions below:

1. Calculate the total annual tax owed (after the rebate has been considered) for the
following people:
1.1 Sindiswa is 23 years old and has a taxable income of R120 560,00 per year.
1.2 John is 36 years old and has a taxable income of R283 756,00 per year.
1.3 Xolisa is 26 years old and has a taxable income of R18 435,00 per month.
1.4 Banele is 68 years old and has a taxable income of R18 435,00 per month.
2. Using your answers to Question 1, calculate the net monthly incomes for the four
people listed in Question 1.
3. Mr Modise is 39 years of age and earns a salary of R34 857 per month.
The following deductions are taken off his monthly salary:
Pension: R3 250,00
UIF (1% of his gross salary)
Medical Aid: R5 423,00
Repayment of a loan from his employer: R2 500,00 per month

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3.1 His UIF contribution is calculated at 1% of his gross income. Calculate his
UIF amount.
3.2 With regard to pensions, a maximum of 7,5% of his gross income may be
tax deductible. Calculate his total deductible pension amount.
3.3 The only tax deductible items are his deductible pension amount (Question
3.2) and his UIF amount (Question 3.1). Calculate his taxable income (Gross
income – tax deductions).
3.4 Use your answer from Question 3.3 and the 2012/2013 Income tax tables to
calculate his monthly tax owed.
3.5 In addition to the standard rebate, the South African Revenue Service
(SARS) also gives each tax payer a medical tax credit. The total monthly
medical tax credit is the total of the following amounts:
R230 for the tax payer + R230 for the spouse + R154 per child.
Calculate Mr Modise’s total medical tax credit if he has a wife and four
children.
3.6 Using your previous answers calculate his ‘Take-home’ pay as follows:
‘Take-home’ Pay = Gross Income – Deductions – Income Tax
+ Medical Tax Credit

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Answers

1. 1.1 Her taxable income falls into the first tax bracket, therefore she will pay tax
as follows:
Total tax owed (before rebate) = 18% of R120 560,00
= R21 700,80
After rebate = R21 700,80 – R11 440 = R10 259,20
1.2 His taxable income falls into the third tax bracket, therefore he will pay tax
as follows:
Total tax owed (before rebate) = R51 300 + 30% of (283 756 – R250 000)
= R51 300 + 0,3 × R33 756
= R51 300 + R10 126,80
= R61 426,80
After rebate = R61 426,80–- R11 440 = R49 986,80
1.3 Annual taxable income = R18 435,00 × 12 = R221 220
Therefore her taxable income falls into the second tax bracket, so she will
pay tax as follows:
Total tax owed (before rebate) = R28 800 + 25% of (221 220 – R160 000)
= R28 800 + 0,25 × R61 220
= R28 800 + R15 305,00
= R44 105,00
After rebate = R44 105,00 – R11 440 = R32 665,00
1.4 Annual taxable income = R18 435,00 × 12 = R221 220
His tax owed before the rebate will be the same as Xolisa’s: R44 105,00
However, due to his age, he is granted the first additional rebate:
After rebate = R44 105,00 – R11 440 – R6 390 = R26 275,00
2. 2.1 Net annual income = Gross Taxable Income – Annual Tax
= R120 560,00 – R10 259,20
= R110 300,80 p.a.
So net monthly income = R9 191,73 per month
2.2 Net annual income = R283 756 – R49 986,80
= R233 769,20 p.a.
So net monthly income = R19 480,77 per month
2.3 Net annual income = R221 220 – R32 665,00

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= R188 555,00 p.a.

So net monthly income = R15 712,92
2.4 Net annual income = R221 220 – R26 275,00
= R194 945,00 p.a.
So net monthly income = R16 245,42 per month
(so he gets approximately R500 per month more with the extra rebate).
3. 3.1 1% of R34 857,00 = R348,57
3.2 7,5% of R34 857,00 = R2 614,28
3.3 Taxable income = Gross income – tax deductions
= R34 857,00 – R348,57 –-R2 614,28
= R31 894,15 per month
3.4 Annual taxable income = R31 894,15 × 12 = R382 729,80
This income occurs in tax bracket 4, therefore:
Total tax owed (before rebate) = R80 100 + 35% of (382 729,80 – R346 000)
= R80 100 + 0,35 × R36 729,80
= R80 100 + R12 855,43
= R92 955,43
After rebate = R92 955,43 – R11 440 = R81 815,43 per year
= R6 792,95 per month
3.5 Total medical tax credit = R230 × 2 + R154 × 4
= R1 076,00
3.6 ‘Take-home’ pay = Gross Inc. –- Deductions – Income Tax + Medical Tax Credit
Deductions = Pension + UIF + Medical Aid + Loan repayment
= R3 250,00 + R348,57 + R5 423,00 + R2 500,00
= R11 521,57
Note: These are all of the deductions from his salary in full. We only
consider the tax deductibility of an item when working out the income tax.
Once the tax has been deducted, we perform the ‘take-home’ calculation
with the full deduction amount.
‘Take-home’ pay = R34 857,00 – R11 521,57 – R6 792,95 + R1 076,00
= R17 618,48

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 Chapter 9

Finance (exchange rates)

Section 1: Ways of working with exchange rates and

currency conversions

(LB pages 240-243)

Overview
The content of this section on Exchange Rates, as part of the Finance Application
Topic, is drawn from page 60 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need to be able to do the

following:

• Work with exchange rates presented in foreign exchange tables.

Contexts and integrated content

This chapter draws on the same skills covered in Grade 11, but extends the scope
to include charges levied by financial exchange institutions.

Example
A BigMac burger costs R19,95 in South Africa and £2,69 in Britain.

The current exchange rate for UK pounds (GBP) and Rands (ZAR) is:
1 GBP = 14,2376 ZAR

Which burger is cheaper when taking the exchange rate into account?

Estimate first

Whether a person is calculating a price in another currency accurately or not, it is a

good idea to estimate first.
The exchange rate can be rounded off to 1 GBP ≈ 14 ZAR
So 2,69 GBP × 14 ≈ R38,00 (Phew, almost double the price!)

A useful method
In order to calculate accurately it is useful to have an easy method. The Fraction
method states:

Divide by the unit you have, times by the unit you need

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Convert the price of the BigMac from Rands to pounds (GBP) for a visiting British
tourist:
R19,95 ÷ 14,2376 ZAR = 1,401219 × 1 GBP = 1,40 GBP
We divide by the Rands side of the exchange rate because our price started in
Rands and then multiply by the pounds side of the exchange rate.

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Finance (exchange rates)

Section 2: Buying and selling currency

(LB pages 244-249)

Overview
As for Section 1, the content of this section on Exchange Rates, as part of the
Finance Application Topic, is also drawn from page 60 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need to be able to:

• work with exchange rates presented in foreign exchange tables.

Contexts and integrated content

This chapter draws on the same skills covered in Grade 11, but extends the scope
to include charges levied by financial exchange institutions.

When thinking about buying and selling currency it is useful to think of those terms
from the bank’s perspective:

Buying currency: The bank is buying the currency from a person (so the person
is getting rid of their foreign currency).

Selling currency: The bank is selling the currency to a person (so the person is
trying to gain foreign currency).

Example
The following currency exchange rates refer to the South African Rand and the
Botswana Pula. Note that each Pula exchange rate is related to 1 Rand due to it
being a South African bank. Use the appropriate rate to calculate the following:

1. Exchange R3 000,00 into Pula (BWP) at the above South African bank.

Answer: The Rand is being used to buy Pula, so we use the buying rate:
R3 000,00 ÷ R1,00 × BWP 0,9218 = R2 765,40

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2. Exchange 2 000 Pula into Rands at the above South African bank.
Answer: The Pula is being bought by the bank because it is foreign currency:
2 000 BWP ÷ 0,9872 BWP × R1,00 = R2 025,93

Fees on foreign exchange transactions

Banks also charge a fee for the service of buying or selling currency. Each bank (or
Bureau de Change) has its own rules governing these fees. The following diagram
illustrates the process which is followed when calculating the amount of money to
buy or sell:

Buying a fixed amount of foreign currency

Converted
+ Commission
according to
Selling rate

Value of currency Total amount

Amount of foreign
in ‘home’ needed
currency needed
currency (Rounded to
nearest cent)

Buying foreign currency with a fixed amount of money

Converted
- Commission
according to
Selling rate

Total amount of Value available Total amount

foreign currency to buy currency available
available
(rounded DOWN
to the nearest 10)

Selling currency to an exchange agent

Selling currency to an exchange agent (bank or Bureau de Change)

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Finance (exchange rates)

Converted
- Commission
according to
Buying rate

Value of currency Total amount of

Amount of foreign
in ‘home’ ‘home’ currency
currency to sell
currency (Rounded to
nearest cent)

Selling currency to obtain a specific amount of ‘home currency’ from an

exchange agent (bank or Bureau de Change)

Converted
+ Commission
according to
Selling rate

Total amount of Value required Total amount

foreign currency in ’home’ needed
required to sell currency
(rounded UP to
the nearest 10)

Example
The following currency exchange fees and exchange rates apply to foreign
exchange transactions:

Note that the exchange rates are Rand values of a unit of the given currency
(e.g. Buying rate for UK Pounds (£) notes: £1,00 = R12,3325)

1. Buy £200,00 using South African Rand from the above bank.

Answer: Convert to the ‘home’ currency:

£200,00 ÷ £1 × R13,0615 = R2 612,30

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Calculate commission:
R2 612,30 × 1,85% = R48,33
This is smaller than the minimum charge for ‘buying from Standard
Bank’, so the minimum charge of R70,00 applies.
Total owed = R2 612,30 + R70,00
= R2 682,30

2. How many US Dollars ($) can be bought with R5 000,00?

Answer: Calculate commission:

R5 000,00 × 1,85% = R92,50
Amount available to purchase US Dollars (after commission):
R5000,00 – R92,50 = R4 907,50 The selling rate
for US Dollar
Maximum amount of US Dollars that can be purchased: notes is used
because the
R4 907,50 ÷ R7,9582 × R1 = $616,66 bank is selling
notes to the
However, notes are only sold rounded down to the nearest 10.
client.
Maximum amount of US Dollars that can be bought = $610.

Checking solution:
$610 × R7,9582/$ = R4 854,50
This amount is a little less than the amount of Rand available to purchase US
Dollars so it seems to be correct.

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Additional questions

1. Referring to the table of exchange rates, answer the following questions:

1.1 Why does the Nigerian Naira have an exchange rate of 0,0 for both buying
and selling notes?
1.2 Both the Namibian Dollar and the Swaziland Lilange have an exchange rate
of 1,0 to the South African Rand. What does this mean?
1.3 Calculate:
1.3.1 How many Rands will be needed to buy $4 000 in notes from the
bank?
1.3.2 How many Rands will be given in exchange when selling $4 000 in
notes?
1.3.3 How many Euros (in notes) could be bought with R4 000?
1.3.4 How many BWP (in notes) could be bought with R4 000?
1.3.5 How many BWP were sold if R2 677,10 were obtained in exchange?
1.3.6 How many British Pounds could be bought with $2 000 using the
exchange rates in the table?
2. ABSA bank charges the following fees for foreign exchange transactions. Use
these fees to answer the following questions:
2.1 R43 404,55 is required to purchase €3 500 in notes from ABSA bank
according to the exchange rates.

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2.1.1 Calculate the fee that will be paid on the transaction.

2.1.2 Calculate the total amount in Rands that will be required to purchase
€3 500.
2.1.3 Without any further calculation, state whether it will be cheaper to
purchase the Euro notes from Standard bank (use the earlier table of
fees in the example). Give a reason for your answer.
2.2 £2 450 in Travellers’ Cheques is sold back to the bank.
2.2.1 How many Rands will the bank pay for the cheques?
2.2.2 After the bank fees are taken into account, how much will the person
exchanging the money receive (in Rands)?
2.3 A person has R3 500 available to purchase US Dollars for a holiday. Taking
the bank fees into account, how much US Dollar currency could be bought
(in notes)?
3. A traveller to the US is considering two options to get foreign currency:

Option 1: Buy all the notes he needs at ABSA bank before his trip starts.
Option 2: Use his bank ATM card to withdraw cash as he needs it from the ATM’s
in the US.
3.1 He estimates that he will need $3 000 in notes during his trip. Use the
exchange rates and fee tables above to calculate how much this will cost
him in Rands.
3.2 ABSA bank charges a fee of R45 per withdrawal from a US ATM when you
use your South African bank card. He will withdraw six times during his
trip ($500 each time). Which method is cheaper?

4. A woman went on a tour to Britain in April 2012. She bought £2 000 in notes
from Standard Bank before her trip.
4.1 Use the currency table and fees from the example (where currency was
purchased from Standard Bank) to calculate the total fees that would
be paid to purchase the notes.

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4.2 When she returned from her trip, she still had £360 in notes left over.
However she forgot to exchange it. She found the notes in a bag when
she was doing a clean out 10 months later! She decided to exchange
them at ABSA bank. Calculate the fees that she would have paid to sell
the notes to ABSA bank (using the above table and fee structure).
4.3 Calculate the total fees she paid for both transactions.
4.4 Do you think that she should have rather used her ATM card to draw
the cash in the UK (at a fee of R45 per withdrawal)? Prove your answer
with calculations.

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Answers

1. 1.1 ABSA bank does not sell Nigerian Naira notes or traveller’s cheques (it
would surely use a different way of selling currency to a customer)
1.2 This means that they will both exchange money on a 1 : 1 basis with South
African Rand (i.e. 1 NAD = 1 Rand)
1.3 1.3.1 $1 = R9,2454, therefore $4 000 × R9,2454 = R36 981,60 (the bank is
selling the notes to the customer)
1.3.2 $1 = R8,5219, therefore $4 000 × R8,5219 = R34 087,60 (the bank is
buying the notes from the customer)
1.3.3 R12,4013 = €1, therefore R4 000 ÷ R12,4013 = €355,55
1.3.4 BWP 0,877 = R1, therefore R4000 ÷ R1 × BWP 0,877 = BWP 3508
1.3.5 BWP 0,9712 = R1 (Bank buying rate), therefore R2 677,10 × BWP 0,9712
= BWP 2 600
1.3.6 $1 = R9,2454 (bank selling rate), so $2 000 × R9,2454 = R18 490,80
£1 = R14,4375 (bank selling rate), so R18 490,80 ÷ R14,4375 = £1 280,75
Therefore $2 000 will purchase £1 280,75.
2. 2.1 2.1.1 Fee = 1,68% of amount (in Rands)
= 0,0168 × R43 404,55 = R729,20 (and this exceeds the minimum
amount so it will be the fee paid).
2.1.2 Total = Exchange amount + Fees
= R43 404,55 + R729,20
= R44 133,75
2.1.3 It will not be cheaper as the rate used to calculate the fee is higher (it
is 1,85% instead of ABSA bank’s 1,68%).
2.2 2.2.1 £1 = R13,6295 (bank buying rate for traveller’s cheques)
£2 450 ÷ £1 × R13,6295 = R33 392,28
2.2.2 Fees = 1,71% of Rand amount = 0,0171 × R33 392,28
= R571,01
Total received from bank = Exchange amount – fees
= R33 392,28 – R571,01= R32 821,27
2.3 Take money away for the fees: 1,68% × R3 500 = R58,80 (this is not the
totally correct amount, but it will give us an approximate figure to work
with).

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Therefore, money available to exchange = R3 500 – R58,80 = R3 441,20

The bank is selling the notes, so the rate will be: R9,2454 = $1, therefore the
amount of currency that can be bought = R3 441,20 ÷ R9,2454 = $372,21
This will be rounded down to the nearest dollar amount as banks do not
deal in cents, only in notes: $372 in notes.
3. 3.1 Bank selling rate: R9,2454 = $1
Amount in Rands = $3 000 × R9,2454 = R27 736,20
Fees = 1,68% of R27 736,20 = R465,97
3.2 Total fees from ATM’s = 6 × R45 = R270. This method is much cheaper, and
safer as he will not be carrying around all his cash with him.
4. 4.1 Standard Bank: £1 = R10,3598 (Selling rate)
Rands equivalent = £2 000 × R10,3598 = R20 719,60
Fees = 1,85% of R20 719,60 = R383,31
4.2 ABSA bank (10 months later): £1 = R13,7395
Amount of rands = £360 × R13,7395 = R4946,22
Fees = 1,68% of R4 946,22 = R83,10
4.3 Total fees = Buying fees + selling fees = R383,31 + R83,10 = R466,41
4.4 This would seem to have been the wiser course of action. At R45 per
withdrawal, she could have made 10 withdrawals for the same fees and
have had fewer pounds left over when she returned.

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 Chapter 10

Maps and plans (plans and scale)

Section 1: Interpreting plans

(LB pages 254-255)

This is revision of Grade 11 work and as such will not be reviewed here. The aim of
this section in the textbook was to assist the learner to interact with the plan and
identify features in it.

Section 2: Determining scales

(LB pages 256-259)

Overview
The content of this section on plans and scale as part of the Maps, plans and other
representations of the physical world Application Topic and is drawn from pages 73
and 76-78 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need to be able to do the

following:

• Determine the scale in which a plan has been drawn in the form 1 :… and use
the scale to determine other dimensions on the plan.
• Draw scaled 2-D floor and elevation plans for a complex structure (e.g. RDP
house)

Contexts and integrated content

This chapter draws on the use of scale which was covered earlier in Chapter 5.
Scale itself draws on the skill of using ratio which is from the Numbers and
calculations with numbers Topic.

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Determining the scale in which a plan has been drawn.

This utilises the skills that were covered in Section 3 of Chapter 5 of this study
guide (on page 67) in a different context:

Example South Elevation

This is the same scale drawing as the one found in the
Learner’s Book on page 256. The drawing is to the
same scale as the one in the Learner’s Book. To

3,53 m
confirm this we will measure the height of the roof.

The measurement is 2,9 cm for a real life

1
measurement of 3,53 m. Therefore the scale is:
2,9 cm : 3,53 m

3,53 m = 353 cm, therefore if we write the measurements in the same units, we
2
see that the scale is: 2,9 cm : 353 cm

Divide both sides by the Map measurement (to get the Map side of the scale to
3
be 1): 2,9 cm ÷ 2,9 cm = 1 and 353 cm ÷ 2,9 cm = 121,7, therefore the scale is:
1: 121,7 ≈ 1 : 120

Note: Due to the small scale of the drawing, there is not much difference to the
value that was calculated in the Learner’s Book unlike the calculation in
Chapter 5 of the study guide.
The small difference that was present was due to the limits to how
accurately we can measure with a ruler.

Using the number scale to create a bar scale

A number scale is useful because it shows exactly how much smaller the picture on
the plan is than the actual size of the object. However, this number scale becomes
inaccurate as soon as the size of the plan is changed. As such, it is often useful to
be able to create a bar scale for a plan.

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Example
Create a bar scale for a 1:50 plan.

• A scale of 1:50 means that 1 cm on the map is the same as 50 cm in real

life.
• Converting this to metres, we can see that 1 cm on the map represents
0,5 m in real life. However 0,5 m is not as easy to read as 1 m would be, so
we rather double both measurements: 2 cm : 1 m 0 m 0,5 m 1,0 m

• Now that we have easier numbers, we create a rectangle that

is 2 cm long with divisions after every cm:
• This bar scale seems a bit small, so we can scale it up to 6 cm
to make it easier to use:

0m 2m 4m 6m

Drawing a missing elevation plan

• When drawing a missing elevation plan we can often obtain measurements
directly from other elevation views (e.g. heights of doors, windows, walls, etc.).
So the first step is to determine which measurements we already have.
• The next step is to determine the missing measurements and we would have to
use the scale that we had previously calculated as well as measurements from
the floor plan.
• Once we have all of the required measurements converted it is a wise idea to
start with the lowest line and ‘build’ our drawing from the bottom up.

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Additional questions

1. Construct accurate bar graphs for the following scales:

1.1 1 : 500 (The bar scale must go up in 10 m increments.)
1.2 1 : 10 000 (The bar scale must go up in 200 m increments.)
2. List TWO advantages of a bar graph relative to a number scale.
3. The diagram of the Wendy house below is drawn to scale. Use the drawing and
the given measurement to answer the following questions:

Left Side View

Front View

A 2m B

3.1 Measure the distance from point A to point B in the diagram. Answer in cm.
3.2 Use your measurement from Question 3.1 to calculate the scale of the
diagram. Express the scale in the form 1: … (Round your answer to the
nearest 10).
3.3 The view in the diagram is the Left side view. The builder of the Wendy
house would like to draw the Front view (the position is indicated by the
arrow in the diagram).
3.3.1 List at least FOUR measurements that will be the same in the Front
view as in the Left side view.
3.3.2 One measurement that cannot be seen from the Left side is the width
of the front of the Wendy house. It is 3,6 m wide. Use the scale you
calculated in Question 3.2 to convert 3,6 m to the same scale as the
above diagram.

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3.4 Using relevant measurements from the above diagram and the facts below,
draw an accurate Front view of the Wendy house to the same scale as the
diagram above.
Extra notes: a. The Front view has a door in it which is the same width as
the window in the above diagram and the top of the door is the
same height as the top of the window in the diagram.
b. There is a window to the left of the door that has the same
dimensions and height above the floor as the window in the
diagram above.

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Answers

1. 1.1 A scale of 1 : 500 means that 1 cm on the plan is 500 cm in real life.
This means that 1 cm on the plan is 5 m in real life.

1.2 A scale of 1 : 10 000 means that 1 cm on the map represents 10 000 cm in

real life. This means that 1 cm on the map represents 100 m in real life.

2. A bar graph will keep its proportions when a map or plan is photocopied. A bar
graph can be used to estimate distance with a simple finger measurement or a
ruler (whereas a scale will involve calculation and conversion).
3. 3.1 5,0 cm
3.2 2 m = 200 cm
Scale = 200 cm ÷ 5,0 cm = 40
Therefore scale is approximately 1: 40.
3.3 3.3.1 The height of the top of the roof
The height to the bottom of the roof
The height of the
bottom of the
window
The height of the
top of the window.
3.3.2 3,6 m = 360 cm
Therefore in the
plan, it will be 360
cm ÷ 40 = 9 cm
3.4

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 Chapter 11

Probability

Section 1: Probability theory

(LB pages 270-277)

Overview
The content of this Probability Application Topic is drawn from pages 91-93 in the
CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• recognise the difference where the outcome of one event impacts on the
outcome of another and situations where the two outcomes do not impact each
other.
• identify outcomes for compound events in various contexts using tree diagrams
and two-way tables.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include situations involving probability including national lotteries,
gambling scenarios, risk assessments, etc.
• There is a link to the Data handling Application Topic through the use of data in
analysing the possible outcomes of various situations.

Probability refers to the likelihood or possibility of an event occurring. Some events

lend themselves to a mathematical method of determining how likely an event is.
This method is as follows:

OPQRST UV WXYZ [O W\[]\ XO S^SO_ ]XO U]]PT

P(event) =
_U_X` OPQRST UV aUZZ[R`S UP_]UQSZ VUT _\S S^SO_

Probabilities of multiples events

• When there is a sequence of events (e.g. select one ball and then…), we
multiply the probabilities.
• When we are given options of two or more outcomes (e.g. you can win this
way or that way), we add the probabilities.

Example
A simple prediction game involves a bag that contains two red balls and three

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green balls. The probability of a sequence of two balls being selected (first one ball
and then a second ball) can be shown in the following tree diagrams (Red ball = R,
Green ball = G):

Situation 1 The probabilities of

With each ball being drawn and replaced in the bag immediately: the outcomes
always total 100%

= 16%

= 24%

= 24%

= 36%

Questions related to situation 1

1.1 What is the probability that the first ball drawn is a red ball?
b
Answer: 2 out of 5 balls are red, therefore c or 0,4 or 40%

1.2 What is the probability that the second ball drawn is a red ball if the first ball
was a red ball?
Answer: The first ball was replaced, so there are still 5 balls in the bag and 2 of
b
them are red. Therefore or 0,4 or 40%
c

1.3 What is the probability that both balls are red?

Answer: Two events have to occur for this outcome to happen. The first ball must
be red and then the second ball must also be red. This is a sequence of
events and so we multiply the probabilities:

1.4 What is the probability that at least one of the balls drawn is a green ball?
Answer: Looking at the outcomes there are three that involve at least one green
ball (RG, GR, GG). All three are valid and so we add the probabilities. It is

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advisable that the probabilities are converted to percentage before adding:

Total probability = RG + GR + GG = 24% + 24% + 36% = 84%

Situation 2
With each ball being drawn and not replaced in the bag:

= 10%

= 30%

= 30%

= 30%

Questions related to situation 2

2.1 What is the probability that the first ball drawn is a red ball?
b
Answer: 2 out of 5 balls are red, therefore c or 0,4 or 40%

2.2 What is the probability that the second ball drawn is a red ball if the first ball
was a red ball?
Answer: The first ball was not replaced, so there are only 4 balls in the bag and 1
d
of them is red. Therefore or 0,25 or 25%
e

2.3 What is the probability that both balls are red?

Answer: Two events have to occur for this outcome to happen. The first ball must
be red and then the second ball must also be red. This is a sequence of
events and so we multiply the probabilities:

2.4 What is the probability that at least one of the balls drawn is a green ball?
Answer: The outcomes that at least one green ball are RG, GR and GG.
Therefore:
Total probability = RG + GR + GG = 30% + 30% + 30% = 90%

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So by not replacing the first ball (of whichever colour), it became more likely that at
least one of the two balls selected would be a green ball.

Converting a probability to a ratio

It is often easier to understand a probability when it is written as a ratio (e.g. 2 out
of every 25 people will get the flu this winter).

Example
What is the likelihood of a person getting at least 3 numbers correct in the lottery?
(For more information on the calculation refer to Chapter 11 in the Learner’s Book.)

Divide the top by

120 to reduce it to 1.
5 c e h×c×e dbj d
Probability = × × = = =
-N ef eg ei×ef×eg ddj cee ibd,b
Also divide the bottom by
120 to maintain the ratio.
Therefore the likelihood is that 1 in every 921 people who play the lottery should at
least choose 3 numbers correctly. But this is only a prediction.

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Section 2: Prediction

(LB pages 278-283)

Overview
The content of this Probability Application Topic is drawn from page 92 in the CAPS
document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• recognise the difference where the outcome of one event impacts on the
outcome of another and situations where the two outcomes do not impact each
other.
• recognise the difference between predictions based on knowledge and those
based on long-term trends in data.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include situations involving probability including national lotteries,
gambling scenarios, risk assessments, etc.
• There is a link to the Data handling Application Topic through the use of data in
analysing the possible outcomes of various situations.

While we would like to think of the calculation of probability as a guaranteed

predictor it only states how likely an event is. No guarantee is given.

The more information that the prediction is based on, the more accurate it will be.
There are generally two approaches to generating probabilities for prediction:

• trends in historical information

• specialised knowledge

Betting odds: skills

Betting odds are a different way to represent probabilities. They are shown as a
ratio of the probability of not winning to the probability of winning like this:
Betting odds: not winning / winning:

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Example
A 20% chance of winning = 80% chance of not winning (100% – 20%).
Betting odds: 80 / 20 which we simplify to 4 / 1.

Example
The odds of a team winning are 5 / 13, this means that the probability of them
winning is:
CEkkEkF lmHnlKDo +M
Probability = = = 0,7222 = 72,2% of winning
plHqr lmHnlKDo .s+M(

Betting odds: an important note

Betting odds (as seen on betting sites or in the newspaper) are not the true odds
(true probability) of an event occurring, When adding the probabilities of all possible
outcomes, we should get a total of 100%. Bookmakers add a small percentage to
each bet in order to make a profit:

Example
In a recent match between the New Zealand and Sri Lankan cricket teams the odds
were: Sri Lanka winning: 4 / 5, New Zealand winning: 13/2; Draw: 8/5
These converted to the following percentages: 55,55%, 13,3%, 38,5% which total
107,35%. So the bookmaker should make 7,35% profit.

Betting odds: worked example

The Bizhub Highveld Lions and the Nashua Cape Cobras played in a Momentum
1-day cricket match on Sunday, 24 November 2012. Who should win the match?

The betting odds before the game were: Lions to win: 4 / 5 ; Cobras to win 1 / 1.
.
Probability of Lions winning: = 0,5555 = 55,6%
-s.(
+
Probability of Cobras winning: = 0,50 = 50,0%
+s+(

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Note that the two percentages add up to 105,6% due to the profit made by the
bookmakers. However the two percentages together seem to indicate that the
Lions have a slightly higher chance of winning the match.

Historical information
• Looking at the matches that they have played so far this year:
Lions: won 5 out of 7 matches (71,4% of matches won)
Cobras: won 3 out of 6 matches (50,0% of matches won)
(The Lions have a much higher percentage of wins.)
• Looking at the last three matches (most recent last):
Lions: Loss – No result – Win (1 out of the last 3 matches = 33,3 % won)
Cobras: Loss – Win – Win (2 out of the last 3 matches = 66,7% won)
(The Cobras have more recent wins than the Lions and could be carrying a
winning momentum into this match.)
• These two teams have already played each other earlier in the season and the
Lions narrowly won that match. This could indicate that the Lions have a slight
advantage.

Specialised knowledge
A person could go down to the match early and watch the players as they prepare
and see if any of their key players are carrying a recent injury or they could have
some other piece of information that could change the outcome of the match.

Result: The Nashua Cape Cobras won the match quite comfortably in the end.

Sometimes in sport it comes down to the best team on the day.

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Section 3: Expressions of probability in the press

(LB pages 284-285)

Overview
The content of this Probability Application Topic, is drawn from page 94 in the
CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need specifically to be

able to:

• Evaluate and critique the validity of expressions of probability represented in

newspapers and other sources of information.

Contexts and integrated content

• Contexts include situations involving probability including national lotteries,
gambling scenarios, risk assessments, etc.

When probability is used in the press, it is stated in a way that allows it to be

accessible to the general population. Sometimes there is a calculated value (e.g.
60% chance of showers in Pietermaritzburg overnight), while at other times only
words are used (e.g. ‘It is likely that the match will go ahead as planned.’).
When analysing probability in the press or other media, consider the following:

Calculated values
• How accurate are the sources of data that were used to make the calculation?
• How large was the sample that was used to gather the data? (e.g. if only five
people were asked a question and three answered that they agreed, this means
that 60% agreed! But this is far too small a sample size.
• How trustworthy is the person or organisation that performed the calculation
(e.g. The South African Weather Service is a reliable source for weather, but
your uncle’s aching knee is not.)
Descriptions of probability
• The word ‘likely’ could refer to any probability from 50,1% to 100%. More
information is needed in this case.
• Similarly the word ‘unlikely’ refers to any probability from 0% to 49,9% and so
more information is required.
• ‘There is a likelihood’ or ‘there is a possibility’ are very ambiguous terms
because every event has a likelihood or a possibility. Some have a high
probability and some not. More information is required.

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Additional questions

1. In order to win the South African National Lottery, you need to select six winning
numbers from 1 to 49. These numbers can be selected in any order. The following
information is from a Lotto draw:

1.1 How many people won by choosing Three Correct Numbers?

1.2 The probability of picking three correct numbers is 0,10855%. How many of
the 26 099 614 people who played that week should have won? Show all
working.
1.3 Why is there such a large difference between the number of people that
should have won and the number of people who actually won?
1.4 The National Lottery website gives the statistics of the number of times
each number has come up. Here are the numbers of times each of the
numbers above had come up in the past:

: 145 : 150 : 171 : 159 :142 :157

1.4.1 The average amount of times each number (from 1 to 49) has been
drawn is 159 times. Do you think that it is odd that the number 25 has
only come up 142 times? Give a reason for your answer.

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1.4.2 How could someone use the information on the number of times that
each number has come up to choose their numbers? Give reasons for
your answer.
2. A man bought a fishing cottage. He managed to afford it because he won two
prizes in local lotteries.
2.1 The first lottery was a lucky ticket draw. 1257 tickets were sold and his
ticket was the lucky one drawn (he only bought one ticket). What was the
probability that he would win? (Give the answer as a percentage).
2.2 In the second lottery, he had to guess the order of coloured balls coming
out of a bag without any being returned to the bag. In the bag there were 5
red balls, 7 black ones, 3 white balls, 4 green ones and a blue one. The
winning sequence was: Red – Green – Red
2.2.1 Did all of the colours have an equal likelihood of being drawn from
the bag? Give a reason for your answer.
2.2.2 Calculate the probability that a red ball would have been drawn from
the bag first. Answer as a percentage.

2.2.3 Calculate the probability that the second ball drawn from the bag was
a green one. Answer as a percentage.
2.2.4 Would it have become more likely or less likely for a green ball to be
drawn from the bag if the first ball drawn had been returned to the
bag? Prove your answer with calcultions.
2.2.5 Calculate the probability that the first two balls drawn were Red and
then Green.
2.2.6 Would it have been more likely for the first two balls drawn to both
have been Red than for the balls to have been Red and then Green?
Prove your answer using calculations.
2.2.7 What would the probability be for the following sequence? Give a
reason for your answer:
Blue – Green – Blue

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2.3 He bought the cottage at St. Lucia because he saw this contingency table in
a fishing magazine and he loves to eat trout.
Where are they catching fish?
(no. of fish caught in these areas in November 2008)

Fish
Place  Pelling’s

Umzinto St. Lucia Totals
Drift
Barble 563 232 B 1221
Trout 53 356 684 1093
Grey-
Grey- finned
0 173 156 329
Hack
Red-
Red- faced
5 A 85 C
Snoot
Totals 621 797 1351 2769

2.3.1 Calculate the values for A, B & C.

2.3.2 Besides trout, the man also enjoys grey-finned hack. Which fishing
spot gives him the best chance of catching either a trout or a hack?
(Show all calculations)
2.3.3 In his choice, he also considered that he does not like to catch barble.
Which of the spots gives him the best chance to NOT catch barble?
2.3.4 Which fishing spot gives him the best chance to catch a trout and NOT
catch a barble?
3. The following odds were given for a match between two football teams:

Super Stars 4 / 5 to win

Brilliant Boys 5 / 7 to win
3.1 According to the odds above, which team is more likely to win?
3.2 According to the odds above, do either of the teams have a large likelihood
of winning? Give reasons for your answer.

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Answers

1. 1.1 199 929

1.2 0,10855% of 29 099 614 = 0,10855 ÷ 100 × 29 099 614
= 31 857,63 ≈ 31 858 people
1.3 Probability is only a predictor and does not guarantee that a certain event
will happen.
1.4 1.4.1 Ideally all of the numbers should be drawn the same number of times
and the more Lotto draws there are over time, the more this should be
true. However, we can expect some numbers to randomly come up
more often than others due to it being a random draw.
1.4.2 There are two possible approaches: Often and Seldom
In the ‘Often’ approach, a person would choose the numbers that
have come up most often believing that they would continue to do so.
In the ‘Seldom’ approach, a person would choose the numbers that
have come up the least often in the belief that they are due to come up
the same amount of times as the average eventually so they will have
some ‘catching up’ to do.
Both approaches are false. As the draws are random the numbers will
not come up according to a predictable pattern.
2. 2.1 1 ÷ 1 257 × 100 = 0,08% chance of winning.
2.2 2.2.1 No, there were different numbers of each colour. In order for them to
all have the same chance, there would have to be the same number of
each colour in the bag.
2.2.2 5 out of 20 = 5 ÷ 20 × 100 = 25% chance.
2.2.3 4 out of 19 = 4 ÷ 19 × 100 = 21,05%
2.2.4 It would have become less likely. The higher the denominator, the
lower the number, so the more balls still in the bag, the lower the
chance that the green ball would have been drawn:
4 out of 20 = 4 ÷ 20 × 100 = 20% (which is less than 21,05% calculated
before).
2.2.5 Sequence means that we multiply the probabilities:
(5 ÷ 20) × (4 ÷ 19) × 100 = 5,26%
2.2.6 Probability of Red; Red = (5 ÷ 20) × (4 ÷ 19) × 100 = 5,26%
Therefore it would have been the same likelihood.

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2.2.7 0. There is only one blue ball in the bag so it would be impossible for
two blue balls to be drawn (unless the first was returned to the bag
after it was drawn).
2.3 2.3.1 A = 797 – (173 + 356 + 232) = 36
B = 1 351 – (684 + 156 + 85) = 426
C = 2 769 – (1 221 + 1 093 + 329) = 126
2.3.2 Umzinto = (53 + 0) ÷ 621 × 100 = 8,53%
St. Lucia = (173 + 356) ÷ 797 × 100 = 47,55%
Pelling’s Drift = (684 + 156) ÷ 1 351 × 100 = 62,18%
Therefore Pelling’s Drift gives him the best chance of catching his
favourite fish.
2.3.3 Umzinto =563 ÷ 621 × 100 = 90,66%
St. Lucia = 232 ÷ 797 × 100 = 29,11%
Pelling’s Drift = 426 ÷ 1 351 × 100 = 31,53%
Therefore St. Lucia gives him the best chance of not catching his least
favourite fish.
2.3.4 Umzinto is clearly not a consideration, to let us look at the other two
locations. In this case there are two events that affect each other in a
sequence and so we multiply their probabilities:
St. Lucia = 47,55% × 29,11% = 0,4755 × 0,2911 = 0,1384 = 13,84%
Pelling’s Drift = 62,18% × 31,53% = 0,6218 × 0,3153 = 0,1961 = 19,61%
Therefore Pelling’s Drift is the better spot overall.
3 3.1 Super Stars = 4 ÷ 9 = 0,44
Brilliant Boys = 5 ÷ 12 = 0,42
These two teams are fairly evenly matched, but the bookmakers seem to be
giving Super Stars a slight edge.
3.2 Both have a probability of less than 50% for the win. This would seem to
indicate that a draw is likely.

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 Chapter 12

Maps and plans (models)

Section 1: Creating a 3-D model

(LB pages 290-293)

Overview
The content of this section on Creating a 3-D Model is part of the Maps, plans and
other representations of the physical world Application Topic, is drawn from pages
79-80 in the CAPS document.

As stipulated in the CAPS document, Grade 12 learners need to be able to:

• determine the most appropriate scale in which to draw/construct a plan.

• make and use 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional models of buildings from given
or constructed 2-dimensional floor and elevation plans.

Contexts and integrated content

Contexts include more complex projects in a community (e.g. an RDP House).

You will not be asked to construct a model of a structure for your final examinations, but might
be asked to calculate scaled measurements and to decide on the most appropriate scale to
construct a model. You will need to review the skills needed for working with scale that were
covered in Chapters 5 and 10.

Determining the appropriate scale

If you are asked to determine the most appropriate scale to fit into a given space:
• Use one of the given scales to convert the largest dimension (either length or breadth) of
the given plan or item.
• If you are not given a scale then start with an easy one (e.g. 1 : 100 for large structures or
1 : 5 for a small item (e.g. a toy car)). Once you have performed the calculation on the
dimension adjust your scale appropriately (e.g. if the calculated dimension is too small,
then make the scale larger (1 : 50 is a larger scale than 1 : 100).
• Once you have determined the best scale for your chosen dimension, use the same scale
to convert the other dimension (i.e. if you converted the length, then convert the breadth,
etc.) Remember that the model must have the same scale throughout otherwise it will not
be in proportion.
• Once the best scale is determined, it is simply a matter of working with that scale to convert
the real life dimensions according to the scale.
• When constructing a model, we construct the base of the model first. This has two
advantages: it sets the limits for the model and it gives a basic area to paste the remaining
parts of the model onto (e.g. walls, doors, etc.)

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Additional questions

1. Which of the following scales is the largest? Give a reason for your answer.
1 : 80 1 : 10 1 : 20
2. Which of the above scales would be best to create a scale model for the following items?
Show calculations to prove your answer:
2.1 Car (length of a car is 3,4 m).
2.2 Television (width of a television is 80 cm).
3. A homeowner is attempting to build a cottage. He intends to build a scale model of the
building in order to plan the layout and to check the dimensions of the rooms. The South
elevation and top view are pictured below (each is to different scales):

3.1 An A4 page is 29,7 cm long and 21 cm wide. Which of the following scales would be the
best scale to choose if the floor plan of the model would need to fit onto an A4 page?
Prove your answer by calculation.
1 : 50 1 : 100 1 : 150
3.2 Calculate the height of the model using your chosen scale. Answer in cm.
3.3 Will this be a sensible scale with which to see enough detail? Give a reason for your
answer.

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Answers

1. 1 : 10 is the largest scale. The reason is that a scale of 1 : 10 means a measurement of 1 cm on

the plan represents 10 cm in real life which means that the plan view will be larger (10 cm in
real life is represented by 1 cm, whereas a scale of 1 : 20 means that 10 cm in real life is
represented by 0,5 cm on the plan so it will be smaller).
2. 2.1 3,4 m = 340 cm. According to the various scales:
1 : 10 : 340 cm ÷ 10 = 34 cm on the plan (perhaps a bit large)
1 : 20 : 340 cm ÷ 20 = 17 cm on the plan (a good size)
1 : 80 : 340 cm ÷ 80 = 4,25 cm on the plan (perhaps too small)
2.2 1 : 10 : 80 cm ÷ 10 = 8 cm on the plan (a good size)
1 :: 20 : 80 cm ÷ 20 = 4 cm on the plan (too small)
1 : 80 : 80 cm ÷ 80 = 1 cm on the plan (very small - too hard to draw)
3. 3.1 Both of the floor plan’s dimensions would need to fit comfortably onto the page:
1 : 50 scale: Length of plan: 950 cm ÷ 50 = 19 cm
Width of plan: 520 cm ÷ 50 = 10,4 cm
1 : 100 scale: Length of plan: 950 cm ÷ 100 = 9,5 cm
Width of plan: 520 cm ÷ 100 = 5,2 cm
We can stop there as the 1 : 150 scale would make the drawing even smaller. The 1 : 50
scale would work perfectly as both of the dimensions would fit onto the page (if the
page was turned sideways (landscape orientation)).
3.2 4,5 m = 450 cm
On plan: 450 cm ÷ 50 = 9 cm
3.3 Yes, this scale is large enough to see enough detail yet small enough to build a
sensibly sized model.

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 Part 2

Exam analysis

Introduction
In this part of the study guide you will be provided with an analysis of the Paper 1
and Paper 2 practice examination papers provided on pages 294-298 in the
Learner’s Book. The intention of this exam analysis is to provide you with insight
into

• how the examination papers for this subject are structured

• how the different levels of the Mathematical Literacy taxonomy are used to
inform the structure of the examinations
• how to determine the intention of each question and the content and method
needed to complete each question.

Before the exam analysis is provided, the discussion below will first highlight the
structure of the examination papers in Mathematical Literacy.

Required structure of examinations

1. Difficulty level of each examination paper

There are two examination papers in Grade 12 in Mathematical Literacy. These two
examinations are differentiated according to difficulty (i.e. cognitive demand):

• Paper 1 is a ‘basic skills’ paper and the intention of this paper is to assess
whether learners understand basic concepts and skills. The contexts used in
this paper must be drawn from the contexts described in the CAPS
curriculum document.
• The Paper 1 examination paper in the Learner’s Book appears on pages
294-296.
• Paper 2 is an ‘applications’ paper and the intention of this paper is to assess
whether learners can use their knowledge and skills in order to make sense
of a variety of real-world contexts. The contexts used in this paper can be
drawn from any scenario, including those listed in the CAPS curriculum
document.
• The Paper 2 examination paper in the Learner’s Book appears on pages
296-298.

In Mathematical Literacy there is a four-level taxonomy that determines the level of

cognitive demand of a question in an examination. The table on the next page

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Exam analysis

shows the percentage of marks in the Paper 1 and Paper 2 examination papers
that must be allocated to each level of the taxonomy.

Grades 11 and 12
Paper 1 Paper 2 Overall allocation

Level 1: Knowing 60% (± 5%) 30% (± 5%)

Level 2: Applying routine procedures in

35% (± 5%) 25% (± 5%) 30% (± 5%)
familiar contexts

Level 3: Applying multi-step procedures in a

5% 35% (± 5%) 20% (± 5%)
variety of contexts

Level 4: Reasoning and reflecting 40% (± 5%) 20% (± 5%)

Notice that Paper 1 contains questions positioned primarily at the two lowest levels
(Level 1 and Level 2) of the taxonomy. This is why the paper is classified as a basic
skills paper. Paper 2 contains questions positioned primarily at the two highest
levels of the taxonomy (Levels 3 and 4), which is why the paper is classified as an
applications paper. However, Paper 2 also contains a smaller percentage of
questions positioned at Level 2 of the taxonomy, designed to provide scaffolding
and facilitate access to the more complex Level 3 and 4 questions.

2. Question structure of each examination paper

The diagrams below illustrate the structure of the Paper 1 and 2 examinations.

In Paper 1 there must be a question allocated to each of the first four Application
Topics outlined in the curriculum. The final question must then draw on content and
contexts integrated from a range of different Application Topics. The topic of
Probability must be assessed in the context of one or more of the other questions.
The Basic Skills Topics will be assessed in the context of the other questions and

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 Part 2

Exam analysis

no individual questions are allocated to the assessment of the contents of the Basic
Skills Topics.

In Paper 2 each question must draw on integrated content, contexts and skills
drawn from across the various Application Topics. As in Paper 1, the Basic Skills
Topics will be assessed in the context of the other questions and no individual
questions are allocated to the assessment of the contents of the Basic Skills
Topics.

3. Mark allocations for examinations in Grades 10, 11 and 12

The table below shows the mark and time stipulations for Mathematical Literacy
examinations in Grades 10, 11 and 12.

The examination papers in the Learner’s Book reflect the structure of end-of-year
examination papers for Grade 12. The examination papers are both out of
150 marks with a time allocation of 3 hours per paper. The examination papers also
assess the content covered for the whole curriculum (and/or for the contents of the
whole Learner’s Book).

4. Explaining the exam analysis

An exam analysis is provided in the pages that follow. This exam analysis will
provide guidance on:

• the topic and section to which each question relates in the curriculum
• the content, skills or contexts required to answer each question
• the taxonomy level (level of difficulty or cognitive demand) of each question
• the mark allocation of each question.

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 Part 2

Exam analysis

To begin with, it is useful to consider the following table which shows the
percentage of marks allocated to each of the levels of the taxonomy in both
examination papers.

Paper 1 Paper 2 Combined

Taxonomy Level % of
Required % of paper Required % Required
paper

0%
Level 1 – Knowing 49% 60% (±5%) 4% 26,5% 30%
(±5%)

Level 2 – Routine 25%

43% 35% (±5%) 24% 33,5% 30%
procedures (±5%)

Level 3 – Multi-step 5% 35%

8% 27% 17,5% 20%
procedures (±5%) (±5%)

Level 4 – Reasoning and 0% 40%

0 45% 22,5% 20%
reflecting (±5%) (±5%)

Analysis of the values in this table reveals the following:

• In Paper 1:
• The allocation of Level 1 questions is below the required percentage.
• The allocation of Level 2 questions is quite high above the required
percentage.
• This suggests that the examination paper is possibly more difficult than it
should be.
• In Paper 2:
• There is an allocation of marks to Level 1 questions, which should not be in
the paper.
• The allocation of Level 3 questions is significantly below the required
percentage.
• This suggests that the examination paper is possibly easier than it should
be.
• Both papers combined:
• Although the information in the analysis grid above suggests that Paper 1
is slightly more difficult and Paper 2 slightly easier than they ideally should
be, the combination of the two papers gives an allocation of marks at the
different levels of the taxonomy that falls within the required stipulations.
• This suggests that when the marks for both papers are combined the result
should be a reasonably accurate reflection of the ability / performance of
the learners.

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 Paper 1

Basic skills paper

Grade 12 Mathematical Literacy

Paper 1

(Basic skills paper)

150 Marks 3 Hours

Read these instructions carefully.

• Answer all the questions.

• It is advisable to show all working and to work neatly.
• You may use a calculator.
• Drawings are NOT to scale (unless otherwise stated).

Question 1 –Incandescent vs. fluorescent bulbs

One of the ways in which South Africans are saving electricity is by switching from traditional
incandescent light bulbs to long-life light bulbs. Below is a table comparing one of each kind that gives
off the same amount of light:

Incandescent Fluorescent
Units
(Regular) (Long-
(Long-life)

Power 60 15 Watts

Bulb life 1 000 10 000 Hours

Bulb cost R10,00 R19,99 Rands

1.1 According to the table, how many hours will a fluorescent bulb last? (1)

1.2 A normal light is used for an average of 6 hours per day. Using your previous answer, how
many days should a fluorescent bulb last for? Round your answer to the nearest day. (3)

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1.3 Which bulb is cheaper to buy? (1)

1.4 Electricity is measured in units of kWh (kilowatt-hours) and the following formula is used:
Units of electricity = kiloWatts × hours

1.4.1 Convert the power of one incandescent bulb from Watts to kiloWatts (kW). (2)
1.4.2 Using the above formula, calculate the units of electricity used by one fluorescent
bulb in a week. The bulb is in use 6 hours per day and a fluorescent bulb has a power
rating of 0,015 kW. (3)

1.4.3 A kettle uses approximately one unit of electricity every time it boils. For how many
hours would a fluorescent bulb have to remain on in order to use the same amount of
electricity? (Answer to the nearest hour.)
(5)

1.5 To calculate the total cost of using each bulb, we can use the following formulae which
include the cost of electricity:
Incandescent bulb: Total Cost = R0,036 × Hours + R10,00
Fluorescent bulb: Total Cost = R0,009 × Hours + R19,99

1.5.1 Identify which variable is the independent variable in the above equations. Give a
reason for your answer.
(2)
1.5.2 Why is there ‘+ R10,00’ at the end of the Incandescent bulb equation?

1.5.3 Why is the rate used for the fluorescent bulb a quarter of the rate used for the (1)
incandescent bulb? (The rate is the value by which the hours is multiplied.)
(1)

1.6 The formulae were used to complete the following table:

No. of hours 0 100 250 350 500 1.6.3

Total cost of using R10,00 R13,60 1.6.1 R22,60 R28,00 R35,92

regular bulb

Total cost of using R19,99 R20,81 R22,24 1.6.2 R24,49 R26,47

long--life bulb
long

Use the formulae to work out the missing values for 1.6.1, 1.6.2 and 1.6.3 from the table.
Show your working in your answer books. (9)

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1.7 Copy the following set of axes into your book and use the values in the above table to draw
two graphs (one for each type of bulb). (6)

1.8 Using the graphs that you have drawn in question 1.7:
(1)
1.8.1 Explain the term ‘break-even point’.
1.8.2 Using the letter ‘A
A ’ show where the break-even point occurs for the total costs of the (3)
two types of bulb and give the approximate values for cost and number of hours at
that point.
1.8.3 Using trial and error, calculate the number of hours for which the total cost for both
bulbs is the same. (5)

[43]

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Question 2 – The picnic area

A circular concrete slab is planned for an outdoor picnic area. The circular concrete slab will be
surrounded by bricks along the perimeter as follows: (NOTE: Drawings are NOT to scale)

2.1 Convert 520 cm to metres. (2)

2.2 Explain why we calculate the volume of the circular slab as a cylinder. (2)
2.3 Use the following equation to calculate the volume of the concrete in the circular
concrete slab. Answer in m3. (π = 3,142)
(4)
Volume of cylinder = π × radius4 × height

2.4 In order to make concrete for a slab, the cement is mixed with sand and stone in the
following ratio:

+ +
2.4.1 1 bag of cement needs 1 wheelbarrows of stone. Convert 1 to a decimal.
- - (1)

2.4.2 1 m3 of concrete needs 7,7 bags of cement. How many wheelbarrows of stone will
be required to make 1 m3 of concrete? (Round the answer to the nearest ψ
(3)
wheelbarrow).

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2.4.3 Use your answers from questions 2.3 and 2.4.2 to calculate how many
wheelbarrows of stone will be required to create the circular slab. (3)

2.5 Calculate the perimeter of the circular slab using the following equation. (Answer in cm.)
(2)
Perimeter of circle = π × diameter

2.6 The bricks are placed upright along the edge so that the width of the brick is laid along
the perimeter of the circle.

2.6.1 Use the answer from question 2.5 to calculate the number of bricks that will be
needed to fit along the edge of the circular slab. (4)

2.6.2 Each brick costs R2,40. How much more would it cost if the bricks are placed with
their height along the edge of the perimeter? (6)
[27]

Question 3 – Planning the layout of a room

Before moving to a new house, a family decides to plan the

layout of furniture in their new house so that they can check
whether all of their possessions will fit into the space. The
rough drawing alongside was made of the lounge space
which is an L-shape.
(NOTE: The drawing is NOT to scale)

3.1 Calculate the missing measurement (marked F ). (3)

3.2 In order to plan the layout, the family needs to draw a scale drawing of the lounge space.
They have decided to use the scale of 1:80. Explain what a scale of 1:80 means. (2)

3.3 Using the measurements in the drawing, calculate the missing values in the table that
follows (labelled 3.3.1 to 3.3.5) to 1 decimal place: (6)

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Measurement in real Measurement on plan

Wall
life (in cm) (in cm)
A 380 3.3.2
B 3.3.1 3.3.3
C 480 3.3.4
D 320 3.3.5
3.4 Using the values from the table, draw an accurate 1:80 scale drawing of the lounge. (3)

[14]

Question 4 - Census 2011

Source: [Link] (“The South Africa I know, The Home I Understand” booklet)

In 2011 South Africa took a census of its population. Here are some of the results:

Key:
EC: Eastern Cape
FS: Free State
GP: Gauteng
KZN: KwaZulu Natal
LP LP: Limpopo
MP: Mpumalanga
NC: Northern Cape
NW GP MP NW: North West
WC: Western Cape

FS KZN
NC

EC

WC

4.1 Explain what a census is. (2)

4.2 The arrows on the map above show the movement (migration) of people from one
province in South Africa to another. The size of the arrow reflects the number of people
moving to that province.

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4.2.1 Between which two provinces was the largest movement of people? (2)
4.2.2 Gauteng gained a lot of people from other provinces. Which province gained
the second most people? Also state the provinces that these people came (3)
from.
4.2.3 Gauteng now has 12 272 263 people in it. This represents 23,7% of South
Africa’s population. How many people live in South Africa? (Round your answer (3)
to the nearest thousand.)
(4)
4.2.4 56% of Gauteng’s current population were born there. How many people does
this represent?

4.2.5 Gauteng had the largest increase in population from the 2001 census when
(5)
compared with all of the other provinces. Approximately how many people lived
in Gauteng in 2001 if 12 272 263 live there now?

4.3 The pictogram (a bar graph with pictures) below shows the average household income per
racial group in South Africa.

4.3.1 How many times more does the

average white household earn when
compared to the average black African
household? (2)

4.3.2 79,2% of the South African

population is black African, while 8,9%
of the South African population is
white. Approximately how many
black South Africans are there for
every one white South African? (3)

4.3.3 Find the mean of the four average

racial household incomes in the
bar graph. (3)

4.3.4 Explain what an increase of 113% means. (2)

[29]

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Question 5 – The tour company

Mfundo has a tour company. He picks up international tourists from OR Tambo airport and
transports them to a private game reserve in Mozambique for some game viewing and relaxation.

5.1 In order to calculate his profit per trip, he draws up an income statement. It looks like
this:

5.1.1 Each person requires a visa (permission to enter a foreign country). How
much did each visa cost if everyone on the bus needed a visa?
(3)
(Hint: the visa amount was a round number without cents).
5.1.2 Mfundo’s vehicle uses 10,9 litres per 100 km travelled. Calculate how much (2)
fuel he will use to travel 543 km.
5.1.3 Calculate his total expenditure for the journey. (2)
5.1.4 Calculate his total income per trip. (2)
5.1.5 Using your previous answers, calculate the profit that he made on this trip. (2)
5.1.6 Calculate the percentage profit that he made for this trip. (3)

5.2 When Mfundo was in Mozambique on his last trip, he needed some of the local
currency to pay for a few things. He withdrew 20 000 Mozambique Metical (MT) from a
bank ATM in Mozambique. The exchange rate was:
1 MT = 0,301146 Rand

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Calculate how much he withdrew in Rands. Round your answer to the nearest cent. (2)

5.3 One of his customers was from Germany and converted 300 Euros (€) to South African
Rands at the airport.
5.3.1 Calculate the Rands he should have received when the exchange rate was:
(2)
€ 1 = R0,084857
5.3.2 The exchange bureau charged a fee using the following formula:
Service Fee = R5,25 + 1,25% of the Rand value
Using your previous answer, calculate the fee that the German customer paid. (3)
5.3.3 This service fee was then taken off of the Rand value. Calculate the total Rands
that the customer would have received. Round your answer down to the
nearest Rand. (3)

5.4 One of the main reasons that the tourists come to this specific game reserve is the good
game viewing. The reserve is divided into five camps that contain the following
numbers of game:

Blue Green Yellow Orange

Red Camp
Camp Camp Camp Camp

Small animals (e.g.

212 86 186 235 318
Meerkats)

Medium-
Medium -sized
animals (e.g. 48 73 62 51 65
warthogs, buck)

Large animals (e.g.

28 23 35 48 22
rhino, elephant)

5.4.1 In which camp is a tourist most likely to see a large animal? Give a reason for
your answer. (2)

5.4.2 An animal is seen in the Green camp. Calculate the probability that it is a small
animal. Leave your answer as a fraction. (2)

5.4.3 There is a very high probability of seeing meerkats in the yellow camp. Does (2)
this mean that a visitor will definitely see meerkats on any given day? Explain

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your answer.

5.4.4 There are 48 medium-sized animals in the Blue Camp and there are 48 large
animals in the Yellow Camp. However the probability of seeing a medium-
sized animal in the Blue Camp is higher than the probability of seeing a large
animal in the Yellow Camp. Explain why. (2)

5.5 The manager of the game reserve would like to draw a pie chart to show the
proportions of medium-sized animals in each camp. Explain the calculations that he
would need to make. (3)

5.6 In the advertising brochure, the reserve would like to say: “The average number of
large animals that can be seen in each camp is…”. Name TWO types of average that
could be calculated in order to complete the sentence. (2)

[37]

TOTAL: 150 Marks

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Marking guidelines

Paper 1: Marking guidelines

The following table shows the percentage of marks allocated to each of the levels of
the taxonomy in this Paper 1 examination paper.

Paper 1
Taxonomy Level % of paper Required

Level 1 – Knowing 59% 60% (±5%)

Level 2 – Routine procedures 37% 35% (±5%)

Level 3 – Multi-step procedures 4% 5% (±5%)

Level 4 – Reasoning and reflecting 0 0% (±5%)

Taxonomy Level
and Marks
Question

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1

1.1 10 000 hours√a

√a Finance: Tariff systems
1 Testing the ability to read data
from a table

1.2 No. of days = 10 000 hours ÷ 6 Measurement: Time

hours/day√m
√m Testing an understanding of rate
3
= 166,67 days √ca
K 167 days√ca
√ca
1.3 Incandescent (regular) bulb√a
√a Finance: tariff systems
1 Testing ability to compare
relevant data

1.4.1 60 W ÷ 1 000 √m = 0,06 kW√a

√a Measurement: Conversions
2 Testing an understanding that
‘kilo’ means 1000 units.

1.4.2 Total hours = 6 hours/day x 7 days Measurement: Time

= 42 hours√m
√m Testing a time-based calculation
which depends on a rigid
Units of electricity = kiloWatts x
application of BODMAS
hours 3
principles and an awareness of
= 0,015 kW x 42
units
hours√m
√m

= 0,63 kWh √a

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Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
1.4.3 Units of electricity per hour = 0,015 Measurement: time
kW x 1 hr √m = 0,015 kWh√a √a
Testing calculate a Net Salary.
No. of hours = 1 units÷0.015√m√m 5
units / hour = 66,67 hours√ca
√ca
K 67 hours√ca
√ca
1.5.1 Hours. √a This is because the total Finance: Tariff systems
cost is dependent on the number of
2 Testing the basic skill of
hours. √a
identifying the independent
variable in a given situation.
1.5.2 This is the cost of a bulb√a
√a Finance: Tariff systems
1 Testing the awareness of where
parts of an equation come from.

1.5.3 The power rating of the fluorescent Finance: Tariff Systems

bulb is a quarter of the power rating
1 Testing an awareness of the role
for the incandescent √a
of rate in an equation

1.6.1 Total Cost = R0,036 x 250 hours √m Finance: Break-even Analysis

+ R10
Testing the ability to substitute a
= R9 + R10√m
√m
value into an equation and
= R19,00√ca
√ca 3
perform basic operations in
order to determine the
dependent variable.

1.6.2 Total Cost = R0,009 x 350 hours √m Finance: Break-even Analysis

+ R19,99 √m = R23,14√ca√ca Testing the ability to substitute a
value into an equation and
3
perform basic operations in
order to determine the
dependent variable.

1.6.3 Could use either equation. Finance: Break-even Analysis

Using Incandescent equation: Testing the ability to substitute
Total Cost = R0,036 x hours + correctly into an equation and
R10,00 perform basic operations in
3
R35,92 √m = R0,036 x hours + order to solve for the

R10,00 independent variable

R25,92 = R0,036 x hours

(Subtr R10,00) √m

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Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
720 = No. of hours√ca
√ca

1.7

√a Appropriate title for graphs Finance: Break-even Analysis

√a:
√a Incandescent points plotted Testing the ability to construct

correctly appropriate graphs from given

values.
√a Flourescent points plotted
correctly
6
√a incand. Straight line plotted to
y-int.

√a fluor. Straight line plotted to y-

int.

√a:
√a Key or graphs labelled

1.8.1 The point at which both costs (or Finance: Break-even Analysis
cost and income in some cases) are
1 Testing the knowledge of break-
the same.√a
√a
even point

1.8.2 Crossing point of the two graphs Finance: Break-even Analysis

marked with an A. √a Approximate
Testing the knowledge of break-
values indicated. Should be fairly
3 even point
close to (370 hours; R23,32)
√a (Accept
(Accept 360 – 380 hrs)
hrs)

√a (Accept R23 – R24)

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Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
1.8.3 Example: Finance: Break-even Analysis
Flouresc: Total Cost = 0,009 x 360 + Testing the basic skill of solving
R19,99 = R23,23
simultaneous equations by trial
Incandesc: Total Cost = 0,036 x 360
and error.
+ R10,00 = R22,96
Not the same, therefore try another
value:
Substitute in 365 hours...
Until 370 hours
NOTE: If 370 hours correctly
subsituted as the first value, then 5
marks awarded if comment is made
about the values being the same.
Marking: 5

√m: substitute a value into

incandescent equation
√m substitute the same value into
√m:
the flourescent equation
√m:
√m comment on how close the
values are.
√m: subsitute another value into
√m
both equations.
√a: Final answer as 370 hours
√a

2.1 520 cm ÷ 100 √m = 5,2 m√a

√a Measurement: Conversions
2 Testing the ability to correctly
convert in the metric system.

2.2 The shape has a circle on both ends Measurement: Measuring

√a and it has straight sides Volume
between those ends. √ca
2 Testing the understanding of
how to calculate the volume of a
cylinder

2.3 Vol = 3,142 x (2,6m√a

√a)
√a 2 x 0,15 m
Measurement: Measuring
√m = 3,142 x (6,76 m2) √m x
Volume
0,15 m 4
= 3,19 m3√ca Testing the ability to use a given
formula to substitute correctly

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Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
and calculate the volume of a
cylinder

2.4.1 1,25√a
√a Basic Skills: Number formats
and conventions
1 Testing the skill of converting
between different number
formats

2.4.2 7,7 x 1,25 √√m = 9,625 Basic Skills: Ratio

wheelbarrows √ca Testing the ability to use given
3
» 9,5 wheelbarrows√a
√a mixing ratios to determine the
quantities

2.4.3 3,19 m3 x √m 9,5 wheelbarrows √ca Measurement: Measuring

= 30,4 wheelbarrows. √ca Volume
3 Testing the ability to use given
information to determine
necessary quantities

2.5 Perimeter = 3,142 x 520 cm√a

√a Measurement: Measuring Length

= 1 633,84 cm√ca
√ca Testing the ability to use a given
2
formula to determine a perimeter

2.6.1 No. of bricks = 1 633,84 cm ÷ √m Measurement: Measuring Length

10,6 cm √a = 154,13 bricks√ca
√ca Testing the ability to use a

» 154 bricks √ca 4 perimeter to determine the

quantity of an item to go around
it.

2.6.2 No. of bricks = 1 633,84 cm ÷ 7,3 Measurement: Measuring Length

cm√m
√m = 223,81 bricks√ca
√ca Testing the ability to use a
K 223 bricks√ca
√ca
perimeter to determine the
No. of extra bricks = 223 - 154 = 69
bricks√ca
√ca 6 quantity of an item to go around
Total extra cost = R2,40 x 69 √m = it and compare it to a previously
R165,60√ca
√ca calculated value.

3.1 3,2 m √a (values) + √m 1,2 m = 4,4 Maps, plans, etc: Plans

m. √a(units) 3
Testing the ability to interpret a

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Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
plan and identify how parts of it
are constructed.

3.2 A scale of 1:80 means that 1 cm (or Maps, plans, etc: Scale
other unit) on the drawing (or map)
Testing an understanding of the
√a represents 80 cm in real life. √a 2
concept of scale.

3.3.1 120√a
√a Maps, plans, etc: Scale
Testing the ability to interpret a
1
plan, identify a part of it and
convert it to an appropriate unit.

3.3.2 380 cm ÷ 80 √m = 4,8 cm√ca

√ca Maps, plans, etc: Scale
Testing the skill of using a given
2 scale to convert from real life to
plan measurements.

3.3.3 120 cm ÷ 80 √ca Maps, plans, etc: Scale

Testing the skill of using a given
1
scale to convert from real life to
plan measurements.
3.3.4 480 cm ÷ 80 = 6,0 cm√a
√a Maps, plans, etc: Scale
Testing the skill of using a given
1
scale to convert from real life to
plan measurements.
3.3.5 320 cm ÷ 80 = 4,0 cm√a
√a Maps, plans, etc: Scale
Testing the skill of using a given
1
scale to convert from real life to
plan measurements.

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
3.4 Maps, plans, etc: Plans
Testing the skill of using
calculated measurements to
create an accurately drawn scale
plan.

√a: At least 3 lengths drawn

correctly (according to values in
previous question)

√a: all values correctly drawn

√a

√a:
√a Drawing neatly drawn

4.1 It is a large survey √a of the whole Data Handling: Collecting Data

population of a country√a√a.
√a
2 Testing knowledge of an
important term.

4.2.1 EC √a & GP√a

√a Data Handling: Representing
Data
2
Testing ability to interpret a
representation of data.

4.2.2 WC √a gained the second most Data Handling: Representing

From EC √a & NC√a
√a Data
3
Testing ability to interpret a
representation of data.

4.2.3 People % Basic Skills: Percentage

12 272 263 : 23,7√m√m Testing ability to correctly
51 781 700√a
√a : 100
3 understand and perform
Approx 51 782 000√ca
√ca
calculations involving
percentage.

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
4.2.4 56% of √m 12 272 263 √a Basic Skills: Percentage
Testing ability to correctly
= 6 872 467,28√ca
√ca
4 understand and perform
» 6 872 467 √ca
calculations involving
percentage.
4.2.5 People % Basic Skills: Percentage
12 272 263 : 134√√a
√√a Testing ability to correctly
9 158 405,2√ca
√ca : 100√m
√m
5 understand and perform
Approx 9 158 405√ca
√ca
calculations involving
percentage.

4.3.1 R365 134 ÷ R60 613 √a (values) = Basic Skills: Operations on

6,02 times more numbers
2
Testing ability to perform basic
calculations.

4.3.2 79,2% ÷ √m 8,9% = 8,88 √ca ≈ Basic Skills: Operations on

9√ca
√ca numbers
3
Testing ability to perform basic
calculations.

4.3.3 Mean = sum ÷ 4 √m Data Handling: Summarising

= 789 460√a
√a ÷ 4 Data
= 197 365√ca
√ca 3
Testing ability to perform basic
data summary calculations.

4.3.4 The original amount was multiplied Basic Skills: Percentage

by 113%.√a
√a This increase would
Testing ability to correctly
then be added onto the original
understand and perform
amount to give a new amount that 2
was 2,13 √a times the original calculations involving
amount (100% + 113%) percentage.

5.1.1 Total people = 12 + 1 = 13 Finance: Income and

Visa cost = R715,00 K 13 √m = R55√a
√a expenditure statement
Testing ability to perform basic
3
calculations using values gained
from an income and expenditure
statement

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
5.1.2 Fuel = 543 K 100 x 10,9 √m = Maps, plans, etc: Maps
59,19ℓ√a
√a
Testing the ability to perform
2
calculations in order to plan for a
trip.

5.1.3 R1 850 + R550 + R3 500 + R715 + Finance: Income and

R430 √m = R7 045√a
√a expenditure statement
Testing ability to perform basic
2
calculations using values gained
from an income and expenditure
statement

5.1.4 12 x R800,00 √m = R9 600,00 √a Finance: Income and

expenditure statement
Testing ability to perform basic
2
calculations using values gained
from an income and expenditure
statement

5.1.5 Profit = R9 600 - R7 045 √m = R2 Finance: Income and

555,00√a√a expenditure statement
Testing ability to perform basic
2
calculations using values gained
from an income and expenditure
statement

5.1.6 % Profit = Profit K Expenditure x 100 Finance: Income and

= R2 555,00 √aK
√a K R7 045√a
√a x 100 expenditure statement
= 36,27%√ca
√ca
Testing ability to perform basic
3
calculations using values gained
from an income and expenditure
statement

5.2 Rand = 20 000MT x R0,301146√m

√m Finance: Exchange Rates
= R6 022,92√a
√a
2 Testing ability to perform basic
exchange rate calculations

5.3.1 Rand = 300 ÷ 0,084857√m

√m Finance: Exchange Rates
= R3 535,36√a
√a (rounded to
2 Testing ability to perform basic
cents)
exchange rate calculations

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy Level
Question and Marks

Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
5.3.2 Service Fee = R5,25 + 1,25% of R3 Finance: Exchange Rates
535,36√m
√m
Testing ability to calculate the
= R5,25 + 0,0125 x R3
3 commission charged by an
535,36√m
√m
= R5,25 + R44,19 institution for exchange rate
√ca
= R49,43√ca transactions.

5.3.3 Total received = R3 535,36 - √m Finance: Exchange Rates

R49,43
Testing ability to calculate the
= R3 485,93√ca
√ca
3 commission charged by an
K R3 485√ca
√ca
institution for exchange rate
transactions.

5.4.1 Yellow Camp. √a There are more of Probability: Prediction

them there. √a
2 Testing ability to use basic
principles to make a prediction

5.4.2 Total animals in green camp = Probability: Prediction

162√a
√a
2 Testing ability to perform basic
Probability = 86√a
√a ÷ 162
probability calculations

5.4.3 No. √a Probability is an indication Probability: Prediction

of likelihood and not a guarantee.
2 Testing the basic knowledge of
√a
probability

5.4.4 There are more animals√a √a in the Probability: Prediction

yellow camp, so the denominator
2 Testing the basic knowledge of
will be larger which will lower the
probability
probability√a
√a
5.5 He would need to total all of the Data Handling: Representing
medium-sized buck in the reserve Data
(299). √a Then for each camp he
3 Testing the basic knowledge of
would divide the number of buck in
that camp√a
√a by the total buck and pie charts
then multiply by 360 degrees. √a
5.6 Mean √a or median√a
√a Data Handling: Summarising
Data
2
Testing the basic knowledge of
ways of summarising data
Total (%) 59 37 4 0

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Applications paper

Grade 11 Mathematical Literacy

Paper 2

(Applications paper)

150 Marks 3 Hours

Read these instructions carefully.

• Answer all the questions.

• It is advisable to show all working and to work neatly.
• You may use a calculator.
• Drawings are NOT to scale (unless otherwise stated).

Question 1 – Money matters

The South African income tax system has been designed in such a way that an individual pays
income tax in proportion to what they earn. Use the following tables to answer the questions below:

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1.1 The value of the tax rebate increased from 2010 to 2011. Calculate the increase in the tax (2)
rebate for a person under the age of 65.
1.2 What is the maximum amount that a person would need to earn in 2010 before they started (1)
to pay income tax?
1.3 Why do you think that the levels of income in each tax bracket were increased from 2010 to (2)
2011? Give TWO reasons.

1.4 Geoffrey, aged 35, earned a taxable income of R16 350,00 per month in 2010.

1.4.1 Which tax bracket would he have fallen into in 2010? Show your working. (3)
1.4.2 Which tax bracket would he have fallen into in 2011? (1)

1.5 Calculate how much income tax Geoffrey had to pay in the year 2010. (6)

1.6 Using the answer to Question 1.5, calculate his net monthly salary (the monthly amount (3)
that he would receive after tax).

1.7 The company Geoffrey works for awarded no salary increases for 2011 due to the economic
recession. If Geoffrey continues to earn the same monthly salary as he did in 2010, his
annual tax is calculated to be R34 315,00. By what percentage has his tax decreased in (3)
2011?

1.8 Geoffrey works as a consultant for an internet research company. The following
information was obtained by Census 2011:

1.8.1 How many Indian/Asian people who were surveyed accessed the internet in some (2)
way or another?
1.8.2 Calculate the probability that an Indian/Asian person who did access the internet
(3)
did so from work. Answer as a percentage.

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1.8.3 Is it more likely that a Coloured person will access the internet from a cell phone or
that a White person will access the internet from a cell phone? Show calculations to (6)
prove your answer.

1.9 The pie graph alongside shows how people in South Africa access the internet (from Census
2011). Refer to it and the table above to answer the
following questions:

1.9.1 Is it more likely or less likely that the

‘from home’ category will grow? Give a
reason for your answer. (2)

1.9.2 What delivery method should an internet

company be focusing on in order to reach the
large number of people who do not currently
access the internet? Give a reason for your
answer. (2)
[36]

Question 2 – Investments
Sara wants to buy a house. She finds a suitable house for R1 200 000. Sara will have to take out a home
loan to buy the house.
2.1 Use the factor table and formula given below it to calculate the monthly repayments on her
home loan. She will repay the loan over 20 years. She will be charged an interest rate of
9,5%. (3)

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Monthly repayment = loan amount ˆ 1000( × factor

2.2 Banks insist that a monthly repayment must not exceed 30% of a person’s income (after
tax). According to Census 2011, the average household income for Gauteng was R156 222 per
year.
Would the average person in Gauteng be able to afford a house valued at R500 000 if they
(6)
were able to obtain a loan at 9,0% over 30 years?

2.3 Sara however, is very tempted to buy the car of her dreams instead of a house. She fancies a
top-of-the range SUV costing R1 200 000, the same amount as her desired house.
In order to make up her mind she studies the graph below showing the annual rate of
depreciation of the value of a car during its first three years of ownership and the inflation
in the value of a house for the past three years. Use it to answer the questions that follow:

1.3.1 Referring to the above graph, explain why the following statements are false.

a. The value of the car decreases until year 2 and then remains the same for years 2
to 3.
(2)
b. The value of the house increases for 2 years and then decreases in the last year.
(2)
c. In year 2, the value of the car and the house are different by 17,24%.

(2)
2.3.2 If Sara had bought the house 3 years ago for the current price, how much would it be
worth now? Show all working. (6)

2.3.3 Without any further calculations, but using the graph above, do you think that
buying a house or buying a vehicle would have been a better investment?
Give full reasons for your answer. (3)

[24]
24]

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Question 3: Car port

A man wants to build a car port to protect his cars from the rain and sun. Three of the
sides are built of brick and the front is open. The roof is covered with metal roof
sheeting. The drawing on the left is the rough plan and is NOT to scale, while the
drawing on the right is the right side view

3.1 State the dimensions of the rear wall of the car port. (2)

3.2 The view of the right side of the car port is to scale. Calculate the scale of the view in the
form 1 : … (5)
3.3 Using the scale that you calculated in Question 3.2 (or any other method), calculate the
roof length (shown on the right side view). Answer in metres. (3)

3.4 Calculate the area of the side wall using the formulas below. Answer in m2. (5)

Area of Rectangle = Length × Breadth

+
Area of Triangle = 4
× Base × Height

3.5 The bricks that will be used in the walls will be grey cement blocks which measure
190 mm by 400 mm and which will be surrounded by 12 mm of mortar around each
brick.

3.5.1 Each brick makes 0,083224 m2 of wall area when it

is part of the wall. Show how this was
calculated.
(3)
3.5.2. Using the value from Question 3.5.1 and your
answer from Question 3.4, calculate the approximate number of bricks that will
be required to build the side wall. (4)

3.5.3 Why is the answer to question 3.5.2 only approximate?

(2)

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3.6 The roof sheeting consists of corrugated metal where each sheet overlaps the one next to
it. Each sheet is 737 mm wide, but can only cover 665 mm. Refer to the diagram below
and explain why each sheet covers less than its actual width:

(2)

3.7 Using the cover width, how many sheets will be required to fit along the top of the car
port? (4)

[30]

Question 4 – Weights and heights

A group of 16-year old boys measured their weights and their heights.
Here are their height measurements:

170 cm 175 cm 172 cm 185 cm 171 cm 174 cm

175 cm 169 cm 171 cm 172 cm 170 cm 170 cm
4.1 Find the mean of heights (3)

4.2 Find the median of data. Show all working. (3)

4.3 Which will be the more accurate measurement of the ‘average’ in this case? Give a (2)
reason for your answer.
4.4 Why would the ‘average’ of the above data be considered to be meaningless if the group
consisted of eight 16-year old girls and eight 16-year old boys instead? (2)

The weights of the same boys were as follows (not in the same order as their heights):
52 kg 56 kg 58 kg 61 kg 62 kg 62 kg 64 kg 65 kg 69 kg 72 kg 73 kg 80 kg
4.5 Calculate the quartile 2 for the above weights. Show all working. (2)

4.6 Calculate the first and third quartiles for the weight data. (3)

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4.7 The following is a box and whisker plot which represents the weights of all 16-year old
boys in a local school. Use it to answer the questions that follow:

4.7.1 The ‘whisker’ on the right of the above plot is very long. What does this (2)
indicate?

4.7.2 Use the above box-and-whisker plot to determine the first, second and third
quartiles for the weights of all 16-year old boys in the school. (3)

4.7.3 Referring to the data in the box-and-whisker plot, is the group of boys heavier
overall than the 16-year old boys in the school? Give full reasoning for your
answer comparing values from the previous questions and commenting on (4)
how spread out the data is.

4.8 A 15-year old boy realises that his height in centimetres is the same as his weight in
pounds. He weighs 169 pounds and is 169 cm in height.

4.8.1 His height is in the 40th percentile of heights for all 15-year old boys. Does
this mean that he is taller or shorter than the average height for a 15-year old (2)
boy? Give a reason for your answer.

4.8.2 His weight is in the 93rd percentile. Use your previous answer to state
whether he has a healthy weight for his height. Give full reasoning. (3)

4.8.3 You should already be familiar with the following BMI equation:

Weight in kg(
BMI =
Height in m((4

Use it to calculate the BMI for the 15-year old. (Note that 1 kg = 2,2 pounds)
(5)

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Question 5 – By plane or road?

Mr Dhlamini, his wife and their two children are planning a holiday in Cape Town. They live in
Pietermaritzburg. Mr Dhlamini is trying to decide whether to travel by plane or by car.

5.1 The nearest major airport is in Durban. Mr Dhlamini looks online and finds the (6)
following fares:

When considering which flight to book, Mr Dhlamini has to keep the following in mind:

• His children are very young and so he cannot arrive in Cape Town after 6:30 pm.

• The taxi can only pick them up to take them to the airport from 5:45 am
onwards.
• The journey to the airport takes 1 hour and 20 minutes.

• Passengers need to be at the airport 1 hour before their flight in order to book in.
• He wants to get the cheapest flight possible.

Which flight would Mr Dhlamini book? State the flight number (SA…) and show all your
working.

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5.2 Considering the option to travel by car, Mr Dhlamini needs to calculate the total
distance that he will need to drive. Referring to the following distance chart he sees
that the distance from Pietermaritzburg to Bloemfontein is 586 km.

What will his total distance be if he were to drive from Pietermaritzburg to Cape Town
via Bloemfontein?
(2)

5.3 Calculate how long it should take Mr Dhlamini to drive that distance if he can travel
an average speed of 100 km/h. Answer in hours and minutes (e.g. 2 hrs 43
mins).(Rounded to the nearest minute). (4)

5.4 In order to calculate the total cost of fuel that he will use and wear-and-tear on the car
Mr Dhlamini knows the following:
• His car uses 8,1 of petrol per 100 km.
• Fuel currently costs R11,88/S.
• His car costs 39,43 c per km in wear and tear.
Use these facts and your answer to Question 5.2 to calculate his total travel costs for a
journey from Pietermaritzburg to Cape Town and back. (7)

5.5 He calculates that it will cost a total of R9 000 to fly to Cape Town (including the taxi
fares). Use your previous answers to advise Mr Dhlamini on which option he should
choose. You must give ONE financially-based reason and ONE non-financial reason. (2)

[21]

TOTAL: 150 Marks

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Marking guidelines

Paper 2: Marking guidelines

The following table shows the percentage of marks allocated to each of the levels of
the taxonomy in this Paper 2 examination paper.

Paper 2
Taxonomy Level % of paper Required

Level 1 – Knowing 0% 0%

Level 2 – Routine procedures 23% 25% (±5%)

Level 3 – Multi-step procedures 36% 35% (±5%)

Level 4 – Reasoning and reflecting 41% 40% (±5%)

Taxonomy
Level and
Question

Marks
Working Comment / analysis
TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1

1.1 R10 260 - R9 756 √a(values) = Finance: Taxation

R504√√c a
Testing the understanding of
2 certain taxation-based terms as
well as reading a table of
information.

1.2 R54 200√a

√a Finance: Taxation

Testing the understanding of

1 certain taxation-based terms as
well as reading a table of
information.

1.3 Any sensible reason (e.g. Finance: Taxation

Salaries increase year on year
Testing the understanding of
and so should the tax OR to
2 certain taxation-based ideas
account for the increase in
prices caused by inflation )
√a√a

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
1.4.1 Annual Salary = 12 x √m R18 Finance: Taxation
125
Testing the understanding of
= R217 500,00√ca
√ca
Therefore Tax bracket 3. √ca 3 certain taxation-based terms as
well as reading a table of
information.

1.4.2 Tax bracket 2√a

√a Finance: Taxation
Testing the understanding of
1 certain taxation-based terms as
well as reading a table of
information.

1.5 Tax Bracket 3: Finance: Taxation

Total Tax = R43 260+30% of
Testing the ability to calculate
amount over R210 000√a√a
= R43 260 + 30% of income tax using an income tax
(R217 500√m
√m - R210 000) table and a previously calculated
= R43 260 √m + 0,3 x value of taxable income.
6
√m
R7 500√m
= R43 260 + R2 250
= R45 510,00√ca
√ca
Less rebate: R45 510,00 -
R9 756,00 √m
= R35 754,00√ca
√ca
1.6 Monthly tax amount = R35 754 Finance: Taxation
÷ 12 √m = R2 979,50
Testing the ability to use a
Net monthly Salary =
3 previously calculated amount of
R16 350,00 √m - R2 979,50
= R13 370,50√ca
√ca income tax and determine the
net monthly salary.
1.7 Decrease in tax = R35 754 – Basic Skills: Percentage
R34 315 = R1 439,00
Testing the concept of
% decrease = decrease ÷
3 percentage decrease.
original x 100
= R1 439,50 √a ÷ R35 754,00
√m x 100 = 4,03%√ca√ca
1.8.1 347 208 √m – 144 783 √m = Data Handling: Organizing Data
202 425
2 Testing the ability to utilize
appropriate values from a table

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
of data to perform calculations.

1.8.2 40 848 √a ÷ 202 425 √ca x 100 Probability: Expressions of

= 20,18%√ca
√ca
probability
3 Testing the ability to perform
basic probability calculations
using data in table form.

1.8.3 Coloured person = 184 025 √a Probability: Prediction

/ 1 056 076 √a x 100 =
Testing the ability to perform
17,42%
White person = 224 222 √a / appropriate calculations
1 606 631 √a x 100 = 13,96%√a √a involving probability and
(comparing either represent those probabilities in
percentages or decimals) 6
such a way that they can be
Therefore more likely for
compared.
coloured person√a√a
(Note: could also have
calculated the totals of
internet users only. Will give
the same result)
1.9.1 Less likely. √a The table shows Probability: Prediction
that many more black users
Testing the ability to make
access the internet through
cellphones and this is the predictions for a course of action
2
major population grouping in based on the data on hand and
South Africa and so this is the likelihood of various
where the growth will occur.
outcomes.
√a
1.9.2 Grow in cellphone internet√a √a Data Handling: Interpreting and
coverage. It is the largest way
analysing data
that people are accessing the
internet and it is sure to grown. 2 Testing the ability to make
√a decisions based on the data
represented.

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
2.1 Loan factor = 9,32√a
√a Finance: Loans
Monthly repayment =
Testing the ability to use loan
(R1 200 000 ÷ 1 000) x 9,32√a
√a 3
= R11 184√ca
√ca tables to calculate monthly
repayment amounts.
2.2 30% √a of R156 222 = Finance: Loans
R46 899,60 per year
Testing the ability to use loan
= R3 905,55 per month√a√a
Monthly repayment = (500 000 tables to calculate monthly
÷ 1 000) x 8,05√a√a
√a√a 6 repayment amounts and think
√ca
= R4 025,00√ca critically to confirm whether or
Therefore, no would not be
not a loan could be granted
able to afford such a house.
under given conditions.
√a

2.3.1.a The value is always Finance: Investments

decreasing. √a The last two
Testing the ability to read ALL of
years it decreased at the same
rate. √a the information given in
2
graphical form and make
informed decisions from that
information.

2.3.1.b The value is always increasing. Finance: Investments

.√a
√[Link]
√a last increase is lower
Testing the ability to read ALL of
than the middle one.√a
√a.
√a
the information given in
2
graphical form and make
informed decisions from that
information.

2.3.1.c Their rates are different by Finance: Investments

17,24%, .√a
√a but the rates of
Testing the ability to read ALL of
change have been
compounded (so they include the information given in
2
previous percentages). .√a√a.
√a graphical form and make
informed decisions from that
information.

2.3.2 Year 1: 21,18% of R1 200 000 = Finance: Inflation

R254 160.√a√a 6 Testing the ability to increase a
End of year 1: Value =

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
R1 200 000 + R254 160 given amount in a compound
= R1 454 160.√a
√a series of increases when each
√a of
Year 2: 32,24% .√a
increase is by a different
R1 454 160 = R468 821,18.√ca
√ca
percentage.
End of year 2: Value =
R1 454 160 + R468 821,18
= R1 922 981,18
Year 3: 22,72% .√a
√a of
1 922 981,18 = R436 901,32
End of year 3: Value =
R1 922 981,18 + R436 901,32
= R2 359 882,50.√ca
√ca
2.3.3 The house √a is a better Finance: Investments
investment because it will
Testing the ability to refer to
grow. √a(or other comment
on house) Whereas a car is not 3 previous work and make a
an investment at all and it will critical decision based on the
decrease in value instead. √a calculated answers.
(or other comment on car)
3.1 Height: 1,7 m √a Maps, Plans, etc.: Plans
Width: 6,2 m√a
√a
Testing the ability to work out
2 missing dimensions from
existing elements of a plan or
drawing.
3.2 Note: This scale may be Maps, Plans, etc.: Scale
different if the page has been
Testing the ability to calculate a
photocopied but the method
remains the same. scale from a measurement taken
Measurement on the view (e.g. on the drawing.
left side): 3 cm√a
√a (within
2mm)
5
Actual measurement: 2,4 m √a
Change units: 2,4 m =
240 cm√a √a
Scale: Real ÷ measurement =
240 cm ÷ 3 cm√a√a
= 80
K Scale = 1 : 80√ca
√ca
3.3 Using scale: Maps, Plans, etc.: Plans
3
Measurement in drawing:

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
5,6 cm√a
√a (within 2 mm) Testing the ability to utilize a
Convert using scale: 5,6 cm x
calculated scale to work out a
80 = 448 cm√ca
√ca
missing dimension.
Answer in metres: 4,48 m √ca
3.4 Break up area into a rectangle Measurement: Calculating Area
and a triangle:
Testing the ability to break down
Area of rectangle = 1,7 m x
4,4 m √a (dimensions) = a complex shape into
7,48 m2√ca component areas in order to
5
Area of triangle = 0,5 x 0,7 m x work out the total area of the
4,4 m √a (dimensions) =
shape.
1,54 m2√ca
Total area = 7,48 + 1,54 =
9,02 m2√ca
3.5.1 Area covered by 1 brick = Measurement: Calculating Area
length x breadth √m
Testing the ability to work
= 412 mm x 202 mm
= 0,412 m x 0,202 m√a 3 towards and answer and think
√a
(dimensions including critically about how to get to an
mortar) √a (converted to m) unfamiliar solution.
= 0,083224 m2
3.5.2 No. of bricks = total area ÷ Measurement: Calculating Area
area of 1 brick √m
Testing the ability to divided a
= 9,02 m2 ÷ 0,083224
4 smaller area into a larger one in
m2/brick √a (values)
= 108,38 bricks √ca order to work out a quantity.
K 108 or 109 bricks √ca
3.5.3 Any reasonable answers (e.g. Measurement: Calculating Area
The wall being slanted
Testing the ability to think
changes the number of bricks
being used on the top OR critically about previously
breakages could mean more 2 calculated answers.
bricks are needed OR some
bricks are not needed due to
the bricks on the corner being
from the other wall. √a√a
3.6 When the sheets overlap √a Measurement: Calculating
each other, the bit of overlap
length
on the ends reduces the 2
effective width. √a Testing the ability to analyse a
given situation critically.

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
3.7 6,2 m = 6 200 mm √a Measurement: Calculating
No. of sheets = 6 200 mm ÷
Length
665 mm √a = 9,32 sheets √ca
Therefore 10 sheets will be Testing the ability to use an
4 effective width (as opposed to a
required √ca (rounding up)
physical width) to work out how
many sheets will be required.
Rounding is also assessed.
4.1 Mean = Total ÷ no of data Data Handling: Summarising
= 2 074 √a ÷ 12√a√a
data
= 172,83 cm√ca
√ca 3
Testing the ability to perform a
simple mean calculation
4.2 169 170 170 170 171 171 Data Handling: Summarising
172 172 174 175 175 185
data
√a (data ordered shortest to
tallest) Two middle values are Testing the ability to perform a
3
171 cm & 172 cm simple median calculation
Median = (171 cm + 172 cm) ÷
2√m
√m
= 171,5 cm √a
4.3 The median √a will be more Data Handling: Analysing data
accurate as the mean is
Testing the ability to think
distorted by the single very 2
large height (185 cm) which is critically about various
called an outlier. √a representations of the ‘Average’

4.4 Girls and boys grow at Data Handling: Summarising

different rates √a and so we
data
are not finding the average of
the same data. √a The average Testing the ability to think
2
of the data would be critically about the data being
meaningless due to the major represented.
differences in development of
the two sexes.
4.5 Q2 = median = (62 kg + 64 √a Data Handling: Summarising
(values) kg) ÷ 2 = 63 kg √ca
data
2
Testing the ability to identify Q2
as the median.

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
4.6 Quartile 1 = (58 kg + 61 kg) √a Data Handling: Summarising
(values) ÷ 2 = 59,5 kg
data
Quartile 3 = (69 kg + 72 kg) √a 3
(values) ÷ 2 = 70,5 kg Testing the ability to calculate

√m (both) Q1 and Q3.

4.7.1 The top 25% √a of the data is Data Handling: Interpreting data
very spread out√a
√a
Testing the ability to use
2
quartiles and percentiles in
interpreting data

4.7.2 Q1: 55 kg√a

√a (+ or - 1 kg) Data Handling: Representing
Q2: 61 kg√a
√a (+ or - 1 kg)
data
Q3: 69 kg√a
√a (+ or - 1 kg) 3
Testing the ability to read data
off a box and whisker plot

4.7.3 Looking at the various Data Handling: Interpreting data

statistical measurements:
Testing the ability to perform a
The minimum for the group is
higher than the minimum for detailed analysis of
the school and the maximum is representations of data
less than the school's (specifically the box-and-
maximum. This means is that
whisker plot)
neither of the outliers are in
this group of boys. Q1, Q2 &
Q3 for the group are all higher
than those for the boys in the
school indicating that the
group is heavier than the 4
average 16-year old boy in the
school. Also the weights of the
boys in the group are not as
spread out as the school
because the whiskers are
smaller and the box is also
narrower than the school's
values.

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Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
√a (comment on max / min)

√a (comment on Q1, Q2, Q3

values)

√a (interpretation of Q1, Q2,

Q3 values)

√a (accurate comment on the

spread of the values in the
group relative to the school)

4.8.1 He is shorter √a than the Data Handling: Analysing data

average. The ‘average’ would
Testing the ability to interpret
be the 50th percentile √a and 2
so his height is lower than data with reference to
that. percentiles

4.8.2 His weight is near the top of Data Handling: Analysing data
the √a collected weights for 15-
Measurement: Measuring
year olds. This is not healthy
√a for a short√a
√a person. weight/length
3 Testing the ability to utilize
previously analysed data and
combine it with newly analysed
data.

4.8.3 169 pound ÷ 2,2 √m = 76,81 Measurement: Converting &

kg√a
√a
Measuring weight/length
169 cm = 1,69 m√a
√a
BMI = 76,81 kg ÷ (1,69 m)2√m Testing the ability to convert
5
= 76,81 kg ÷ (2,8561 m2) between two different systems
= 26,89 kg/m2√ca of measurement as well as using
the BMI calculation.

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 184

 Paper 2

Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
4.8.4 The BMI occurs just outside Data Handling: Analysing data
the 95th percentile √a √a and
Measurement: Measuring
so the boy is overweight. √a
weight/length
3 Testing the ability to analyse
data using percentiles as well as
having a knowledge of the
meaning of BMI

4.8.5 A BMI of 26,89 for a 20-year Data Handling: Analysing data

old boy (man) occurs just
Measurement: Measuring
under the 85th percentile. √a
He will therefore have a weight/length
healthy weight. √a 2 Testing the ability to analyse
data using percentiles as well as
having a knowledge of the
meaning of BMI.

5.1 Earliest flight = 5:45 √a + 1:20 Maps, Plans, etc: Maps

+ 1:00 = 8:05 am√a √a
Testing the ability to utilize
Therefore first two cheap
flights are ruled out. √a given limits to make time-based
6
The last two flights are ruled planning decisions.
out √a because they arrive too
late. √a The only cheap flight
remaining is SA7981
SA7981. √ca
5.2 Distance from Bloemfontein to Maps, Plans, etc: Maps
Cape Town is 997 km. √a
Testing the ability to read a
Therefore total distance is 997
+ 586 = 1 583 km. √ca 2 distance table
NOTE: The given distance from
PMB to CT is 1 677 km but this
is via another route.
5.3 1 583 ÷ 100 km/h √m = 15,83 Maps, Plans, etc: Maps
hrs √ca
Testing the ability to perform
0,83 hrs x 60 = 50 mins√m
√m
Total time = 15 hrs 50 mins √ca 4 calculations with speed in order
to make journey planning
decisions

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 185

 Paper 2

Marking guidelines
Taxonomy
Question Level and
Marks
Working Comment / analysis

TL 2

TL 4
TL 3
TL 1
5.4 Total fuel needed = 1 583 km ÷ Maps, Plans, etc: Maps
100 km √m x 8,1ℓ√m√m
Testing the ability to determine
= 128,223 ℓ
Cost of fuel = 128,223 ℓ x the operating costs of a vehicle
√m
R11,88/ℓ√m including fuel and maintenance
= R1 523,29 considerations.
Total fuel costs = R1 523,29 x 2 7
√m = R3 046,58
Wear & tear costs = R0,3943
√m x (1 583 km x 2)
= R1 248,35√m√m
Total costs = R1 248,35 + R3
046,58 = R4 294,93√ca√ca
5.5 He should fly. It is much more Maps, Plans, etc: Maps
expensive to fly, but there are
Testing the ability to critically
other costs that have not been
considered (e.g. overnight consider travel options and
accomodation on the journey, make informed decisions about
car break down). √a Also, it the available options.
will take a long √a time to
drive to Cape Town whereas a
flight will enable him and his
2
family to enjoy much more of
their holiday.
OR: He should drive. It is much
cheaper (especially if he drives
the whole trip in a day (NOT
ADVISABLE)) and at least he
will have a car available when
they get to Cape Town.

Total (%) 0 23 36 41

© Via Afrika ›› Mathematical Literacy Gr 12 186

 Via Afrika
Geography

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

I’m so grateful that I’ve had an opportunity to Grade 12 Study Guide
be involved in making someone’s life better.

A.W. Hambly, P.A.D. Beets, G.D. Samaai, K. Najjaar, S.D.

— Janet Thomson, Teacher Gear, U.J. Fairhurst, Z.P.L. Shabalala, J.A. Jacobs

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Geography

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 4 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 5 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 61 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 29 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 29 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 58 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.
8. A question bank with tests you may photocopy will help you assess your learners effectively. See the Question Bank on
page 271.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at geography@[Link]?
Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English
ISBN 978-1-415422-72-4

[Link]
 S t ud y G ui de

Geography
Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-320-8
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 Via Afrika
History

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

Education is the key to everything. Grade 12 Study Guide

— Thobeka Dlali, Teacher Sue Grové, C.G. Weldon, J. Manenzhe, B.A. Proctor,
P.C.J. Vale

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika History

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See pages 7 to 13 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See pages 4 and 5 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See pages 26 and 27 to find out how
this will help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Pages 23 and 24 shows you
how this is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See pages 27 and 28 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See pages 35 and 36 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at history@[Link]? Alternatively,
visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
 Sue Grové

Study Guide

Via Afrika
History
Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-325-3
Contents

Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

Topic 1: The Cold War ............................................................................................ 2

Unit 1: What were the origins of the Cold War? ....................................................... 3
The extension of the Cold War – Case study 1: China .............................................. 7
The extension of the Cold War – Case study 2: Vietnam ......................................... 13
Summary and questions.................................................................................... 19

Topic 2: Independent Africa ................................................................................ 23

Unit 1: The ideas that influenced independent African states ............................... 24
Case study 1: Congo and Tanzania: A comparative case study ............................... 26
Unit 2: The impact of internal and external factors on Africa ................................. 34
Unit 3: Africa in the Cold War ...............................................................................35
Case study 2: Angola ...........................................................................................37
Summary and questions....................................................................................45

Topic 3: Civil society protests: 1950s to 1970s ..................................................... 49

Unit 1: Overview of civil society protests...............................................................50
Case study 1: The US Civil Rights Movement ........................................................ 60
Case study 2: The Black Power Movement ........................................................... 67
Summary and questions.................................................................................... 71

Topic 4: Civil resistance in South Africa 1970s to 1980 ..........................................75

Unit 1: South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s ......................................................... 76
Unit 2: Challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state .......................... 80
Unit 3: The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s .......................................................... 83
Summary and questions................................................................................... 94
Topic 5: Democracy in South Africa and remembering the past ............................. 99
Unit 1: Negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity ........................100
Unit 2: How has South Africa chosen to remember the past? ................................113
Summary and questions.................................................................................. 122

Topic 6: The end of the Cold War and a new world order ...................................... 129
Unit 1: Events leading to the end of the Cold War ................................................ 130
Unit 2: The End of the Cold War – The events of 1989 .......................................... 133
Unit 3: A new world order .................................................................................. 140
Summary and questions.................................................................................. 149

Suggested answers ........................................................................................... 155

Examination hints
1 The underpinning context of history in Grade 12 is the politics of the Cold War. This
is reflected in the multiple perspectives on the same events that occurred throughout
the Cold War (e.g. multiple perspectives on the Cuban Missile Crisis). Keep this in
mind when interpreting sources.
2 Always refer to the attribution of every source and try to again as much information
as you can about the origins of the source, its purpose, when it was made or written.
3 Look for clues in all sources and place it in its correct historical context. If there is a
date, use it to assist you to place it in context.
4 Use the glossary and textboxes in the Learner’s Book to increase your understanding
and vocabulary. Use historical terms and concepts confidently and in the correct
context.
5 Try to identify leaders, symbols, clues, etc. and refer to these when you interpret
sources. Ensure that you are able to link factions to the relevant leaders and their
ideologies that shaped many Cold War conflicts (e.g. the Angolan Civil War).
6 Never assume the examiner, teacher or marker knows what you mean – state your
point of view clearly.
7 Link sections to past knowledge. Your knowledge on the Cold War period and
colonialism will be useful to interpret questions in this section.
8 Try to make the content knowledge your own and avoid merely memorising these
summaries or sections from the Learner’s Book. Use your own words and make
simple summaries to help you with your memorisation.
9 The Learner’s Book has many examples of types of questions to practise. By doing
this regularly and consolidating daily, you will be successful.
 Introduction

Who are you? Why are you here?

Where are you going? How will you get there?

These are some of the questions that History can help you to answer.

From studying the past, we can learn how to live in the present. We can see what
mistakes were made and we can avoid repeating them in the future. By studying these
mistakes made in the past, as well as many correct and courageous decisions, we can
understand why our world is like it is today.

History is the study of people: famous people, notorious people and ordinary people,
and how their decisions and actions shaped the future. Studying these people can
inspire us to take a more active role in shaping our world and striving to achieve our
individual potential. History is an exciting and dynamic subject. Studying History can
help you to understand and speak intelligently about what is happening in the world.

History is full of details, such as events, dates and names of people and places.
However, when you study History, don’t worry about getting overwhelmed by all the
details. Try to see the importance of the bigger picture.

To do well in History, here are some strategies that you can use:
● Listen carefully in class.
● Ask your teacher questions until you understand what is going on.
● Go over the work you did in class that day.
● Do your own extra research on the topic you are studying.
● Never leave your studying to the day before a test or exam.
● Make your own mind-maps and summaries.
● Never study without talking to yourself and giving yourself short tests.

In Grade 12 the key question you must investigate and answer is: What is the nature of
the post-Second World War world?

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 Topic 1
The Cold War

Overview
In this topic you will revise:
● The origins of the Cold War at the end of World War II, the creation of spheres of
influence by the two superpowers, containment vs. brinkmanship in Europe and the
Caribbean (Cuba).
● The extension of the Cold War: Case studies: China and Vietnam.

• Long-term and immediate causes

UNIT 1 Page 3 • Nature of the Cold War
What were the origins • Installation of Soviet friendly governments in
of the Cold War ? satellite states.
• USA’s policy of containment: Truman Doctrine and
Marshall Plan
• Berlin Crises 1948 – 1961
• Opposing Military alliances: NATO and Warsaw Pact.
• Containment and brinkmanship: the Cuban crisis.

TOPIC 1 Page 2–22

The Cold War • The events leading to the establishment of

Communist China in 1949 (non-examinable
background information)
CASE STUDY 1 Page 7 • The Cultural Revolution
• Chinese relations with the USSR and the USA from
The extension of the
1949 to 1973
Cold War – CASE
• China’s foreign relations with her neighbouring
STUDY 1: China
states
• China’s world power status by the time of Mao’s
death
• Improved relations between China and the USA
after 1970
• The impact of economic liberalisation on foreign
relations since Mao’s death.

CASE STUDY 2 Page 13 • Background to the struggle against the colonial

The extension of the powers.
Cold War – CASE • Stages of the war.
STUDY 2: Vietnam • How is the Vietnam War remembered today?

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What were the origins of the Cold War?

Key question: Why did a Cold War develop at the end of World War II and why
was it called the Cold War?

Definition of the concept COLD WAR

● What was it?
● It is a state of military rivalry and political tension.
● What methods were used?
● Espionage, propaganda, backing up allies in conflicts, e.g. the Middle East,
Europe, the Far East, Africa, etc.
● Who was primarily involved?
● The two superpowers, the USA and the USSR, and their respective allies.
● When did it occur?
● 1945 to 1989 – accepted as the official dates but some consider the start to be 1917
when the Russian Revolution led to the establishment of the Soviet state and that
it ended when the Soviet Union collapsed and Germany was reunited.
● Where did it happen?
● It began in Europe and spread to other parts of the world.
● Why did it happen?
● There were many long-term and short-term causes:

Causes of the Cold War

● World War II itself – the rift widened between the USA and the USSR.
● Stalin encroached on Eastern Europe during the last months of the war and the
Red Army reached Berlin first.
● Poland was occupied by the USSR and Germany was split into four zones of
occupation as the Allies could not reach consensus.
● Nuclear weapons deepened the suspicion and rivalry.
● It led to an arms race and development of deadly weapons of destruction.
● Two spheres of influence were established in Europe as Communist regimes were
established in the occupied states – these were termed satellite states.
● Rival ideologies (Communism vs. Capitalism) led to increased suspicion.
● Leadership rivalry: Truman was a hardliner who did not want to concede to Stalin
and despised Communism.

● How did it happen?

● It was not a ‘hot’ conflict between the superpowers or direct, open, conventional
warfare, but it operated through proxy wars and liberation struggles where
vulnerable states were manipulated to further ideologies and to extend the
sphere of influence of the two superpowers.

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What was Truman’s policy of containment?

● It was Truman’s policy after 1946 to use specific strategies to prevent the spread of
Communism.
Re-cap the decisions made
● It consisted of two components: at Potsdam and Yalta with
● the Truman Doctrine regard to Berlin and make
● the Marshall Plan (or European Recovery Plan). sure you understand the
threat of open hostility be-
tween the two superpowers.
The Truman Doctrine

Crisis in Greece 1946 European Recovery Plan (Marshall Plan)

● In March 1947 Truman ● In June 1947 Marshall announced the European
announced that Recovery Plan to contain Communism in Europe.
the US would assist ● Aid was offered to any European state for
Greece against the industrial and economic recovery.
Communists. ● This would eradicate poverty and
● Military and economic distress
financial aid = ● = would prevent the spread of
change in US foreign Communism.
policy.

The USSR prevented the satellite states from accepting Marshall aid and formed
the Communist Information Bureau or COMINFORM to counter the US policy of
containment.
Revise the map of
Berlin and the division
of Germany in the LB
before studying this
The Berlin Crises 1948–1961 section.

1948 currency Stalin wanted the West to

1946 the three reform was
western zones in withdraw from West Berlin
introduced in West and hand over their zones
Berlin united to Germany to uplift
form West Berlin. to the USSR.
the economy.

The West did not

want to risk outright Stalin blockaded Currency reform in Berlin led to an
war with the USSR the access routes improvement of the economy and
and introduced an to West Berlin. defectors left for West Berlin.
airlift.

In August 1949 Stalin lifted the

For 11 months Western aircraft airlifted essential food, blockade and reopened the
medical and fuel supplies to West Berlin. routes.

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 Unit 1

West Germany became known as the German Federal Republic while East Germany
became known as the German Democratic Republic.

● Revolts crushed by authorities.

Standard of living low in
● Leader of GDR, Walter Ulbricht, closed the
GDR: led to migration to border between East and West Berlin in
West Berlin and strikes. August 1961 and soldiers erected a wall, guard
towers and armed guards to stop defectors.

The Berlin Wall

After the Berlin Crises, two powerful military alliances were formed that effectively
divided Europe into two armed camps by 1955:

NATO was formed in 1949 by After West Germany joined

12 countries that agreed to unite NATO in 1955, the USSR and
the armed forces of the Allies its allies formed a second
in case of a nuclear threat or powerful military block called
attack from the East. the Warsaw Pact.

SIGNIFICANCE: The spheres were entrenched into two defence pacts and an arms race
began to build between the superpowers.

Containment and brinkmanship: The Cuban Crisis

Another tactic developed during the Cold War was brinkmanship. This is the practice
of pushing dangerous events to the edge (or brink) of disaster in order to gain an
advantage. Posturing and discrediting the opponent was used to portray the enemy in
a negative light. These strategies were applied during the events in Cuba that led to the
extension of the Cold War beyond Europe.

Background to the Crisis

● Until 1959 US commercial farmers and businessmen had interests in Cuba. It was
a poor country, dependent on US sugar imports. The US turned a blind eye to the
brutality of the Cuban dictator, Batista.
● In 1959, Castro led a revolution and overthrew Batista’s regime.

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● Castro announced plans to nationalise land in Cuba and indicated that he needed
loans from the USA.
● The US refused to lend money to Castro as he was viewed to be Marxist. The US
threatened to cut sugar imports from Cuba.
● Cuba turned to the USSR and signed a trade agreement with Russia.
● In retaliation to US trade cuts, Cuba nationalised all American-owned companies.
● The CIA assisted a group of exiles with planning a counter- revolution against
Castro’s government.
● This invasion was a disaster and an embarrassment for Kennedy’s administration.
● Castro asked for weapons from the USSR to defend itself against the USA and he
declared himself a Marxist.
● The US viewed Cuba as another Soviet satellite state.
● In June 1962, Cuba received shipments of arms and MIG-21 fighter jets from the USSR.
● Medium range missiles and bombers arrived.

The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

● On 14 October 1962, an American spy plane detected a nuclear missile base on
the island.
● Kennedy set up a special committee to advise him on the way forward.
● On 22 October, Kennedy announced a blockade of the island, which placed the
island under quarantine until the missile sites were removed.
● Khrushchev defended Soviet actions as an act of self-defence on Cuba’s side due to
the role of the USA in the Bay of Pigs disaster.
● Khrushchev accused the US of piracy and did not turn the warships around that
were en route to Cuba.
● Letters were exchanged between the two leaders and the world waited anxiously to
see what would happen.
● Khrushchev offered to dismantle the Soviet nuclear missile bases in Cuba in return
for the dismantling of US missile bases in Turkey.
● The crisis was averted by means of diplomacy.
● Once the crisis was averted there was a thaw in the Cold War: a hotline telephone
link was set up between Moscow and Washington as a direct line of contact.
● In August 1963 a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed to end nuclear testing above
ground.

In 1968 a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed, which aimed at preventing

the spread of nuclear weapons to countries that did not have them.

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 Case Study 1
The extension of the Cold War – CASE STUDY 1: China

Key question: How did China rise as a world power after 1949?

In this case study you will revise the following: NB: Check if you
● The events leading to the establishment of Communist China in must study China
or Vietnam for
1949 (non-examinable background information) your exam!
● The Cultural Revolution
● Chinese relations with the USSR and the USA from 1949 to 1973
● China’s foreign relations with her neighbouring states
● China’s world power status by the time of Mao’s death
● Improved relations between China and the USA after 1970
● The impact of economic liberalisation on foreign relations since Mao’s death.

The establishment of Communist China in 1949

(Background information only)
● Britain gained control of Hong Kong after the defeat of the Chinese imperial army
in 1842.
● The Chinese Emperor had to concede to increased control of trade by the West
through five treaty ports.
● Feudal warlords rose in revolt as the power of the emperor declined and China was
subjected to decades of conflict.
● European powers and Japan took advantage of the instability e.g. France drove out
the Chinese and colonised Vietnam, Russia occupied land in the north and Japan
colonised Korea and annexed Taiwan.
● Change began to occur in the treaty ports as a new generation of Chinese leaders
who had been educated in the West assumed control, but the rural areas were still
under strict imperial control.
● Between 1910 and 1912, Chinese nationalists rose up and declared their
independence from the empire.
● A provisional government was set up under Sun Yat Sen in 1912, but it did not
last long.
● China was engulfed in a civil war, which was exploited by Russian Communists
who wished to expand their ideology.
● Although the Chinese Communists were part of the Nationalist alliance, this
partnership collapsed and after 1927 the Communists were targeted by the troops of
Chiang Kai-Shek (he had replaced Sun Yat Sen).
● The Communists withdrew to the countryside and it became a party focussed on the
needs of rural peasants rather than industrial workers.
● The Nationalists got aid from the West while the Communists turned to the USSR.

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● The Communists undertook the Long March in 1934 and Mao became the undisputed
leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
● Matters became more complicated for the Nationalists when the Japanese attacked
Chiang Kai-Shek’s armies in 1936 and occupied Manchuria.
● After Japan’s defeat in 1945, a civil war between the Nationalists and the
Communists intensified.
● With the aid of Soviet support and support in the rural areas, the Communist
forces were victorious.
● The Nationalists (Guomindang) fled to Taiwan and set up a democratic,
capitalistic state.
● Mainland China became the People’s Republic of China in 1949, under the
leadership of Mao Zedong.

The Cultural Revolution

GOVERNMENT LAND INDUSTRY

● Authoritarian ● Most of the richer ● CCP nationalised
● Executed up peasants could keep heavy industry and
to 1 million their land. foreign firms
warlords. ● Land taken from ● Light industry
warlords was divided could be privately
amongst the landless owned.
peasants. ● Led to rapid
growth.

The Great Leap Forward

● WHY?
● Mao wanted to transform Chinese society to overtake capitalist countries and
become one of the richest and most powerful countries in the world.
● HOW?
● The CCP forced individual farmers into Agricultural Cooperatives or rural
communes where all land was communally owned and workers were paid
according to the amount of work they did. About 5 000 households were
supposed to start large-scale farms and backyard factories.
● WHAT happened?
● Many local party officials became corrupt and authoritarian. Initially the Chinese
supported the Great Leap Forward enthusiastically. Government propaganda
projected data that showed the programme to be successful.

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CONSEQUENCES:

= A spectacular failure:

WHY?

● Poor planning and poor support for farmers.

● Corrupt local officials.
● Farmers were taxed on production, therefore production soon fell.
● Backyard factories consumed large amounts of raw materials and produced
inferior goods.
● This was exacerbated by bad weather and failed harvests in 1961.

FAMINE: 20-30 million Chinese people died.

Mao allowed the moderates in the CCP to return to earlier policies to restart the
economy.

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

● IN MID-1960S ECONOMY BEGAN TO RECOVER BUT CLASS DIVISIONS BEGAN
TO RE-APPEAR.
● MAO WANTED TO RE-ASSERT HIS AUTHORITY.
● MAY 1966 MAO LAUNCHED MASSIVE CULTURAL RENEWAL MOVEMENT.
● HE MOBILISED THE YOUTH AND STUDENTS TO FORM THE RED GUARD TO
ATTACK TEACHERS.
● CAMPAIGN SLOGANS ATTACKED OLD IDEAS, TRADITIONAL CULTURE,
CUSTOMS AND HABITS.
● RED GUARDS MOVED INTO SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, FACTORIES AND FARMING
COMMUNES IN AN ORGY OF VIOLENCE.
● MAO PURGED THE CCP OF RIVALS: THOUSANDS TORTURED AND KILLED.
● MAO USED THE RED GUARDS TO SET UP A REIGN OF TERROR, BUT BY THE
LATE 1960s THE CULTURE OF VIOLENCE HAD SPUN OUT OF CONTROL.
● BY 1970 MAO USED THE ARMY TO BRING THE RED GUARDS UNDER CONTROL.

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China’s Foreign Policy

● Mao wanted to maintain a close relationship with Stalin and the

COMINTERN.
Stalin mistrusted Mao’s ambitions within the COMINTERN and tried to
USSR

●
limit his power. National interests dominated relations.
● Feb 1950 USSR and China signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship:
China gained railway interests in northern China and joint industrial
projects began.

● When the USSR assisted North Korea with its invasion of South Korea
in 1950, the USA used the UN to send in troops to launch a counter-
attack.
USA

● Mao sent over a million troops to fight in Korea to gain prestige. He

seized grain and produce from Chinese farmers to feed the soldiers.
● About 900 000 Chinese troops died and there was much suffering.
Mao blamed the US. He therefore supported Ho Chi Minh against the
US in the Vietnam War.

The Sino-Soviet split

Khrushchev applied
Mao’s initial economic policies deStalinisation policies and
led to classes and inequality. To denounced Stalin’s oppression.
counter this he reverted to true He allowed managers to use
Marxism, collective and state capitalist methods to generate
ownership (known as Maoism) growth. He allowed more
and mobilised the peasantry. freedom of thought and debate.
This threatened Communism in
China according to Mao.

● Ideological differences led to further alienation between Khrushchev and Mao.

● Serious territorial conflicts in Asia added to the tension e.g. Vietnam, Korea,
Cambodia.
● Mao threatened the leadership of the USSR in the COMINTERN.
● Khrushchev thought he could control Mao.
● The USSR sent advisors to China to help develop an atom bomb.
● In 1959, the USSR broke off ties and withdrew the advisors and technicians.
● In 1964, China developed its own atom bomb.
● The USSR began to form alliances against China.
● The USSR and China did support Cuba in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

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China’s relations with neighbours

China’s foreign relations in Asia

TIBET VIETNAM INDIA TAIWAN

● 1950 – Red Army ● 1945 – Mao put ● India recognised ● In 1949 Chiang’s
occupied Tibet. pressure on the the People’s nationalists fled
● Forced the Dalai revolutionary Republic of China to Taiwan and set
Lama to sign a leader Ho Chi in 1949 up the Republic of
treaty recognising Minh to apply ● BUT China was not China.
Chinese control. Maoism in North happy with the ● A state of war
● 1959 – uprising Vietnam. border drawn up existed between
against Chinese ● In the 1960s by Britain between the two China’s
rule = cruelly China remained the two countries. until 1972.
suppressed. a close ally of the ● In 1962 China ● The USA backed
● Tibet was Communists in attacked India as a Taiwan and
incorporated into the war. Tensions show of strength. protected the
China. increased in ● In 2004 China island during the
● More than 6 000 the 1970s when recognised Korean War.
monasteries were China seized oil Indian rule over ● In 1971 Mao
destroyed and resources in the Sikkim while persuaded the
thousands of Gulf of Tonkin and India recognised UN to make Red
monks and nuns when Vietnam Chinese control of China one of the
were killed. helped overthrow Tibet. permanent five
China’s ally, the on the Security
Khmer Rouge, in Council.
Cambodia.

Was China a Superpower when Mao Zedong died in 1976?

TWO POINTS OF VIEW:

YES NO
● Exceptionally large state. ● The economic destruction and
● Massive population. cultural repression did not make it a
● Large in terms of land. superpower.
● Has great military, political, economic ● Its arsenal of weapons was not as strong
and cultural influence. as that of the USA or the USSR.

Why China tried to improve relations with the USA after 1970

1 To counter Soviet political and military pressure in Asia.

2 To increase its stature as a leading state in world affairs.

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Evidence of improved relations:

● UN dropped her support for Taiwan as a member of the Security Council.
● 1972: President Nixon visited China:
● US technical staff and writers visited China
● Some Western literature was allowed into China, but was not widely distributed.

Impact of China’s economic liberalisation since Mao’s death

What is economic liberalisation?

In this context it would refer to the changes introduced after Mao’s death that showed a
deviation from true Communist principles.

Impact within China: introduced market socialism

● many of the state controlled farms were divided into individual family units again
● private citizens were encouraged to establish light consumer industries
● encouraged an open door policy with the West to foster trade
● abolished central planning and price controls
● privatised inefficient state-owned enterprises.

Results:
● A new prosperous middle class developed in the cities, while richer peasant
farmers arose in the rural areas. China’s economy has grown phenomenally.
● These new policies have also caused hardship for many: poorer farmers have
been forced off the land by richer farmers as the land has been consolidated.
Unemployment has grown in the cities due to the migration from rural to urban
areas. Food prices have increased.
● China is still not democratic, and the authorities have dealt harshly with pro-
democratic marches.

Impact on rest of world

● West: Investment = friendly policies and low wages to Chinese workers attract
investment to China.
● Capital and technology have led to massive growth and productivity in China,
making the West wary.
● Africa: China has expanded her interests in Africa and the BRICS countries.
It is interested in the countless raw materials in Africa as well as agricultural
products.
● China provides a huge market for commodities and raw materials. This has
often led to agreements with brutal dictators.
● Developing economies: China has invested in many developing economies and
has extended the infrastructure and markets there.
● It has also formed the China–Africa Forum to influence African leaders.

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 Case Study 2
The extension of the Cold War – CASE STUDY 2: Vietnam

Key question: How was a small country like Vietnam able to win the war against
the USA? (1945 to 1975)

In this case study you will revise the following: NB: Check if you
must study China
● Background to the struggle against the colonial powers. or Vietnam for
● Stages of the war. your exam!
● How is the Vietnam War remembered today?

Background: Vietnam’s struggle against the colonial powers

China ruled the area that became known as Vietnam for thousands of years. In the
10th century Vietnam gained independence that lasted until the French colonised the
region after 1858. French missionaries helped to introduce French language, education,
customs and religion. By 1864 a colony was established in the south called Cochinchina.
China became involved in the region and it led to the Sino-French War 1864–1885. China
had to withdraw and the French established three regions of control in Vietnam. The
control of the French was extended when it also occupied Laos and Cambodia.

● French colonial rule was politically repressive and economically exploitative.

● The French claimed to modernise Vietnam with a network of infrastructure, but
they also introduced forced labour, heavy taxes and a centralised government.
Life for the Vietnamese peasants was hard.
● Vietnamese resistance was initially passive in nature, but as nationalism grew,
resistance grew too.
● After World War I, Ho Chi Minh began coordinating the resistance:
● went to live in Paris in the 1920s where he became active in the French
Communist Party.
● visited Moscow in 1924 and became convinced that a Communist inspired
revolution was needed in Vietnam to shake off the yoke of colonialism.
● realised that nationalism would awaken an anti-colonial revolt.
● he operated from a base in China close to the border of Vietnam (faced arrest
in his own country).
● organised Vietnamese nationalist exiles = Vietnam Revolutionary League.

Japan occupied Vietnam during World War II and the natural resources were used to
fuel the Japanese war effort.
● He returned to Vietnam (1941) → set up Viet Minh (Vietnam Independence League).
● He formed an alliance with the US to fight the Japanese in the Vietnam jungle.

When Japan was defeated in 1945, the occupied territories were returned to France as
French colonies.

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● Ho Chi Minh’s guerrilla fighters occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional

government and he declared himself president of the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam → The US refused to recognise his state.
● After World War II: In September 1945 about 1 400 French soldiers freed from
Japanese internment camps went on the rampage attacking and killing many Viet
Minh guerrillas as well as innocent civilians.
● The Viet Minh retaliated by organising a general strike → shut down commerce
and electricity and water supplies.
● In October 1945 French reinforcements helped to restore French control.
→ For four months Ho Chi Minh tried to negotiate full independence for the
Vietnamese.
● BUT → French ships bombarded and occupied the port of Hai Phong.
→ Led to the start of a guerrilla campaign against the French by the Viet Minh.

The French Indochina War: 1946–1954

The first few years consisted of low-level guerrilla wars against the French. Once China
was taken over by the Communists in 1949, Ho Chi Minh’s guerrillas could count on
Chinese support against the French.
● The war became more conventional as the USA backed the French and the USSR
assisted Ho Chi Minh’s troops.
● In 1949 the French backed Bao Dai as the leader in the South but he was weak.
● The Vietnamese National Army was set up in the South.
● China continued to back the Viet Minh in the North.
● Truman authorised $15 million to contain communism in Vietnam.
● Eisenhower replaced Truman in 1953 → increased US military aid to the French.
● General Giap – a brilliant military strategist – led the Viet Minh.
● The French set up a defensive complex at Dien Bien Phu, but Genl Giap
introduced a siege that lasted for 57 days before the French were forced to
surrender. The US did not get involved in rescuing the French and, as a result,
French colonial rule ended.

In 1954 the Geneva Peace Accord was signed between France and Vietnam.
● This Accord agreed to a temporary division of the country along the 17th parallel:
● Ho Chi Minh gained control of the North while Ba Dai controlled the South.
● Elections were to be held within two years to reunify the country.
● Ho Chi Minh set up a ruthless Communist state in the North and imposed a
cleansing of the countryside. Land was confiscated and made into communes.
Landowners were tried and brutally executed by people’s tribunals.
● In 1955 Diem replaced Bao Dai as president.
● The USA formed SEATO – a regional organisation to contain communism.
● The USA wanted to entrench capitalism and democracy in the region to
counter the spread of communism.

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Stages in the Vietnam War

After their defeat at Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Accords, the French withdrew their
troops to fight the anti-colonial struggle in Algeria. President Diem appealed to the
US for aid against the People’s Liberation Armed Forces (PLAF also known as the Viet
Cong) who were Communists. The Communists in the North supplied the Viet Cong with
weapons, guidance and reinforcements.

PHASE 1: Struggle between the South Vietnamese army and the Viet Cong

January 1957: the USSR proposed the division of Vietnam into

two parts → plan rejected by the USA.

● Oct 1957 Viet Minh (Communists from the North) launched a campaign of
destruction, bombings and assassinations in the South.
● The Viet Cong backed by the US were too strong and Ho Chi Minh adapted his
strategy to guerrilla warfare.
● The Ho Chi Minh Trail became the major supply route to the South and guerrillas
sometimes crossed the border into Laos and Cambodia.
● Corruption, autocracy and low morale led to support for the Viet Cong in the South.
● Increased opposition grew from the intellectuals, Buddhists, peasants and students
against Diem’s regime.
● After two unsuccessful coup attempts, Kennedy increased the number of US troops
in the South to prop up Diem’s regime. 1962 = over 11 000 US troops in Vietnam.
● Meanwhile the USSR began airlifting supplies to the Viet Minh in the North.

● Diem’s oppression of the Buddhist community, which was

denied religious freedom.
WHY?

● Buddhist marchers were targeted and in protest a Buddhist

1963: Crisis year monk set himself alight.
● The US tried to intervene to get the rights of the Buddhists
restored, but government troops raided religious sites.

Some of Diem’s generals launched a coup on Diem’s regime with

US consent, and arrested Diem and his brother. Diem and his
brother were assassinated November 1963.

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After Kennedy’s assassination in Dallas, Texas, Lyndon B. Johnson became the US

president.

GULF OF TONKIN RESOLUTION

In Aug 1964 North Vietnam launched an attack on an American ship in the
Gulf of Tonkin. The US bombed North Vietnam in retaliation after the US
Congress passed the Tonkin Resolution. The US used the Tonkin Resolution,
backed by the DOMINO THEORY to enter the war more fully to counter the
spread of Communism.

The North Vietnamese–USA struggle

PHASE 2:
Many juntas succeeded Diem’s government. Eventually Nguyen
van Thieu became president in 1965.

● China and the USSR supplied arms and support to North Vietnam.
● March 1965 – 3 500 US marines arrived in South Vietnam.
● The USA did not have enough volunteer soldiers and introduced conscription
(known as the draft).
● After another attack on US bases in the south in 1965, Johnson ordered Operation
Rolling Thunder to bomb the Communists into surrendering.
● This operation lasted three years and the US dropped one million tonnes of bombs
on Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
● Despite destruction of major military targets the North Vietnamese would not
surrender.
● 1967 = new constitution set up in the South
● = civilian government under Thieu
● The US introduced Operation Ranch Hand, a chemical warfare strategy to defoliate
the jungles and expose the Ho Chi Minh trail.

What were Agent Orange and

Agent Blue?
● Agent Orange was a chemical
that caused defoliation and also
chromosomal damage in humans.
● Agent Blue was a chemical used to
destroy crops so that the NLF did
not have food.

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Climax of the war: Tet Offensive

● WHAT WAS IT?
● An offensive by the North Vietnamese and the NLF.
● WHEN?
● 1968
● WHY?
● To reach Saigon and force the South Vietnamese government to capitulate and
the US forces to withdraw.
● WHO?
● North Vietnamese and NLF vs. South Vietnamese army and US troops.
● WHERE?
● Launched attacks across 17 degrees North into the South as far south as Saigon.
● WHAT HAPPENED?
● President Thieu introduced conscription in an effort to resist the attacks.
● Thousands of non-Communists in the South were murdered by Communists
from the North.
● US troops suffered casualties and trauma as Communist forces had infiltrated the
South.
● The Communists from the North suffered terrible casualties.
● The My Lai Massacre illustrated the madness of war as US troops wilfully and
deliberately killed innocent villagers during a mad killing spree.
● WHY did the US decide to stop the war?
● Increasing civilian opposition in the USA as a result of the media making more
and more Americans aware of the impact of the war.
● Student, anti-war and disarmament groups called for the war to end.
● Marches and protests increased, calling for the end to war.
● The cost in both lives and money made the continuation of the war untenable.
● It led to a polarisation in US society and many claimed the war was
unjustifiable.
● Women and students led opposition movements.
● Photojournalists showed photos of killing and destruction that led to more
opposition, e.g. the killing of a NLF officer by General Ngoc Loan.
● HOW did it end?
● Peace talks began in Paris in May 1968. Russia approved but not China.
● President Johnson ordered the bombing raids to stop.
● In 1969 President Nixon, Johnson’s successor, formulated the Nixon Doctrine
to end the war in Vietnam.
● Vietnamisation was applied so that trained troops and officials could replace
US ones.
● In 1971 thousands of war veterans marched to the White House and threw
their medals and decorations on the steps in protest against the war.

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The official ending of the war

Kissinger used a direct approach in talks with the North Vietnamese. By 1972 an
agreement had been brokered between him and Xuab Thuy and Le Duc Tho from North
Vietnam → BUT: President Thieu and other leaders in the South as well as the NLF
rejected the draft peace agreement.
● Nixon authorised intensified bombing raids against the largest cities in the North
in December 1972.
● There was widespread condemnation of the US attacks.
● On 23 January 1973 the final draft peace treaty was signed after the US promised
to assist the South.
● Although the hostilities between the USA and North Vietnam had ended, the civil
war did not.
● On 30 April 1975 the Vietnamese War ended when North Vietnamese troops
occupied Saigon and captured the presidential palace.

Why did the US not win the Vietnam War?

Why did the US not win the Vietnam War?
● The Americans misjudged the war and knew little of the terrain where they were
fighting.
● US belief they could not lose the war.
● Guerrilla tactics used by Ho Chi Minh.
● Cuban Missile Crisis: Johnson thought the North Vietnamese would back down
when threatened.

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Unit XX

Summary and questions

Summary
In Topic 1, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question:

Key question: How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second
World War?

In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below.

Unit 1 What were the origins of the Cold War?

The roots of the Cold War stretch to the Russian Civil War, but became a global threat
to world peace after World War II when the West (mainly the USA and its allies) and the
East (mainly the USSR and its allies) confronted each other over ideological differences
summarised as capitalism and communism. Although this confrontation never resulted
in direct conflict, it did cause a number of crises (e.g. the Berlin Blockade, Berlin
Crisis and Cuban Missile Crisis) that had the potential to escalate into nuclear war. It
also resulted in each superpower creating spheres of interest, either to spread its own
ideology or to contain the ideology of its opponent. Proxy wars often erupted in these
spheres of interest. The Cold War, which started in 1947 with the Truman Doctrine,
ended when the Berlin Wall was dismantled (1989) and the USSR dissolved (1991).

Case study 1 China

The Chinese Empire disintegrated when the British defeated the Chinese army during
the First Opium War (1839–1842). By 1900, a new generation of Western-educated
Chinese had begun to control the government and a provisional government led by the
respected nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen was established in Nanking in 1912. However,
much conflict ensued with the nationalists and communists vying for power. Eventually
Mao Zedong, after the Long March (1936) and the defeat of the nationalists, established
the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in October 1949. Mao imposed communism and,
through his Great Leap Forward and Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, tried to
destroy the class system in China and modernise the country. He used his Red Guards to
enforce his vision. Mao also tried to spread communism to surrounding countries and
had wars with Tibet, India, Vietnam and Thailand. Although Mao’s policies resulted
in much suffering and millions of deaths, they did result in China becoming a very
powerful nation.

After Mao’s death (1976), China became friendlier towards the West because the new
leaders realised that the country could not flourish economically in isolation in a
globalised world economy.

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Summary and questions

Case study 2 Vietnam

Vietnam was also an ancient culture that disintegrated with foreign (French) occupation
in the 1800s. However, the Vietnamese resisted colonial rule and after World War II
(1945) Ho Chi Minh set up a communist state in northern Vietnam even though Vietnam
was still a French colony. His intention was to unite all of Vietnam by engaging the
French in guerrilla warfare. He was successful and through the Geneva Peace Accords
North Vietnam was formally recognised, with South Vietnam being declared south
of the 17th parallel. This spilt into North and South Vietnam reflected the Cold War
tensions, with the USSR supporting the North and the USA supporting the South.
Because the government in the South under Ngo Dinh Diem was corrupt, and because
the North and many people in the South wanted a single Vietnam, war broke out
between the South and the Viet Cong. The USA, fearful that the South would fall to the
communists and create a domino effect in the region, sent in thousands of soldiers and
weapons to help the South. However, the Viet Cong used guerrilla tactics, which the
US – who were a conventional fighting force – could not cope with. After the loss of
thousands of lives and increasing protests and pressure in the US and worldwide, the
US was forced to withdraw from Vietnam after the Paris Peace Agreement in 1973. In 1975
North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam and the country was once again united into a
single Vietnam.

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Summary and questions

Questions

1 Key question: What were the main developments in the Cold War 1948–1961?

1.1 Why did the London Conference of 1948 create tension about Germany?

1.2 What event prompted Stalin to impose the Blockade?

1.3 How long did the Berlin Blockade last?

1.4 Name two results of the Berlin Blockade.

1.5 What do the letters NATO stand for?

1.6 What did Khrushchev demand at the 1961 summit?

1.7 If the Berlin Wall became a symbol of all that was bad and repressive about

Soviet rule, what did Kennedy say West Berlin was a symbol of?

1.8 Who was the American-backed dictator of Cuba before Castro’s successful

revolution in 1959?

1.9 Which American organisation funded, trained, armed and transported the

invasion of Cuba in April 1961?

1.10 What was Castro’s reaction to the Bay of Pigs invasion of April 1961?

2 Key question: How did Mao Zedong rise to power?

2.1 In the People’s Republic of China, which factor best reflects Marxism?

2.2 What was the main aim of the Great Leap Forward in China?

2.3 Why did the Communist government in China discourage organised religion?

2.4 Name the major goal of the Cultural Revolution in China during the 1960s.

2.5 Identify the main reason the Chinese Communists gained control of mainland

China in 1949.

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Unit XX

Summary and questions

3 Key question: How did the USA get involved in Vietnam?

3.1 What was the treaty of 1954 that split Vietnam at the 17th parallel?

3.2 Who was the communists’ leader?

3.3 How did Diem lose power in 1963?

3.4 What did Congress agree in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?

3.5 What event finally pushed the US into going to war in February 1965?

4 Key question: What was the nature of the war in Vietnam?

4.1 What was Operation Rolling Thunder?

4.2 What kind of war did the communists wage?

4.3 Where did an American “Search and Destroy” patrol commit an atrocity in 1968?

4.4 What was the name of the direct attack launched by the NVA in January 1968?

4.5 Describe the main outcomes of the NVA offensive of January 1968.

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Independent Africa

Overview
In this topic you will revise:
● what the ideas were that influenced independent African states
● the successes and challenges faced by independent Africa –
● political and economic
● social and cultural
● the impact of internal and external factors on Africa during this time
● Africa in the Cold War.

UNIT 1 Page 24
Ideas that influenced
• Forms of government
independent African
states

CASE STUDY 1 Page 26

• Newly independent Congo and Tanzania
Comparative case • Successes and challenges faced by independent
studies: Congo and Africa
TOPIC 2 Page 23–48 Tanzania

The Cold War

UNIT 2 Page 34

Impact of internal • Impact of internal and external factors on Africa:

and external factors 1960–1980
on Africa

UNIT 3 Page 35

Africa in the Cold

War: USSR, USA, • Africa – a Cold War battlefield
Cuba, China and
South Africa

• How was Africa drawn into the Cold War?

• Angola – the focus of competing spheres of
influence
CASE STUDY 2 Page 37
• Colonialism and independence in Angola
Angola • Why did civil war break out in Angola in 1974?
• Outside involvement in the Angolan Civil War
• Impact of the Angolan Civil War on regional stability
• Significance of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
• The changing nature of international relationships
after 1989

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Topic 1
XX

The ideas that influenced independent African states

Key question: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?

Definition of the concept INDEPENDENCE

The term INDEPENDENCE can be associated with ideas such as emancipation,
decolonisation and autonomy. It involves change that affects political systems, society,
culture, economics and philosophy to name but a few. In order to understand the degree
of change and the legacy of it, you need to reflect on the political, economic and social
systems in Africa before and during colonial rule and then compare these to the period
that followed decolonisation after World War II.

Forms of government
When decolonisation happened after World War II, many of the ex-colonies either
adopted or tried to adapt the ideology and system of governance of the colonial period
or chose to align themselves with the ideology of the power that assisted them during
the struggle for independence. The vacuum left by the colonial powers meant that newly
formed African states had to ‘create’ new forms of government to make the transition to
independence. This often led to new allegiances or the consolidation of new alliances.

Form of government Characteristics Examples where it

or ideology was implemented
African Socialism • Based on European Socialism but marketed • Tanzania by Julius
as a unique brand of socialism that is based Nyerere
on true spirit of African beliefs. • Senegal – Léopold
• Viewed as being uniquely African in a Senghor
localised sense. • Ghana – Kwame
• Socialism seen as the in-between phase of Nkrumah and
economic development between capitalism • Guinea – Sékou Touré.
and Marxism.
• No private ownership but communal
ownership.
• Its focus was more on the community rather
than a ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ as
intended by Marxism.
• Collective ownership meant state ownership.
• There would be no social classes in society
nor a dictatorship by a certain class over the
others.
• Instead the state would be run by a coalition
of representatives of all the tribes.

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Form of government Characteristics Examples where it

or ideology was implemented
Capitalism • An economic system based on the investment • This was the
of capital and the use of labour and resources ideology of Western
to make a profit. democracies and the
• It merged as a counter to feudalism. colonial powers.
• It promotes private ownership, enterprise and • Colonial powers
the accumulation of wealth by an individual. used the labour and
• It allows for private investment and incentive raw materials in the
with much freedom of choice. colonies to amass
fortunes with little
benefit for the African
states.
• This made many newly
independent states
opt for an alternative
ideology to shun
capitalism.
Democracy • Citizens share power through elected • Many African states
representatives. opted for democracy
• Regular elections and free and fair campaigns but not capitalism.
allow for public participation in the voting • Despite declaring this,
process. few African leaders
• It is based on a multi-party system. respected democratic
• It promotes human rights and safeguards principles and did not
individual and civil liberties. adhere to the rule of
• Majority rule is recognised but with the law.
protection of minority rights. • As a result many
• No social class is viewed as superior; equality African states became
is respected. one- party systems or
dictatorships.
One-party state • Only one party is tolerated. • After decolonisation
• The system is enforced by a dictator. most African states
• No opposition is allowed. became dictatorships.
• Legislation is often used to enforce dictatorial • Two examples: Zaire
rule. and Tanzania.
• Elections are held but candidates represent
the same party.
• The military is usually used to prop up the
dictator.

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 Case Study 1
Congo and Tanzania: A comparative case study

Key question: What were the political, economic, social and cultural challenges
and successes that Congo and Tanzania experienced between 1960 and 1980?

Newly independent Congo and Tanzania

You need to revise the successes and challenges faced by independent Africa:
● the kinds of states that emerged: aims and visions
● political successes and challenges
● economic successes and challenges
● social and cultural successes and challenges.

How did the Congo become a tool of the Cold War?

● Belgian Congo achieved its independence in 1960
● A crisis arose soon afterwards when Katanga Province declared itself
independent under the regional premier Moise Tshombe.
● Tshombe had the support of the Belgian government and mining
companies such as Union Miniere.
● The UN refused to suppress the rebels in Katanga.
● As a result Patrice Lumumba, the first premier of Congo, called on the
USSR to help put down the rebellion. They obliged.
● This alarmed the USA who put pressure on the head of the army of Congo,
Mobutu, to act against Lumumba.
● The CIA sponsored a coup against Lumumba’s government initiated by
Mobutu.
● Lumumba was imprisoned and executed by firing squad on 17 Jan 1961.
● This event was committed with the assistance of the Belgian government
and the CIA.

Congo became The Congo was a valuable

a tool of the source of minerals especially
West in the Cold cobalt for Western technology
War. and industries.

Mobutu renamed Congo = Zaire in 1971. When Katangan rebels based in Angola
in 1977 attacked Zaire → Belgium, France and US supported Mobutu.

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Significance of these events in the Congo

Zaire became another example of Cold War politics as the USA and the USSR used the
conflict to protect their own spheres of influence and to safeguard their own ideology.
It also shows how the Congo (Zaire) did not manage to maintain full autonomy as it
was backed by a superpower and Western powers and became a political pawn of the
West.

How did Tanzania apply African Socialism?

1 Tanganyika became independent in 1961 and was renamed Tanzania.
Julius Nyerere became Prime Minister and his party, TANU, formed a
government.
2 In 1962 Nyerere became president after amending the constitution.
3 In 1967 the Arusha Declaration was accepted which showed a support for
socialism.
4 The Arusha Declaration promoted socialism as rooted in African
homegrown values and potential.
5 Socialism was seen as an African tradition of peasantry, communal living
and sharing
6 Nyerere said that African Socialism did not derive from European
socialism and Marxism but rather could teach European socialists about
the true nature of socialism.
7 In ujamaa, all humans care for one another and are bound together by
affection and solidarity.
8 Emphasis was placed on education. Elitism was ended by introducing
universal education based on traditional and Western models.
9 Recognition was given to the importance of traditional values, indigenous
knowledge and wisdom.
10 Soon after the Arusha Declaration was issued, banks and many large
industries were nationalised in Tanzania.

Successes and challenges faced by independent Africa

The types of states established, the leadership strategies, and the ideologies and
policies that were adopted by various African leaders were influenced by:

● colonialism → left a mixed legacy in Africa = positive and negative consequences

● the international context of Cold War politics.

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What kind of states emerged in Congo and Tanzania

State Leader Type of state

Congo Mobutu Sese Seko • Centralised
• Unitary
• Military regime / dictatorship
• One-party rule
• The state assumed a guardian role and resorted to forceful
maintenance of law and order.
• ‘Mobutuism’ emerged: cult figure who used state power to
prop up his power.
• He was more interested in building an authoritarian state than
a united nation.
• A consolidated, national identity was not achieved.
Tanzania Julius Nyerere • A single-party state
• Socialist ideology
• Aimed to mobilise all Tanzanians to help build a nation.
• He succeeded in overcoming ethnic differences to establish a
united Tanzania.
• Tanzania assumed a national identity.
• Elections were held to choose the ‘best’ individual but only one
party, TANU, existed.
• Nyerere became president for life.

Political successes and challenges faced by independent Africa

African leaders in the late 1950s brought their own ideologies and policies to the process
of decolonisation → large impact on the foundations laid for countries at and after
independence.

What type of political leaders emerged in the Congo and Tanzania?

Patrice Lumumba: Pan-Africanist and nationalist in Congo

● Challenged as leader by Moise Tshombe and Joseph Kasavubu:
● They both came from larger ethnic groups and strong regional power bases.
● Lumumba founded MNC in 1958
● aimed for a national Congolese identity.
● 30 June 1960 = Congo independent: Kasavubu became President and Lumumba
Prime Minister.
● He had to form the ‘new’ government. He wanted:
● a unitary Congo
● believed in ‘positive neutralism’ or a return to traditional African values
rather than the adoption of external ideologies.
● He was murdered by the Katanga secessionist regime.

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Mobutu Sese Seko: capitalist, dictator

● Initially in favour of Lumumba’s centralised state.
● BUT, when Katanga started secessionist struggle, he sided with Kasavubu and
gave covert support to him against Lumumba.
● His troops captured Lumumba and handed him to Katangan rebels for
execution.
● Led a coup in 1965, overthrew Kasavubu and became president of Congo:
● only allowed one party, MPR, to operate
● led a corrupt regime in Congo (renamed Zaire in 1971) which focussed on self-
enrichment
● wanted to be seen as a nationalist hero → built up a cult around his
personality:
● → developed Mobutuism: one-party state, dictatorship.

Julius Nyerere: African socialism, social equality and peace

● Mwalimu = teacher:
● peaceful change
● racial harmony
● rejection of tribalism, ethnic and racial discrimination.
● 1962: amended constitution
● became executive president of Tanzania.
● 1963: TANU only political party
● → Tanzania = one-party state:
● elections: all candidates from the same party.
● Believed in African Socialism:
● community needs rather than individual needs.
● Committed to equality and dignity:
● 1967: Arusha Declaration = socialist map for Tanzania
● wanted to reduce the income gap in society
● stood for democracy
● BUT soon became a dictatorship
● → he did not tolerate opposition.
● nationalisation of resources but not accessible to the people of Tanzania.
● Believed in non-alignment.
● BUT tended towards the Eastern bloc due to its involvement in Zanzibar.

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What colonial legacies did the Congo and Tanzania inherit at independence?

CONGO DETAILS
Ethnic division and tribalism • Colonialism had divided people along ethnic and tribal lines.
• Different ethnic groups were often scattered over more than one
state e.g. Congo, Rwanda, Burundi. The map of Africa had been
redrawn.
• These divisions persisted during the Cold War when different groups
aligned themselves with opposing political blocs.
• Some African leaders, e.g. Lumumba wanted to forge a new national
identity and eradicate ethnic divisions.
• Mobutu Sese Seko forged national unity through his despotic rule
after Lumumba was killed.
Fairly sophisticated civil ser- • These collapsed after independence.
vice and infrastructure. • WHY? The local African population had not been educated or trained
to take on the administrative and technical functions. Colonial
withdrawal left a technical vacuum.
• The strategy to develop peasant agriculture and greater government
intervention in industrial development to grow employment
opportunities was hampered due to a lack of expertise.
• Financial grants had been squandered due to poor and inadequate
controls.
The nature of colonial industry • It was dependent mainly on mining in certain areas leaving many
regions under-developed and poverty stricken.
• The economy of Congo became reliant on the export of cheaper raw
materials and imported more expensive manufactured goods.
• Congo remained trapped and leaders did not govern efficiently or
innovatively after independence.
THEREFORE:
• It was difficult for the independent states to thrive economically or to stay politically stable.
• Leaders did not always adopt the best practices or policies.
• During the Cold War, states often became the site of proxy wars as independent states found it
virtually impossible to stay unaligned.

TANZANIA DETAILS
Lack of technical and • Colonial officials withdrew rapidly leaving a vacuum.
administrative capacity • Little training was done to educate Africans for their new roles in
government.
Uneven development: rural • Nyerere tried to force the population to move back to the rural areas
and urban areas. and to develop communal villages there to eradicate poverty.
• His policy of villagisation was rejected and resulted in more poverty
for his people.
Foreign policy of non- • Country remained dependent on foreign capital for its development.
alignment adopted. • Debt hindered development.
• It began links with the Eastern bloc e.g. China helped construct the
TANZAM railway line.
• BUT Nyerere did manage to build a nation-state in Tanzania.
• He overcame ethnic and tribal differences.

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What types of government emerged in the Congo and Tanzania?

Congo Tanzania
● Kasavubu wanted a federalist ● TANU and later CCM focussed on post-
state colonial structural re-organisation in
● Lumumba wanted a unitary Tanzania.
and centralised state. ● The Arusha Declaration set out plans for
● Kasavubu and Lumumba UJAMAA VIJIJINI (ujamaa villages)
deposed quickly leaving form ● Social, economic and political
of government up to Mobutu equality will be achieved through
Sese Seko to install. democratisation.
● Sese Seko supported ● No discrimination based on social status.
centralisation, ● All productive capacity to be collectivised
authoritarianism and military and nationalised. Based on socialism.
control. ● Transformed Tanzania to be self-reliant.
● In 1967 He merged party and ● Became a one-party state (no opposition)
state and all Zairians were ● A short period of self- government before
born party members. independence prepared Tanzania better
● Mobutuism became state to make the transition.
ideology: seen as divine ● But it also became a dictatorship and
saviour. experienced political instability.

What type of political instability and stability did the Congo and Tanzania experience?

CONGO
WHAT? WHY?
• Ethnic rivalry, tension • Ideological differences between leaders e.g. Kasavubu and Lumumba.
and uncertainty • Congolese elites had different ambitions e.g. federalists vs Unitarians,
regionalists and nationalists, etc.
• Secessionists gained the support of Belgian business to break away.
This led to instability and civil war.
• Many deaths and anarchy existed in many areas.
• Soviet forces, the CIA, a UN force, mercenaries and Belgian and French
soldiers made the situation more complex to solve.
• The murder of Lumumba and the death of Dag Hammarskjold (UN
Secretary General) made matters worse.
• In 1965 some semblance of ‘stability’ returned when Mobutu Sese
Seko seized power. He gained the support of some Western nations as
an ally against the Eastern bloc and managed to establish a one-party
dictatorship that lasted for more than 30 years.
• The West tolerated Sese Seko despite his dictatorial regime and
massive corruption.
• Not really stable but rather dictatorial suppression of all opposition.

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TANZANIA
WHAT? WHY?
• Smooth transition to • Period of self- government seemed to smooth over initial problems to
independence some extent.
• Ujamaa seemed more appropriate to Tanzanian’s way of life.
• Tanzania’s centralised government brought stability initially.
• No civil war.
• 1964: Tanzania and Zanzibar united as a republic with Nyerere as
president and Karume as vice-president.
• The two countries only really united under Nwinyi in 1985.

Economic challenges and successes in independent Africa

NOTE the overlap of political and economic aspects → not possible to split them when
looking at economic challenges and successes in independent Africa.

ZAIRE What type of economy was adopted?

• The new government drew up an economic and social expansion plan that placed
emphasis on peasant agriculture and greater government intervention in industry.
• Aimed to process raw materials locally, avoid imports and increase employment.
• Adopted capitalist model.
• Production involved mainly cobalt and copper.
• Mono-culturalism (one product economy).
Challenges • Zairianisation and ‘radicalisation of the revolution’ led to problems.
• The nationalisation of trade led to chaos.
• Corruption devastated the economy.
• Mismanagement
• Infrastructure neglected.
• Dependent on massive financial aid.
• Sold off raw materials and minerals for the benefit of the West and quick cash
returns; little development of Zaire.
• A new elite emerged leading to class distinction.
• Had to rely on foreign aid to avoid bankruptcy.
• Mobutu Sese Seko lived an opulent lifestyle and headed a corrupt regime.
Successes • Virtually non-existent but under retrocession policy of Mobutu Sese Seko large
portions of Zairianised enterprises were returned to their original owners.
• He managed to keep the economy afloat by eliciting aid (this is a questionable
‘success’ – be able to argue a point here).
TANZANIA What type of economy was adopted?
• Adopted African socialist model.
• Embarked on villagisation process to increase self-reliant food production and
rural development.
• Main export crop was coffee.
• Mono-culturalism (one- product)
Challenges • Self-reliance led to further debt
• Ujamaa was unproductive as economic growth declined.
• Tanzania remained under-developed economically.
• Farmers resisted villagisation.
• Had to rely on foreign aid to avoid collapse.
Successes • Villagisation made service delivery in terms of health care and education easily
accessible.
• Nyerere’s education philosophy was very successful. One of the highest literacy
rates achieved in Africa.
• Stability in society and free from economic inequalities.
• Ujamaa led to some rural development.

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Social, cultural and educational practices in the Congo and Tanzania

Clothing • Nationalism expressed in costume and dress.
• Move to dress in a more uniquely African way.
• Kwame Nkrumah set the tone and pace for change and other elites followed.
• It stimulated local textile making, weaving, embroidery and dyeing industries.
• New elites chose dress to highlight their status.
• New hairstyles replaced European ones.
• Congo: Mobutu outlawed the wearing of suits and ties: the abacos imposed by
decree.
• It was inspired by dress of Mao Zedong of China.
Language • Under colonial rule African languages had become marginalised as limited in scope
and confined to oral tradition, rural areas and the language of adults.
• Between 1962 and 1964 research centres and African language departments were
started at many African universities.
• Many new universities started as well as research on African traditions and
languages.
• Nyerere translated Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar and The Merchant of Venice into
Kiswahili. He used the translations to also educate his people about exploitation
and the struggle for political and economic liberation.
Educational • Many of the founding fathers and leaders of the new states were educated at
benefits mission schools or Western colleges.
• They became the vanguard of the struggle for political independence and took
over power.
• Many leaders felt that education needed to be transformed from the Western model
in order to achieve mental liberation and decolonisation of the mind. Intellectually
African thinking needed to change.
• This was debated at many pan-African congresses.
• There was a need to combine Western intellectual and educational programmes
with African ones.
• Education should be used to promote unity, national and cultural identity,
philosophy, social justice, ideology, science, technology, search for knowledge and
the development of skills in African states.
• This would reduce poverty and unemployment.
• Universities were modelled on Western ones but developed African ideas.
Africanisation In Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko confiscated all farmlands, industry, commercial and
mining enterprises from foreign owners for re-distribution to Congolese.
• Called Zairianisation: negative trend due to lack of experience.
• Resulted in mismanagement, maladministration and corruption.
• Also introduced a policy called authenticite between 1970 and 1990, to remove the
legacy of colonialism and to promote a centralised Congolese identity.
• Colonial names were replaced with local ones, he banned Christmas and neckties,
as these were seen to be un-African.
In Tanzania, Nyerere promoted self-reliance.
• This was often at the cost of expertise and experience.
• Local people were employed to promote and develop the newly created villages.
• These people were inexperienced and as a result villages were mismanaged.
• Enforced villagisation led to resistance and rejection by the local population.

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XX

The impact of internal and external factors on Africa

Key question: What was the impact of internal and external factors on Africa
between 1960 and 1980?

Internal factors that impacted on Africa

● The legacy of colonialism:
● African states were under-developed and Africans lacked education and skills.
● Ethnic diversity:
● African leaders often exploited ethnic differences leading to civil wars and
internal conflicts.
● State failure:
● Many leaders chose a centralised economic model and a one-party political
system to develop the state → led to strict control, tyranny, corruption, poverty
and under-development.
● Geographical location:
● Most of Africa is unsuitable for large-scale agriculture = no food security.
● + many countries → landlocked = hinders development
● + many diseases afflict animals and humans → makes development difficult.

External factors that impacted on Africa

● The Cold War:
● States aligned themselves to one of the superpowers → development difficult.
● Foreign aid:
● Led to increased dependency and under-development
● + often bolstered regimes.
● Export–import cycle:
● African countries exported raw materials cheaply and then imported finished
goods at a high price → contributed to underdevelopment and poverty.
● The 1973 oil crisis:
● Oil price increased → donor countries had to spend more money on importing oil
and could not afford to give loans and aid to Africa
● + African countries had to pay very high prices to import oil
● = underdevelopment, poverty and bankruptcy.

Bankruptcy led to loans and increased debt. Lenders demanded cut backs and high
returns for money lent.

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Africa in the Cold War

Key question: What were the motives of the USSR, the USA, Cuba, China and
South Africa in Africa during the Cold War?

Africa: Cold War battleground

USSR & USA CUBA

● Rival liberation ● Castro wanted to spread the revolution
movements in African overseas to liberate ex-colonies and provide
states fought one another technical and financial support to African
in civil wars. liberation movements with a socialist
● USSR backed most agenda.
liberation movements, e.g. ● Stage 1: 1959–1979 = loose contacts with
MPLA in Angola, FRELIMO left-wing guerrilla groups.
in Mozambique, ZANU-PF ● Stage 2: 1975–1977 = sent combat troops to
in Zimbabwe, SWAPO in Angola to support MPLA.
SWA. ● Stage 3: 1977–1978 = sent combat troops
● USA supported their to assist Ethiopia against a Somalia
opponents in the liberation military incursion.
struggles, e.g. UNITA and ● Stage 4: 1979 = reduce military role in
FNLA in Angola, RENAMO Africa but increase civilian and technical
in Mozambique. programmes.

CHINA
● China supplied weapons and military assistance to African states but also helped
with development projects:
● Mao sent 150 000 technicians to work in agriculture, technology and
infrastructure.
● Promoted socialism and communism in African states.
● Tried to counter Western aid by adopting principles that allowed for benefits
for lender and donor countries.
● Invested in cost-effective projects where Chinese experts trained locals to
become experts.
● Provided military assistance to liberation movements to counter Western,
US-led imperialism, e.g. Congo, Mozambique, Cameroon, Niger, Rwanda,
Biafra and Zimbabwe.
● TAZARA (Tan-Zam railway line) supplied weapons to interior, e.g. light to
heavier weapons including missiles, tanks.

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The position of South Africa in Cold War politics in Africa:

SA justified its military

campaigns into neighbouring
states as a strategy to counter
Cuba, China and the USSR
the ANC and PAC’s attempts to
assisted left-wing guerrilla
destabilise SA and to initiate a
groups by means of financial,
Communist-inspired revolution.
technical and military aid to
Western governments that
fight the SA military forces.
wanted to safeguard the
strategic sea route around the ● The USA and Western
tip of Africa backed SA. governments assisted
SA against its Cold War
● SA backed RENAMO
opponents.
(Mozambique) and UNITA
(Angola) against Cuba and
the USSR proxy forces.

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 Case Study 2
CASE STUDY: Angola

Key question: How were independence and peace realised in Angola?

The Angolan War of Independence (1961–1974) began as an uprising against forced

cotton cultivation, and became a multi-faction struggle for the control of Portugal’s
Overseas Province of Angola, mainly among three nationalist movements:
● The MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola), founded in 1956, led by
Agostinho Neto.
● The FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola), founded by Holden Roberto
in 1961.
● UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), founded by Jonas
Savimbi in 1966.

The war ended when a leftist military coup in Lisbon in April 1974 overthrew Portugal’s
Estado Novo regime, and the new regime immediately stopped all military action in the
African colonies, declaring its intention to grant them independence without delay.

In Angola, the war came formally to an end in January 1975 when the Portuguese
government, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), the
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), and the National Liberation
Front of Angola (FNLA) signed the Alvor Agreement.

The Angolan Civil War was a major civil conflict in the African state of Angola,
beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began
immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. The
Civil War was primarily a struggle for power between two former liberation movements,
the People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union
for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). At the same time, it served as a proxy
battleground for the Cold War, due to heavy intervention by major opposing powers
such as the Soviet Union and the United States.

Colonialism and independence in Angola

Colonialism in Angola
Portuguese colonial rule was established in Angola in 16th century. Trading posts were
established along the coast.
● In 1885 colonial boundaries were recognised by the Treaty of Berlin.
● Portugal began to invest in mining, agriculture and infrastructure development
in Angola.

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● In 1951 Angola became an overseas province on Portugal.

● The Africans were called assimilados and they adopted the Portuguese
language and culture.
● A hybrid society arose: mesticos in coastal towns, Creole families,
Portuguese-speaking blacks on the coast and inland and peasants who spoke
indigenous languages.
● → These divisions as well as tribalism influenced the faction group formation
later on.

Independence in Angola
When calls for independence were rejected in 1960, a struggle against Portuguese
colonial occupation began.

In 1961 Angolan peasants rebelled and boycotted cotton production

demanding better working conditions and higher wages. They also
STAGE 1: attacked Portuguese traders.
● Holden Roberto’s UPA launched an incursion from his base in
the Congo which led to attacks on trading centres and government
installations and many deaths.
● The Portuguese Armed Forces retaliated and as a result the rebels formed a guerrilla
force and continued their struggle with different strategies.

How was Africa drawn into the Cold War?

USA was concerned that decolonisation in Africa:
● provided an opportunity for the extension of communism to Africa → worried
that:
● this could lead to a shift in the balance of power in the world
● result in the loss of access to raw materials, minerals, trade routes and
markets.
→ USA used aid packages, technical assistance and even military intervention to
encourage newly formed states to become aligned to capitalism and democracy and
not to socialism or communism.
● USSR used similar tactics to encourage these states to align themselves with the
Eastern bloc:
● promoted communism as an alternative to imperialist capitalism
● provided aid packages, technical assistance and military assistance.

Thus, superpowers asserted their influence in Africa to establish and protect their
spheres of influence as they did in other parts of the world:
= became involved in proxy wars (usually civil wars) and assisted opponents in
gaining the upper hand.
+ provided aid → increased the dependency of African states on superpowers.

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The main factions became embroiled in a bitter civil war based largely
on ethnic loyalties and ideological differences.
STAGE 2: ● The MFA coup in Portugal and the ensuing Carnation Revolution
of 25 April 1974 ended the colonial conflict and brought independence
to Mozambique and Angola.
Competing spheres of
influence in Angola: trade,
The new Portuguese leftist
conflict and aid
government announced that
STAGE 3: it intended to grant Angola Angola became an ideological
(and other colonies) its battleground in Cold War politics:
independence. ● Both superpowers tried to
● Negotiations with the gain the upper hand to ensure
factions were complex due to ethnic and control of trade and to establish
ideological differences. spheres of influence. This was
● BUT, on 15 January 1975 leaders of the because of Angola’s:
three main liberation movements and the ● strategic position on west
Portuguese government signed the Alvor coast of Africa
Accord. ● well-established
● It recommended a transitional infrastructure and
government headed by the Portuguese agricultural sector (timber,
High Commissioner, the integration ivory, cotton, coffee and
of liberation forces, national elections cocoa)
would be held and the date for ● minerals (iron, diamonds)
independence was set for 11 November and oil.
1975. ● Led to conflict around
● The coalition government collapsed and ideological differences as the
fighting resumed between the MPLA and main political groupings in
FNLA to control Luanda. Angola aligned themselves with
● The MPLA, backed by the USSR the USSR and USA respectively.
● forced the FNLA and UNITA out of
Luanda.
● SA launched an incursion into southern Angola
● captured most of the region and handed it back to UNITA.
● The FNLA, backed by troops from SA and Zaire:
● launched an attack on Luanda to recapture it from the MPLA and prevent the
latter from setting up a government there.
● The MPLA, backed by Cuba
● repulsed the FNLA and dealt it a heavy blow.

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Admiral Cardosa, last High Commissioner of Angola, abandoned the

country without officially handing over authority to any faction leader.
STAGE 4: ● Agostinho Neto, MPLA leader, declared the People’s Republic of
Angola on 11 November 1975 in accordance with the Alvor Accords.
● UNITA and the FNLA set up a rival government inland and
enlisted the support of the SA government to oust Neto.
● The civil war intensified and continued for the next 27 years.

Why did the civil war break out in Angola in 1974?

The key reasons were:
● Ideological differences among the warring factions prevented
The USSR and
a common purpose.
Cuba provided
● Deep ethnic and regional differences prevented unification.
support for the
● Each leader was ambitious for power and control.
MPLA.
● Worsened by foreign intervention during the Cold War era:
● these interventions exploited the mistrust and division
The US sent funds
even further thus delaying a settlement.
to Savimbi and
encouraged SA to
What was the role of the MPLA and UNITA in the back UNITA.
civil war?

MPLA
Formed as a multi-ethnic political party on 10 December 1956. Its support was largely
whites, mesticos and the Ambundu ethnic community in the area around Luanda.
● Initially adopted peaceful methods to achieve change but resorted to an armed
struggle in 1961.
● With the aid of the USSR and Cuba it maintained control of the central regions of
Angola including the rich oil fields off the coast.
● In 1977 it adopted Marxist-Leninism as party ideology and promoted a one-party
state.
● It became extremist and many ideological opponents were killed, e.g. 70 000
killed in 1977 when an attempted coup nearly ousted Neto.
● In 1990 when the Cold War ended, the MPLA adopted social democracy. BUT
● After the 1992 elections, facilitated by the Bicesse Accord of 1991, thousands
of UNITA and FNLA sympathisers were killed in reprisal attacks.
● With the aid of Cuba and the USSR, the MPLA kept democracy out of Angola
by destroying all opposition.

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UNITA
Formed by Jonas Savimbi on 13 March 1966. Supported by the Ovimbundu group.
● It gained stature as a black-nationalist movement but also gained support from
the SA government as it was fighting an ideological enemy
● = MPLA and indirectly Cuba and the USSR.
● The US supported UNITA to withstand Marxist expansion and to maintain
access to Angola’s mineral wealth.
● After the 1992 elections, Savimbi refused to accept the result and returned to the
bush to resume war.
● UNITA aimed to keep rival ideologies out of Angola and undermined the
MPLA consistently.
● Savimbi was killed on 22 February 2002.

Outside involvement in the Angolan civil war

Why and how was the USSR involved?

● To counter capitalism and democracy in the region.
● It was a natural result of Cold War politics, i.e. brinkmanship, posturing and
extending spheres of influence.
● It attempted to entrench communism in the region.
● It provided material and military aid, e.g. in 1990 it amounted to US$430 million.

Why and how was the USA involved?

● To prevent Angola from adopting Communism and to avoid the ideology spreading
in central and southern Africa.
● had economic interests in the region, e.g. Angola supplies 7% of US oil imports.
● Initially the USA assisted the FNLA and UNITA.
● CIA funding assisted the FNLA and later weapons were sent to them.
● In 1976 involvement was limited by the Clark Amendment, as the USA did not
want another Vietnam War situation to develop.
● This amendment was repealed in 1985: covert funding to UNITA was resumed.

Why and how was Cuba involved?

● Cuban involvement was directed against the involvement of capitalist support of
movements in Angola. It shared the same ideology as the MPLA and wanted to assist
it in its revolutionary struggle for independence.
● It provided military training and assistance to the MPLA in 1966.
● It deployed thousands of troops to assist the MPLA which gave the movement
the edge in the conflict.
● → They began winning back the south from UNITA forces backed by SA troops.
● The final battle was won at Cuito Cuanavale in 1987 and 1988.

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Why and how was China involved?

● China gave arms and sent instructors to Zaire in June 1974 to assist the FNLA.
● = strange move as the FNLA was anti-communist
● BUT
● China wanted to counter both US and USSR imperialism.
● The FNLA moved their base to northern Angola (also received aid from the
Romanian dictator Nikolai Ceausescu (pro-Peking).

How was SA involved?

● SA, with US backing, wanted to stop the spread of communism to SWA and to
destroy SWAPO bases in southern Angola.
● Also wanted to protect its investment in the Cunene River project, which provided
hydro-electricity to the northern regions of SWA.
● South Africa supported a black, nationalist movement (UNITA) against
communism.

In 1988 SA started her withdrawal after the signing of the New York Accords.
● = These were instrumental in granting independence to SWA (Namibia) and
insisting on the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola.

Impact of the Angolan war on regional stability

This war generated severe regional instability that had repercussions in other parts of
the world.

Impact on Zaire (Congo) Impact on Namibia

Zaire was a partner of the Namibia experienced destabilisation as SA
USA during the Cold War and troops launched attacks against SWAPO
allowed the pro-capitalist FNLA guerrilla forces to prevent the establishment
to operate from bases on its of a Marxist state in Namibia:
territory: ● SA supported UNITA and launched
● made it vulnerable to attacks from its bases in northern
counterattacks from the Namibia.
Portuguese armed forces and ● UNITA carried out cross-border raids and
later, MPLA troops. incursions for supplies leading to further
● the First Congo War broke out instability.
because Mobutu supported ● Many Angolan refugees fled to Namibia
UNITA. during the civil war.

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Impact onZambia Impact on the

UNITA launched cross-border raids to pillage supplies.
region
● Thousands of refugees fled to Zambia to seek The internal struggles
safety. between the various
● Benguela railway line was closed to traffic from factions in Angola spread
Zambia from the 1970s. and became a regional
● This hindered trade and conflict. From 1961 most
● Zambia had to rely on the railway link through countries in the region
Dar-es-Salaam for this purpose. experienced instability.

Significance of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale: 1987 and 1988

Background
● Conflict between FAPLA (Angola government forces) and UNITA intensified
between 1985 and 1986.
● FAPLA almost defeated UNITA.
● SA liaised with UNITA to carry out joint planning in future in an attempt to
defeat MPLA.
● From March 1987, SA intelligence established evidence of a major planned
FAPLA attack on UNITA bases and a large-scale attack on Cuito Cuanavale.

Why did SA intervene in Cuito Cuanavale?

● Initially, SA did not want to get involved fearing diplomatic antagonism and hostile
propaganda.
● However, SA viewed a defeat of UNITA as unacceptable because:
● SWAPO could gain access to strategic areas such as Kavango and Caprivi.
● This would pose a threat to SA as its troops would need to be deployed over a
wider area.
● THEREFORE:
● SA intervened to ensure UNITA’s control of the southeastern part of Angola
and SWAPO’s incursions could be contained.
● SA aimed to keep its involvement secret and limited to the bare minimum
deemed necessary.

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What was the significance of Cuito Cuanavale?

Both contesting parties claim victory but SA’s view was that a crushing defeat was
inflicted on FAPLA.

● Cuba and the USSR realised that FAPLA could not stand against SA’s conventional
troops on their own and there was a chance that the MPLA government would fall.
● They narrowed down their options to reinforcement (escalation) or to allow
negotiations to bring about a settlement.
● Castro did not want to employ more troops.
● Gorbachev, faced with turmoil and financial problems in the USSR, supported
a negotiated settlement in Angola.
● The military emphasis now shifted to a diplomatic one = negotiated peace:
● paved the way for elections in Namibia and opened talks for a solution in
Angola.

Without Cuban and Soviet support, the MPLA had to negotiate with UNITA.
● In May 1991 the Bicesse Accords called for a ceasefire and elections in 1992.
● Savimbi rejected the outcome of the elections and resumed the war.
● In 1994 the Lusaka Protocol tried to broker a peace deal.
● Peace was eventually achieved by the Luena Memorandum of Understanding signed
on 4 April 2002.

Changing nature of international relationships after 1989

Economic collapse and the end of communism in the USSR led to the MPLA adapting its
economic policies. It began to seek assistance from the West.
● Cuban troops began to withdraw in 1989 under the supervision of UNAVEM 1.
● 1989 Mobutu Sese Seko brokered a peace deal between the MPLA and UNITA which
is called the Gbadolite Accords (signed on 22 June).
● The peace did not last but the collapse of the USSR strengthened the MPLA’s pledge
to work for peace.
● In mid-1990 the MPLA decided to abandon Marxism-Leninism and a system of a one-
party state. This was formalised in Dec 1990.
● Civil society organisations and private media institutions re-emerged in Angola.
● The civil war came to an end also due to the withdrawal of foreign troops.
● Peace was achieved after the signing of the Luena Memorandum in April 2002.

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

Summary
In Topic 2, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question:

Key question: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s?

In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below.

Unit 1 What were the ideas that influenced independent states?

During the late 1950s and the early 1960s, many African countries achieved their
independence from colonial powers. Their governments, however, adopted different
political and economic ideologies. These included democracy, one-party states and
military regimes, and capitalism, socialism and African socialism.

Case study 1 Comparative case studies: Congo and Tanzania (1960 to 1980)
Comparative case studies on the Congo and Tanzania illustrate their political,
economic, social and cultural successes and challenges between 1960 and 1980. The
Cold War tension between the USSR and the USA (1946–1989) was at its height in the
early 1960s. It manifest itself in the Congo (with Lumumba getting USSR support and
the USA backing Mobutu Sese Seko) resulting in a civil war and political instability
that hampered economic and social development in the country. African socialism in
Tanzania under Julius Nyerere succeeded to a certain extent in the education and health
spheres, but failed dismally to improve the economic standing of the peasants (farmers).

Unit 2 Impact of internal and external factors on Africa

The main internal factors that negatively affected newly independent African states
included the legacy of colonialism, their geographical locations and ethnic differences
within their colonially determined borders. Influential external factors included
superpower tension during the Cold War that contributed to ideological divisions within
newly independent African states, international aid that supported oppressive regimes,
high import duties on manufactured goods, the high cost of oil and huge foreign debts.

Unit 3 Africa in the Cold War: USSR, USA, China and South Africa
The USSR and USA, much concerned with spreading their spheres of influence,
supported opposing liberation movements in a manner that transformed the Cold War
into civil wars, e.g. the MPLA (USSR) against the FNLA and UNITA (USA) in Angola;
FRELIMO (USSR) against RENAMO (South Africa & USA) in Mozambique. Cuba was
used in proxy wars by the USSR, e.g. to support the MPLA that was backed by the
USSR. China funded projects in African countries with socialist agendas in order to gain
influence in Africa. South Africa was mainly used as a US proxy to provide UNITA with
weapons and support in an attempt to prevent the establishment of a Marxist sphere of
interest in Angola.

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Summary and questions

Case study 2 Angola

Angola is a good example of how the Cold War manifested itself in Africa during the
1960s and 1970s when the superpowers supported opposing liberation movements.
The civil war between the MPLA and UNITA was intensified and prolonged due to the
support they received from the USSR and the USA respectively. The resulting regional
instability in Angola spread to neighbouring countries, including the Congo, Zambia
and Namibia. With the end of the Cold War, and the decline in superpower support
for opposing factions, the Angolan civil war drew to a close and Namibia achieved
independence (1990).

Questions

1 Key question: What were the ideas that influenced independent African states?

1.1 Define the following key concepts:

1.1.1 African Socialism

1.1.2 Capitalism

1.1.3 Democracy

1.1.4 One-party state

1.2 Explain why newly independent African states had to create new forms of

government after colonialism.

2 Key question: What were the political, economic, social and cultural

challenges and successes that Congo and Tanzania experienced between 1960

and 1980?

2.1 From which colonial countries did the following achieve their independence

and who were their first leaders?

2.1.1 The Congo

2.1.2 Tanganyika (Tanzania)

2.2 Outline how Tanzania applied African Socialism.

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Summary and questions

2.3 What kind of states emerged in the following African countries?

2.3.1 The Congo

2.3.2 Tanzania

3 Key question: What was the impact of internal and external factors on Africa

between 1960 and 1980?

3.1 List the internal factors that impacted on newly independent African countries.

3.2 List the external factors that impacted on newly independent African countries.

4 Key question: What role did the USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa play

in bringing the Cold War to African countries after 1960?

4.1 Name the rival liberation movements that fought for independence in Angola.

4.2 Indicate the superpower alignment of each liberation movement named in Question 4.1.

4.3 Mention the main interest each of the following had in newly independent African

countries.

4.3.1 the USSR

4.3.2 the USA

4.3.3 Cuba

4.3.4 China

4.3.5 South Africa

5 Key question: How were independence and peace realised in Angola?

5.1 When did Angola achieve independence and from which colonial country?

5.2 After independence in Angola, civil war broke out.

5.2.1 Which Angolan political groups were involved in this civil war?

5.2.2 Why were these groups unable to unite after independence. Provide two reasons.

5.3 Explain what the motives were of the following for supporting different groups

in Angola during the civil war:

5.3.1 The USA

5.3.2 The USSR

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Summary and questions

5.4 Outline the impact of the Angolan civil war on African countries in the region.

5.5 Explain the significance of Cuito Cuanavale in ending the Angolan civil war.

5.6 Which peace accord or treaty ended the Angolan civil war?

5.6.1 the Bicesse Accords

5.6.2 the Alvor Accords

5.6.3 the New York Accords

5.6.4 the Gbadolite Accords

5.6.5 the Luena Memorandum

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Civil society protests: 1950s to 1970s

Overview
In this topic you will revise:
● civil society protests
● the nature of women’s liberation and feminist movements in the 1960s and 1970s
● women's identity in South Africa from the 1950s to the 1970s
● peace movements and civil rights movements
● reasons and origins of the US Civil Rights Movement
● role, impact and influence of Martin Luther King Junior
● forms of protest through civil disobedience and school desegregation
● short- and long-term gains of the US Civil Rights Movement
● the Black Power Movement
● reasons for the Black Power Movement
● the Black Panther Movement
● roles of Stokely Charmichael and Malcolm X
● short- and long-term gains of the Black Panther Movement.

• What was the nature of women’s liberation and

UNIT 1 Page 50
feminist movements in the 1960s and 1970s?
Overview of civil
• Women’s identity in South Africa from the 1950s
society protests
to the 1970s
• The peace movements
• Civil rights movements

• Reasons and origins of the US Civil Rights Movement

TOPIC 3 Page 49–74 Case study 1 Page 60 • What was the role, impact and influence of Martin
Luther King Junior?
Civil society protests: The US Civil Rights • What were the forms of protest through civil
1950s to 1970s Movement disobedience?
• What were the short- and long-term gains of the US
Civil Rights Movement?

Case study 2 Page 67 • Reasons for the Black Power Movement

• Black Panther
The Black Power
• Roles of Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X
Movement
• Short- and long-term gains of the he Black Power
Movement

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XX

Overview of civil society protests

Key question: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the
1950s to 1990?

The world after World War Two

World War Two ends May 1945 and politically For the next 30 years the world
the world becomes a very different place. expererienced many social changes
● Britain and France are no longer powerful as a result of rapid economic growth
and the USA and USSR emerge as referred to as the ‘golden age’.
SUPERPOWERS.
● COLD WAR tensions develop between the
democratic USA and the communist USSR
which spread throughout the world. More people attended university in
the west, society became more mobile
and individuals advanced on the
basis of individual merit rather than
A new middle class emerged with
inherited wealth and status.
specialised skills and higher levels of
education and more women started
taking paid work outside the home. As a result society became more open,
democratic and insecure, which led to civil
protests and social change.

The 1950s and 1960s

● The 1960s were referred to as the “Swinging Sixties” and “Swinging London”.
● Young people were at the forefront of social change.
● The youth movement crossed social barriers as television expanded, however,
the emerging youth culture was limited to Western Europe.
● The rebellion was most intense between working class parents and their
children, who were moving up in society, having had greater education and
therefore job opportunities.
● Among the upper class, however, the rebellion was less intense as they had
always enjoyed freedom and wealth.
● The fifties and sixties were decades of struggle for:
● gender equality
● civil rights
● democratic rights.

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What was the nature of women’s liberation and feminist

movements in the 1960s and 1970s?
Although essentially having the same goals of freedom for women, the movements took
different forms in the different countries.

United States of America

● The Women’s Liberation Movement (WLM) formed in the 1960s and was strong
amongst university students who had been radicalised by civil rights movements
and opposition to the Vietnam War.
● PLUS a lot of older women were dissatisfied with the continued discrimination in the
workplace, even within their own political organisations.
● As a result, the movement in the USA was dominated by the idea that women
had to organise separately.
● They organised their own workshops and talks about their oppression =
‘consciousness raising’.

Movements
● The largest organisation = a coalition: National Organisation for Women (NOW)
formed in 1966.
● → wanted gender reforms to be introduced by legislation.
● Focused on:
● gender equality in the workplace
● passing of the equal rights amendment.
● Radical women’s groups =
● New York Radical Women (NYRW)
● Redstockings
● Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell (WITCH).
These radical groups used what became known as ‘zap actions’
→ dramatic public actions aimed at attracting media attention. Example:
● 1968 protests outside the Miss America Beauty Pageant =
● picketed outside the venue
● carried out ‘street theatre’
● = throwing out ‘instruments of feminist torture’ (e.g. bras and corsets) into a
‘freedom’ rubbish bin.

First National Women’s Liberation Conference took place in 1968. By the 1970s feminist
activists began to see the results of their work:
● In 1972: the rape crisis hotline was established in Washington DC.
● In 1973: the supreme court legalised abortion.
● In 1975: The United Stated held the first global forum of women’s issues.

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As the movement began to spread, divisions began to develop, highlighting different

aspects of the struggle.

African-American Working-class women

women ● Working-class women faced workplace
● African-American Women exploitation and different types of
faced discrimination discrimination from middle-class women.
on 2 levels: as African- ● they protested against capitalism and
Americans and as women. helped form the Black Panther Movement.
● So they chose to form ● Black Panther Movement led to
their own women's cooperation between men and women:
liberation organisations, their ideals were in line with Marxism.
e.g. National Black
Feminist Organisation, Gay women
which defined feminism
● Gay women faced discrimination different
as the struggle against
from that of other groups of women.
inequalities of race, class
● consequently movements dealing with
and gender.
lesbian rights emerged.

In Britain
The Labour Party and trade unions became the context for the organisation and needs
of women. Important issues =
● abortion and contraception
● abortion → legalised in 1967
● contraceptive pill → available in the 1960s
● equal education, pay and job opportunities
● free 24-hour childcare.

Although society / culture was still based on established values with heterosexual
values being promoted, by the mid-1970s the world had changed for women. Example:
● could control their fertility
● were gaining economic independence.

Countries in Europe
● Number of women in the workplace had increased dramatically, but they still held
lower-paid positions.
● Abortion was a real challenge to the moral order in Europe, with the sexual freedom
of the 1960s increasing the differences in the sexes rather than diminishing them.
● In Communist states, women held higher positions and accounted for almost half
the positions:
● they still continued with the housework, but under increased Marxist thinking
eventually the inequality would disappear.

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Women’s identity in South Africa from the 1950s to 1970s

Women’s liberation in South Africa developed within the framework of segregation and
apartheid:
● created huge gaps between women from different race, class and ethnic
backgrounds.
● → As a result, women in the South African women’s struggle viewed themselves as
racially defined groups first, rather than women.

South African Women

Black Women
White Women
● Race discrimination
● Gender discrimination.
● Workplace discrimination
● Gender discrimination.

Trade unionism and women workers

1920s 1930s and 1940s

● Initially trade unions were ● The growing strength of Afrikaner
non-racial and most women, nationalism in the 1930s and 1940s
black and white, were created a problem for GWUSA as it
involved in them from the called for all Afrikaner women to
1920s onwards. remain loyal to the Boer culture.
● The most powerful was the As a result, when black women
Garment Workers' Union of joined GWUSA, they joined
South Africa (GWUSA) led by a separate section called the
Solly Sachs. Number 2 Branch.

1950s
● In 1952 the Native Labour Act outlawed multiracial unions.
● As a result, black South African women formed the Garment Workers’ Union
of African Women. The two unions still worked very closely together and, in
1954, white GWUSA members agreed to forego their annual wage increase and
give it to the black South African union members instead.
● In 1961 Solly Sachs was banned under the Suppression of Communism Act.

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Economic role of black South African women in rural areas and the informal sector
● Rural black women were the most oppressed group under customary law.
● They were under the control of men, had to maintain agricultural production
and bring up their children on their own.
● The migration of African women into the town altered their consciousness
with the majority of women working as domestic workers.
● Domestic work was not regulated, resulting in long working hours for low
wages. Their children were not allowed to live with them.
● Many women supplemented their income in the urban areas by taking part in
the informal sector, e.g. brewing and selling beer.
● Domestic work isolated women and the struggle to survive daily made it
difficult for African women to join women’s movements.

Women’s movements against apartheid

Despite the differences in oppression amongst South African women, many

organisations emerged in the 1950s dedicated to ending apartheid and the
oppression of women.
● In 1953 the Federation of South African Women (FSAW or FEDSAW) was
set up to address women’s grievances and their rights.
● Membership was organisational rather than individual.
● The opening conference in 1954 drafted the Women’s Charter
● was based on full equality with men and challenged stereotypes.
● In the 1950s FSAW members joined the defiance campaign to fight
the extension of the pass book system to women. The state was
determined to limit the mobility of black women into urban areas
● As a result 2 marches were led by FSAW members in 1955 and
1956 to protest against the laws.
● The marches were led by four women who came from the white,
coloured, Indian and black communities.
● FSAW also participated equally with other organisations in the
drawing up of the Freedom Charter in 1955. They ensured that
women's issues, such as living conditions, health facilities and
issues of gender equality were included in the charter.
● In 1955 a small group of white liberal women formed the Black Sash
to fight the NP’s move to change the franchise laws. It changed its
emphasis more to human rights and a number of black women joined
to assist in its Advice Offices.

Despite the continued efforts of women in South Africa, by the 1960s the National
Party was well in control of South Africa and banned the ANC and other liberation
organisations.

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The peace movements: 1950s

Started as protests against nuclear weapons, but later developed into anti-war
movements as well. Mainly based in the USA and Western Europe.

Disarmament movements
● In the 1940s and 1950s the USA, Britain and the Soviet Union started developing new
atomic weapons.
● Not only were fears of a nuclear war breaking out, but there was also a growing
concern for the health risks and environmental damage caused by the tests.
● This led to the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) launched at a
public meeting in London in February 1958.

The CND held their first march against nuclear weapons from 4–7 April 1958.
● The marches attracted a great deal of attention and became an annual occurrence
from 1959 to 1963. In 1983 the Test Ban Treaty was signed, which partially banned
nuclear tests.
● There were revivals of the march in later years including 1972 and 2004.
● Within the CND many supported non-violent direct action (NVDA) and wanted
campaigns to include mass civil disobedience. This led to many arrests e.g.
September 1961, 1 300 were arrested in London and 350 in Holy Loch, Scotland.
● Many CND members had hoped the Labour government would support nuclear
disarmament after 1964, however, the new party continued with the previous
conservative policy.
● From the mid-1960s, anger over the United States war in Vietnam replaced nuclear
issues as a focus of mass protests.

Student movements
The 1950s and 1960s = rise in political activism amongst students → The younger
generations expressed growing hostility towards the existing social order.
● European universities became more democratic, opening their doors to lower- and
middle-class students = expansion.
● Student movements became mainly located in the rapidly expanding universities.
● Emergence of a distinctive ‘youth culture’, which brought students into conflict
with the older generation.
● In Europe tensions came to a head in the late ’60s and early ’70s with the most
serious student riot occurring in Paris in 1968 at the new University of Nanterre.
● The students demanded changes to the curriculum and soon the movement
spread to other universities.
● There were violent clashes with the police and the students appealed to the
French industrial workers for help.
● As a result, spontaneous general strikes spread across France in May 1968.

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Although the political crisis was averted and the French government did not fall, the
student revolution in 1968 seemed to bring an end of an era of social stability and
economic progress.

Eastern Europe
Student discontent in Eastern Europe resulted from the gradual improvement in
standard of living, which contrasted with the lack of political freedom.
● After Stalin’s death the new Russian leader, Khrushchev, launched a de-
Stalinisation programme that brought about limited freedom of expression. The
economy began to improve and brought hope to Eastern Europe.
● Students joined a worker-led uprising in Poland in 1956, which ended in limited
political gains.
● In the same year, students and workers in Hungary rose again Soviet control and
installed a liberal Communist reformer as head of the government.
● Soviet troops were forced out of Hungary, one party rule was abolished and
the new government promised free elections, freedom of expression and social
change, and renounced the Russian military.
● This brought a sharp reaction and Russia invaded Hungary to put down the
revolution.

Anti-war movement
● Opposition to the Vietnam War spread across university campuses in the
mid-1960s.
● After 1965 it became a radical peace movement across universities in
America.
● Anti-war marches and protests led by Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
reached a peak in 1968.
● The tactics used were diverse: legal demonstration, congressional lobbying,
political violence, civil disobedience and draft resistance.
● By 1968, faced with widespread opposition to the war, the Johnson
administration halted the bombing of North Korea, which was a major turning
point in the war.
● In 1970, President Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State shooting
of 4 student protesters sparked the greatest outbreak of campus protests in US
history.
● A national student strike shut down 500 colleges and universities.
● Many lobbied White House officials and over 100 000 people demonstrated in
Washington.
● The American movement against the Vietnam War was the most successful
anti-war movement in US history.

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Civil rights movements

Northern Ireland
● After World War ll the British government, who controlled Northern Ireland,
introduced a welfare state and extended education to Catholics.
● As a result:
● young Catholics were exposed to new ideas and were unwilling to tolerate the
discrimination against them.
● In 1963 the British government proposed reforms that would improve the economic
situation in Northern Ireland. The proposals would, however, threaten the dominant
Protestant position.
● As a result:
● the Protestants, led by Reverent Ian Paisley, attacked the reform policy and
began the period known as “The Troubles”, which lasted until 1998.

1966 1967
● Violence broke out. ● The Northern Ireland Civil Rights
● A Protestant “loyalist” Association (Nicra) was formed, calling for
group called the Ulster an end to the injustices against Catholics.
Volunteer Force murdered ● A peaceful civil rights march in 1968
two Catholics and a turned violent when met with force by
Protestant. the police (the Royal Ulster Constabulary,
● The UVF were or RUC).
immediately banned, but ● The marches continued and were met with
the cycle of violence had force by the RUC.
begun.

The violence in Northern

Protestants AND the Catholics set
Ireland continued for
up paramilitary groups
the next two decades
● The UVF was joined by the Ulster
● In 1988 the Good Friday
Defence Association in 1971 (Protestant).
Agreement ended the cycle
Catholics set up the Irish Republic Army.
of violence and murder in
● Reforms that increased civil rights
Northern Ireland.
of the Catholics outraged the
Protestants and were met with civil
unrest and violence.
● A more militant group, the
Provisional IRA, split from the IRA
and were more prepared to use
violence to achieve their aims.

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Civil rights movement in Germany

● The civil rights movement in Germany was a left-wing reaction against the
conservative post-Nazi party era and attracted many disillusioned students.
● Their protests were against the authoritarianism and hypocrisy of the German
government.
● They wanted greater socio-economic equality, freedom and human rights, and
resented the wealth of the upper classes and militancy of the police.
● To make their demands known, they embarked on protest actions.
● An over-reaction by the police and the near simultaneous protest movements
across the world fanned these protests, which became violent.
● Although protests were eventually quelled, civil rights movement took root
in Germany.

Civil rights movement in Czechoslovakia

● After 1945, Czechoslovakia fell into the Soviet sphere of influence and was a one-
party state.
● → However, from the mid-1960s, Czechs and Slovaks started rejecting the regime
and Alexander Dubcek, a popular man, became the leader in 1968.
● He created more space for civil society and this period became known as the
Prague Spring.
● An activist Ludvik Vaculvic published a manifesto, “Two Thousand Words” in
June of 1968.
● In the manifesto he called on everyone to demonstrate for better government and
demand greater control over their own lives.
● The USSR could not tolerate this threat to its hegemony over the Eastern Bloc.
● → Consequently, on the night of 20 August 1968, Eastern Bloc armies invaded
Czechoslovakia, starting a 20-year occupation of the country.

Civil rights movement in Mexico

● 1968: students in the Mexican capital, Mexico City, demonstrated for increased civil
rights and democratic reforms. At the end of September, the Mexican president
ordered the army to occupy the universities → students were beaten and arrested.
● In October, 15 000 students marched peacefully through the streets of Mexico
City to protest against the army’s occupation of the university campus.
● Rally organisers tried to cancel the rally when they noticed an increased military
presence in the area.
● At sunset the army and police force surrounded the Plaza and began firing live
rounds into the crowd. This continued into the night.
● By morning, hundreds of students and civilians were dead, with many
wounded and arrested.
● The army claimed they had defended themselves, but the Tlatelolco
massacre is remembered as an example of extreme state abuse of power.

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Civil rights movement in Africa

During World At the end of In the late Rapid growth

War II World War II 1940s and of African
early 1950s Nationalism
● many Africans ● returning ● many Africans ● took European
from French soldiers began in European colonial
and British asking why colonies in powers by
colonies were they should Africa (e.g. surprise. By
recruited have given Gold Coast; 1966, all but
to fight for their lives to Tanganyika) 6 African
the Allies in keep Europe formed countries were
Europe, lured and America political parties independent
in by the idea free when they and demanded nation-states.
that they were not free political
were fighting in their own freedom and
to support countries. the end of
democracy. colonial rule.

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 Case Study 1
CASE STUDY: The US Civil Rights Movement

Key question: Why did the Civil Rights Movement emerge in the USA and what
were its short- and long-term gains?

Reasons and origins of the US Civil Rights Movement

Reasons for the US Civil Rights Movement:

● After the American Civil War (1861–1865), the US government passed the 14th and
15th Amendments, granting citizenship and equal rights to former black slaves.
● In 1866 a white supremacist group called the Klu Klux Klan was set up.
● They were against any rights for African-Americans and wanted segregation
to continue.
● As more civil rights were granted to African-Americans, the Klu Klux became
more violent.
● Violent attacks on houses were carried out and approximately 175 African-
Americans were lynched per year between 1890 and 1900.
● In 1896 the US Supreme Court ruled that separate, but equal, facilities for white and
black Americans was constitutional.
● This law remained until 1954.
● Thus, the driving reason for the Civil Rights Movement was to provide African-
Americans with a strategy to fight against the disregard for their constitutional and
civil rights.

Origins of the US Civil Rights Movement:

● In 1909 the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP)
was set up.
● In 1935 they challenged segregation in higher education in the nation’s courts
and won significant rights for African-Americans in universities across the
country.
● After World War II the movement gained momentum for many reasons:

Many African- Soldiers had

1 African-
2 Americans 3
Americans moved fought for
North to take serving in democracy
defence-related jobs. They the army abroad and upon returning
had the vote in the North, experienced home fought against
which increased the voting less racial racism and their own
strength. discrimination. democratic rights.

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Responses in the Southern States

● The Southern States responded by taking away African-American rights.
● The activities of the Klu Klux Klan increased in the 1950s.
● Many Southern States refused to comply with laws and court rulings, e.g.
● the 1954 landmark case ruling that desegregation should take place in school,
won by the NAACP.
● Contributed to the growing Civil Rights Movement.

The role, impact and influence of Martin Luther King Junior

The role of Martin Luther King Junior

● King was a pastor in the city of Montgomery, which became the centre of the rights
movement.
● His position as pastor allowed him to take on the leadership role within the struggle
as he was able to see the struggles of his congregation first hand and his position
gave him a platform from which to speak of the injustices he saw.
● His leadership role was affirmed when he was elected to lead the Montgomery Bus
Boycott.
● From there, his role increased and he became the spotlight of the non-violent
resistance.
● In 1957, after the success of the Bus Boycott, he and other activists founded the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
● The SCLC and King planned to achieve full equality for African-Americans through
non-violence.
● King remained the leader of the organisation until his death and travelled the World
and country giving lectures on non-violent protests and civil rights.

What was the impact and influence of Martin Luther King Junior?
● King became a unifying force in the various struggles for civil rights through his
charismatic personality and strong leadership skills.
● He drew the various movements together, which became co-ordinated and
focused.
● It attracted the attention of the whole of the USA and rest of the world.
● King’s non-violent approach and profound wisdom won him support.
● His stature enabled the movement to achieve many of their aims such as the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
● He also became influential in other issues such as the Vietnam War and poverty.
● Unfortunately, a rift grew between King and the more radical youth, who rejected his
non-violent methods as these were seen to be ineffectual.
● They formed the Black Panther Party, a militant group that aimed to overthrow
the whites’ status quo with force.

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Influence of passive resistance (Gandhi) on ML King Junior

● King was influenced by the writing of Mohandas Gandhi. In India, Gandhi used
non-violence as a political instrument against British colonial rule.
● King saw in Gandhi’s philosophy the Christian ethic of love being used as a
strategy for change.
● He came to believe that non-violence was the only way African-Americans
would be able to win the struggle for freedom in the USA.
● Non-violence therefore informed all his speeches and actions during the
Civil Rights Movement.

What were the forms of protests through civil disobedience?

● Bus boycotts
● Freedom rides
● Sit-ins
● Peaceful marches.

Usually, these non-violent actions were met with violence from the white supremacists.
● Those who took part in the campaigns were trained not to retaliate, however, they
were accused of being the agitators and for provoking violence.

Montgomery bus boycotts

Montgomery, in the South: a city where the segregation laws were strong in the 1950s.
● On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks – Secretary to the NAACP – was arrested for not
giving up her seat on a city bus to a white man.
● As a result the NAACP, led by King, organised a boycott of the city buses.
● The boycott lasted for 381 days, placing a severe economic strain on the public
transport system.
● The boycott finally ended on 20 December 1956.
● Supreme Court ruled that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional.

Greensboro sit-in
The writings of King inspired four students in the city of Greensboro, North Carolina.
● On 1 February 1960, the four decided to sit down at the ‘whites only’ lunch table
at Woolworths and order coffee. They were refused service, but said they would
stay in their seats until they were served.
● Each day, other students joined them. The sit-in spread to other restaurants.
● Also spread to other Southern States: lasted for more than a year, with
businesses losing more than a third of their income.
● In the summer of 1961 businesses in Greensboro decided to desegregate.
● The sit-ins drew many students into the campaign → led to the setting up
of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

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Freedom Rides
The Freedom Rides were organised in 1961 by the SNCC and the Congress of Racial
Equality (CORE).
● In May 1961, African-American and white volunteers sat next to each other on
public buses as they travelled from the North to the South.
● When they reached Alabama, white mobs burnt one of their buses while the
police stood by and looked on.
● Although many Freedom Riders were thrown in jail, the violent treatment did
not stop them → over the next 6 months more than a thousand people joined
the campaign.
● The images of brutality were televised around the world and the images
embarrassed the Kennedy administration.
● As a result, the Kennedy administration put an end to the violence and
the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) banned segregation on all
interstate transport.
● President Kennedy delivered a Civil Rights address to the nation on 11
June 1963 → called on all Americans to recognise the movement as a moral
cause to which everyone should contribute.

Campaigns and marches in the US Civil Rights Movement

1 The Birmingham Campaign

● Many marches, sit-ins and boycotts were organised and Birmingham became the
centre of violence in 1963.
● The campaigns were met with police violence, led by commander Eugene Connor,
who used fire hoses, police dogs and gaol sentences to disperse the marchers.
● On 2 May, one thousand children gathered in churches and began the “Children's
Crusade”. 600 children were arrested and imprisoned and fire hoses and police dogs
were deployed on the marchers in what became known as Double-D day.
● The images were broadcast internationally → led to international sympathy for the
movement.
● On 10 May it was announced that segregation would end.
● Segregationists, however, retaliated:
● bombed the home of King’s brother
● bombed a 16th Street Baptist Church
● killed four African-American girls.
● The Birmingham Campaign = a mass movement that demanded fundamental
economic and social change.
● The campaign succeeded in spreading the movement to the North.

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2 The march to Lincoln Memorial

● The march to Lincoln Memorial, in August 1963 was the largest political gathering
in US history.
● It had 6 goals: civil rights legislation, a federal works programme, the right to vote,
integrated education, better housing and better employment opportunities.
● Between 250 000 and 400 000 people joined the march where King delivered his
“I have a Dream” speech.
● Many contemporaries regarded the march as a positive part of the Civil Rights
Movement, whilst others thoughts it was a ‘sanitised’ middle-class version of the
real Black Power Movement.

3 Freedom Summer

● On 22 November 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated.

● On 2 July 1964, Congress accepted the Civil Rights Act → banned segregation and
discrimination.
● In the “Freedom Summer” of 1964, thousands of volunteers launched a voter
registration drive in the South.
● Activists were threatened and harassed; 3 young civil rights workers were murdered.
● Freedom Summer attracted national attention → led to the 1965 Voting rights Act.

4 The Selma-Montgomery marches

● Early 1965: Selma, Alabama = focus of voter registration and demonstrations.

● On February 18th white segregationists attacked a group of demonstrators and
killed a young African-American demonstrator.
● In response, King and the movement planned a march from Selma to Montgomery.
● On Sunday 7 March a group of 600 people set out on the march, but were attacked
with whips, batons and tear gas.
● The violence was captured on television, which drew even more demonstrators
to Selma.
● On 9 March the marchers met with more force, and a young white minister, James
Reeb, was beaten to death.
● President Johnson backed the march and pledged his support, sending US army
troops to protect them.
● They finally reached Montgomery on 25 March.

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School desegregation
● School integration was a major focus of the civil rights struggle.
● 5 lawsuits were launched to desegregate high school in 1952, in what became known
as Brown versus Board of Education.
● In May 1954 the Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in school was
unconstitutional.

● In Little Rock, Arkansas, 17 African-American students were chosen to

enter the all-white Central High.
● 17 became 9 after some of the parents withdrew their children due
to the feared backlash.
● The day before school opening the Governor called in the National
Rock, Arkansas

Guard to surround the school, stating he feared white supremacists

would attack. As a result none of the 9 attended.
● The next day, Daisy Bates of the NAACP organised for them to all meet
at her house and walk together. One girl, Elizabeth Eckford, didn't get
the message and was ambushed as she tried to enter the school.
● For the next 17 days the National Guard prevented the Little Rock Nine
from entering the school.
● The NAACP won a law case forcing the Governor to intergrate the
schools. As a result he withdrew the National Guard, who were
replaced by more than a thousand angry white protesters.
CASE STUDY: Little

● The students entered the school via a side door, which led to the
growing violence of the mob outside. Fearing escalated violence, the
students were rushed home and the president was asked to help keep
the peace.
● President Eisenhower addressed all Americans, saying that mob rule
would not be allowed.
● As a result, the National Guard protected the Little Rock Nine for
the duration of the year.
● The nine were still, however, subjected to racial hatred and one of the
nine, Melba Patillo, was stabbed and had acid sprayed in her eyes.
● Before schools opened in 1958, the Governor, with the support of
the white population, closed all schools in Little Rock rather than
proceeding with desegregation.
● In June 1959, the Supreme Court ruled that the school board must
reopen the schools and resume the process of desegregation.
● In August, schools opened. 250 protestors marched to Central High, but
this time the police acted quickly and 21 people were arrested.
● Only in 1972 were all grades in the Little Rock public schools
integrated.

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Short- and long-term gains of the Civil Rights Movement

● The decade 1955 to 1965 was the high point of the Civil Rights Movement.
● Television broadcasts and magazines kept the Civil Rights Movement’s message alive
for millions of people → became a mass movement during that decade.
● The Montgomery Bus Boycott launched the movement; the Greensboro sit-in brought
the students into the movement. Student activity increased with the Freedom Rides
and Freedom Summer.
● The crisis in Little Rock had a profound impact on America and the rest of the world.
● It showed the lengths to which some Southerners would go to prevent
integration.
● It also showed African-Americans that they could get their rights guaranteed
by the Constitution if they made themselves heard on the street and in the
courtroom.
● By 1965, the Selma to Montgomery march clearly showed both how far American
blacks had come and how far they still had to go.
● Ten years earlier, they had timidly asked if they could sit in the front of the bus;
now they were demanding their full rights as American citizens.
● They had courts and a president who were willing to make rulings and pass laws
to guarantee their safety and their rights.
● But they still faced strong, violent opposition. Blacks were not at the end of the
road, but they were further along than they had ever been.
● The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were two of the most
important pieces of civil rights legislation in American history.
● The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in pubic services and
on the job. In the follow-up Voting Rights Act of 1965, the federal government
guaranteed all African-Americans the right to vote.
● By the 1970s, substantial numbers of African-Americans had been elected to
public and private office throughout the Southern States.

Although the USA still has not achieved full equality for all Americans in practice,
despite such equality existing in law, the fact that an African-American was elected
President of the USA in 2008 is an indication of how far the nation has travelled
in promoting and protecting equal civil and constitutional rights for all: African-
Americans, other minorities and whites alike.

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CASE STUDY: The Black Power Movement

Key question: Why did the Black Power Movement emerge in the USA and what
were its short- and long-term gains?

Reasons for the Black Power Movement

The Black Power Movement in the USA was established during the civil rights era in
the 1960s. WHY?
● Younger members of the SNCC became more militant and outspoken, and thought
that Kings non-violent approach was not achieving social change fast enough.
● The Black Power Movement emphasised black pride and called for the founding of
black political and cultural institutions.
● Violence as a legitimate means of achieving civil rights was in conflict with the
mainstream Civil Rights Movement and the two were regarded as antagonistic
towards each other.
● However, there were groups and individuals who participated in both
● BECAUSE the political goals expressed by the Black Power Movement were
the same as the non-violent Civil Rights Movement.

Black Panther Party

The Black Panther Party was formed in 1966 and played a short but important part in
the Civil Rights Movement.
● It was formed to protect local communities from police brutality.
● They wanted equality in education, housing, employment and civil rights and stated
how they would achieve this in their 10-point plan.
● They called for:
● Freedom
● Full employment
● Decent housing
● Teaching the true history of African-American people
● End to police brutality
● End to the murder of African-Americans
● Free health care.
● They called for:
● a revolutionary war to achieve these goals, and were willing to use violence to
get what they wanted.

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Community programmes
● The socialist community programmes played an important part in the Panther’s
strategy.
● They showed how politics was relevant to the people and how they cared about
the needs of their communities.
● The first programme was The Free Breakfast for Children Program.
● They approached businessmen for donations and boycotted stores that refused
to contribute.
● They served food to the children in church halls
● They also ran medical clinics.
● The programmes achieved a lot with very few resources.

Militancy
The other side of the Panther Program was militancy.

● They chose to take up their constitutional right and carry arms.

● If they saw an officer stop an African-American they would go over and watch with
their guns on full display.
● As long as they stayed a reasonable distance away the police could not do anything.
● They were not looking for shoot-outs and would only use their guns in self-defence.
● The guns had a big psychological effect as African-Americans felt empowered and
the police felt fear.
● The activities of the Black Panther Party came to the attention of the racist and white
supremacist head of the FBI, J Edgar Hoover.
● In 1967 the FBI set up a counter-intelligence programme called COINTELPRO.
● Its aim was to disrupt and neutralise organisations the FBI regarded as ‘black
nationalist hate groups’.
● COINTELPRO targeted the Black Panthers → involved assassinations,
psychological attacks, instigating and fostering mistrust = setting African-
American groups against each other.
● The campaign destroyed the Black Panther, and Stokely Carmichael went into
exile from 1971.
● The Black Panthers focused on socialist community programmes and free
medical clinics.
● COINTELPRO was disbanded in 1971.

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The role of BLACK POWER leaders

Stokely Carmichael
● Stokely Carmichael and Willie Ricks were organisers within the SNCC and the first
to use the term Black Power.
● Carmichael had taken part in the non-violent campaigns and spent 49 days in
prison for being a Freedom Rider.
● He became chairman of the SNCC in 1966.
● In 1966 James Meredith started to march from Memphis to Jackson in a March
Against Fear. Soon after he set out, a white sniper shot him in the back.
● King and Carmichael decided to continue the march in his honour but
Carmichael was arrested in Greenwood, his 27th time being arrested.
● On his release, he made a Black Power speech, calling for all African-
Americans to unite and build a sense of community.
● He called on African-Americans to form their own organisations and
adopted the slogan ‘Black is Beautiful’ and promoted ‘Black pride’.
● It was from this point that Carmichael began to criticise King and his non-
violent ideology and joined the Black Panther Party.
● He was elected ‘honorary prime minister’ of the party.

Malcolm X
● Malcolm X was a militant revolutionary, whilst also being an outstanding role
model, and sought to bring about positive social services.
● The Black Panther Party aimed to follow both these paths.
● Malcolm X firmly believed in self-defence whenever African-Americans
were unjustly or unlawfully attacked.
● It was the Black Panther’s emphasis on self-defence that inspired a generation of
militants.
● After leaving prison, Malcolm X became the Nation of Islam’s (NOI) spokesman,
an organisation he had joined whilst in prison.
● Whilst he rejected King’s non-violent approach, he respected him as a leader.
● In 1964 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca and returned to follow a course similar to
King’s – combining religious leadership and political action.
● Malcolm X was a socialist and the Panthers followed his belief of working-class
unity across race and gender.
● The Panthers therefore argued for international working-class unity and
supported joint action with white revolutionary groups.
● They eventually developed into a Marxist revolutionary group.

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Short-term and long-term gains of Black Power

● Black Power declined very quickly in the late 1960s, as it had little money to support
itself and because the government preferred King’s peaceful methods.
● Therefore, it seemed as if Black Power had achieved very little for black people
and was a factor in the ending of the Civil Rights Movement as a whole.
● They did however achieve something for black people as a whole:
● they tried to help people in the inner-city ghettos
● they increased pride and a sense of black nationalism.
● Malcolm X was important in raising the morale of many African-American people
and became a hero to many young African-Americans in USA and the world.

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Unit XX

Summary and questions

Summary
In Topic 3, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question:

Key question: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1960s to 1990?

In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below.

Unit 1 Overview of civil society protests

During the 1960s and 1970s there was an upwelling of civil rights movements across the
world, as the promises of greater equality and democracy that the end of World War II
promised to deliver did not materialise. These took the form of women’s liberation and
feminist movements, peace movements, student movements, anti-war movements and
civil rights movements.

Case study 1 The US Civil Rights Movement

The US Civil Rights Movement had its origins in the US Civil War that left the American
South defeated, but still deeply racist and segregationist, with its Jim Crow Laws and
white supremacist organisations like the Ku Klux Klan. Although there were a number
of legal attempts (some of which were successful) to advance the cause of civil rights for
African-Americans, the US Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s was mainly a mass-
based protest movement involving non-violent protests, civil disobedience campaigns,
demonstrations and marches. Martin Luther King Junior played a central role in much
of the US Civil Rights Movement after the Montgomery Bus Boycotts (1956) until his
assassination in 1968. Key events in the US Civil Rights Movement that resulted in
the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 included sit-ins (e.g.
the Greensboro sit-in), marches (e.g. to Lincoln Memorial and Selma-Montgomery)
and campaigns (e.g. Freedom Rides, Birmingham and Little Rock, Arkansas, school
desegregation).

Case study 2 The Black Power Movement

Amongst the African-American youth, there was impatience with Martin Luther King
Junior’s non-violent approach to fighting for civil rights. People like Stokely Carmichael
and Malcolm X, the Black Power Movement and the Black Panther Party felt that change
was happening too slowly and was too limited. They also espoused total black liberation
and rejected any form of assimilation of African-Americans into mainstream, white,
Western American culture. As a result, the Black Power Movement was militant, which,
while gaining them some approval among African-American communities, alienated
most people in the USA. Consequently, the Black Panther Party disbanded in 1982.

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Summary and questions

Questions
1 Key question: What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1950s to 1990?

1.1 What does the term ‘Swinging sixties’ refer to?

1.2 The fifties and sixties were decades of struggle for three important types of rights. List

them.

1.3 Outline the Women’s Movement against apartheid in South Africa in the 1950s and

1960s. Mention five key facts.

1.4 List three peace movements in the 1960s and 1970s.

1.4.1 Where were they based?

1.4.2 What was the main focus of each one?

1.5 Name two factors that influenced the Civil Rights Movement in Africa in the 1950s.

2 Key question: Why did the Civil Rights Movement emerge in the USA and what

were its short- and long-term gains?

2.1 What was the Klu Klux Klan?

2.2 Why was there more racial discrimination against African-Americans in the Southern US

states than in the Northern states?

2.3 Who was the main role-player in the US Civil Rights Movement?

2.3.1 What was his main slogan in the struggle for civil rights in the USA?

2.3.2 How did he die?

2.4 List three forms of protest that the US Civil Rights Movement used to try to gain

civil rights for African-Americans in the USA.

2.5 What was the contribution of the Little Rock Nine to civil rights in the USA?

2.6 What were the short- and long-term gains of the Civil Rights Movement? List two of each.

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Summary and questions

3 Key question: Why did the Black Power Movement emerge in the USA and

what were its short- and long-term gains?

3.1 Define Black Power, explaining why it emerged as a movement in the USA in the 1960s?

3.2 Briefly describe the contribution that Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael made

to the Black Power Movement.

3.3 Name the political movement that emerged from the Black Power Movement.

3.3.1 What was its political ideology?

3.3.2 Why did it follow this ideology?

Exam practice

1 Why did the Civil Rights Movement emerge in the USA and what were its

short- and long-term gains?

1.1 Why were the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches in the USA of special

significance in the Civil Rights Movement? Refer to SOURCE A on the next page

to answer the following questions.

1.1.1 Quote evidence from the source to indicate that racial segregation was

a practice in the USA in the 1960s. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Why do you think the Voters League appealed to Martin Luther King Jnr

for help? (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.3 Explain why Martin Luther King Jnr’s statement, ’... We are not on our

knees begging for the ballot, we are demanding the ballot ...’, can be

supported. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.4 How did the actions of the state troopers and the television coverage

add value to the Civil Rights Movement? (2 x 2) (4)

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Summary and questions

1.1.5 Explain to what extent Rosa Parks influenced the Civil Rights

Movement. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.6 Explain whether the marches proved to be a turning point in the Civil

Rights Movement. (2 x 2) (4)

[20 marks]

Source A
The extract below from an article in National Geographic, February 2000, by C Stone,
illustrates how the marches eventually culminated in the passing of the Voting Rights
Act of 1965.

Thirty-five years ago, civil rights activists marched from Selma to Montgomery in a protest
that led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act in 1965.
Back then, Selma was a small southern town of 28 000 people with segregated schools,
housing, jobs, theatres, swimming pools. Like millions of African-Americans, those in
Selma were denied the right to vote by poll taxes, literacy tests, and other intimidation
tactics.
… The Voters League appealed to Martin Luther King Jr to add his charismatic clout
[charming personality]. In January 1965, King launched a series of demonstrations in
Alabama. ‘We must be willing to go to jail by the thousands,’ ... ‘We are not on our knees
begging for the ballot, we are demanding the ballot ...’
… On Sunday 7 March, hundreds of demonstrators led by John Lewis and Hosea
Williams of the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) set out on a 54-mile
[86-kilometre] trek. At the Edmund Pettus Bridge they confronted Alabama State troopers
sent by Governor George Wallace, along with Sheriff Jim Clark and his ‘posse’ [sheriff ’s
assistants]. Ordered to disperse [break up], the marchers stood fast … Clark’s men, some
on horseback, charged in. A chaos of tear-gassing, whipping and clubbing left several
demonstrators unconscious … Televised images of flailing [swinging] clubs spilled into
living rooms across the country. Americans were horrified. Ironically, a non-violent march
ended violently in ‘Bloody Sunday’.
… Momentum began building for another march. On Tuesday 9 March, Martin Luther
King Jr led 2 000 people across the Pettus Bridge. Once again state troopers blocked the
way. King turned the marchers around, and no one was injured.
The following week President Lyndon Johnson went on television to call for legislation
banning restrictions that denied blacks the right to vote.
… For five days, from March 21 to 25, the road between Selma and Montgomery was
lined with marchers. Led by King, more than 3 000 people set out from Selma. At the
march’s end the crowd that King addressed live on national television from the foot of
the state capital steps had swelled beyond 25 000. Another speaker was Rosa Parks, whose
refusal to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus had helped set off the modern Civil
Rights Movement.
‘The march was a turning point in the movement,’ said John Lewis. That August,
Congress passed the Voting Rights Act.

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Civil resistance in South Africa 1970s to 1980

Overview
In this topic you will revise:
● South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s
● the challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state
● the crisis of apartheid in the 1980s.

UNIT 1 Page 76
South Africa in the • Nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and 1980s
1970s and 1980s • Opposition: Underground, in prison and in exile

• The nature and aims of Black Consciousness

TOPIC 4 Page 75–98 UNIT 2 Page 80 • The role of Steve Biko
• The Black Consciousness Movement
Civil society protests: The challenge of Black • Government perceptions of Black Consciousness
1950s to 1970s Consciousness to the • The 1976 Soweto Uprising and Black Consciousness
apartheid state • Legacy of Black Consciousness in South African
politics

UNIT 3 Page 83 • Government attempts to reform apartheid

The crisis of apartheid • Internal resistance to reforms
in the 1980s • International response
• The beginning of the end

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South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s

Key question: What was the nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and
1980s? What was the impact of the nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and
1980s in the liberation movements?

Background
● ANC and PAC had been banned for nearly 10 years, and their leaders imprisoned
or driven into exile.
● Extreme security laws set out by the apartheid government made it illegal to do
any act that could be seen as advancing the cause of the banned movements.
● Millions of blacks were removed from white-owned farmland and dumped into
impoverished areas known as Bantustans.
● Blacks faced constant pass raids, arrests and imprisonment for breaking petty
apartheid laws.
● Meanwhile the South African economy boomed as overseas investors poured
money into South Africa and profited from high returns on these investments.
● This mostly benefited the whites in the country.
● But apartheid would not last – from the early 1970s new forms of resistance
began to emerge within the country.
● ANC = established itself as a strong and legitimate representative of the
South African people in many countries in Europe, America and Central
Asia.
● This led to the revival of civil society in South Africa and the eventual end
of apartheid.

Nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and 1980s

The theory of apartheid planning

● Late 1960s: Grand apartheid
● The government set about establishing 10 rural self-governing ‘tribal homelands’
or bantustans.
● The plan was that they would eventually become independent ethnic ‘nations’.
● 87% of the land would thus be South Africa, where only whites could be citizens
● the remaining 13% would be ‘independent’ countries for the different black
nations: Zulus; Xhosa; Venda; and so on.
● → black people would thus have NO citizen rights in South Africa.

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In practice, however, apartheid could never bring the stability, harmony and prosperity
that its planners dreamed about, because:
● The rural bantustans were desperately poor and could never become viable nations.
● Apartheid policies would get in the way of what a growing industrial economy
needed most:
● a stable and educated black workforce living in the cities who would become
consumers of manufactured goods.
● Black South Africans would never willingly accept apartheid, and it could only be
enforced with ever-increasing repression as black resistance re-emerged.

Economic growth and its consequences

Late 1960s and early 1970s: SA’s economy was booming.

● Growth was financed by British, European & American investors.

● Commercial agriculture became mechanised.
● There was massive black migration into the cities with people seeking work.
● Africans were arrested under the pass laws and sent back to the homelands.
● Black families in the homelands remained mostly unemployed.
● Few blacks benefited from this rapid economic growth, but white South Africans
became one of the richest communities in the world.

Independence of the homelands

● There were some sections of the black elite in the homelands who were prepared
to cooperate with the apartheid government’s policies in return for high positions
in the homeland bureaucracies.
● In 1976 the Transkei under the so-called ‘Paramount Chief of the Xhosa’, Kaizer
Matanzima, became the first black homeland to accept its independence.
● The corrupt and authoritarian homeland leaders of Bophutatswana, Ciskei and
Venda also accepted their ‘independence’ during the 1980s (known as the TBVC
countries).

Apartheid policies under the National Party

● Deliberately sought to divide blacks into separate ethnic and racial groups.
● Bilingualism (Afrikaans and English) was promoted as these were the official
languages.
● The government fostered exclusively white national sports teams and cultural
events.
● The state controlled all radio and television, cultivating white fear.
● Government propaganda portrayed the ANC as being a front for Soviet
communism.

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Opposition – underground, in prison and in exile

For 10 years after the Rivonia Trial in 1964, the ANC, its leaders and symbols virtually
disappeared inside South Africa.
● Extreme security laws made it illegal to publish or talk about anything to do with the
mass resistance of the 1950s.
● New laws gave the police powers The Terrorism Act of 1967
to arrest and detain people without ● Police could arrest, detain and
trial.
interrogate – for an unlimited
● Hundreds of activists were issued
period and without charging them
with ‘banning orders’, which meant
in court – anyone whom they
that they could not leave the areas
thought had committed or was
where they lived.
about to commit a ‘terrorist act’,
● Constant pass raids, arrests and
or whom they thought might have
imprisonment for breaking petty
information about any such act.
apartheid laws intimidated people. ● The list of terrorist acts was very

There were THREE different types of broad and included, for example,
opposition during this time: any act that might promote
hostility between blacks and
whites in South Africa.
1 Opposition in exile ● Many detainees were savagely
tortured and some were killed
during interrogation, including
● The external leadership of the ANC Steve Biko.
began the slow process of rebuilding the
ANC outside South Africa.
● In the West, ANC was seen as the legitimate voice of oppressed black South Africans.
● ANC president Oliver Tambo built good relationships with liberal anti-apartheid
groups in Britain and Western Europe.
● ANC and South African Communist Party (SACP) gained support from the
Soviet Union to establish and train units of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in
newly independent African countries, like Zambia and Tanzania.
● Mirroring the armed liberation struggles of the 1960s in Angola, Mozambique
and Zimbabwe, the ANC adopted a military strategy too.
● 1967 and 1968: Armed MK units fought alongside units of the Zimbabwe
people’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) in a series of clashes with the
Rhodesian security forces.
● Although the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) supported both the ANC
and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), the PAC remained a small splintered
organisation based in Tanzania.
● While these battles were unsuccessful, they gave hope for the future of the
opposition movement.

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2 Opposition in prison

● Most of the black leaders of the ANC, MK and the PAC were sentenced to long prison
terms on Robben Island.
● The harsh prison conditions included racist abuse, hard labour in rock quarries,
severe punishments for breaking prison regulations, solitary confinement,
deprivation of food and humiliating body searches.
● But, it also led to strategies of survival amongst the prisoners that would inevitably
bring greater cohesion.
● Prisoners came together to organise hunger strikes and other acts of defiance that
led to significant improvements, such as sports events, cultural activities, literacy
training and political education programmes.
● The ANC in particular was able to maintain a strong political organisation in prison,
and upon their release, individuals were able to strongly influence the shape of the
freedom struggle within their own communities.

3 Opposition underground inside South Africa

● The most significant black political movement to emerge in the late 1960s and early
1970s was the black consciousness movement (BCM).
● Other developments were also taking place that would later give rise to the mass
democratic movement of the 1980s.
● The more the white government demonised the ANC and Communist Party, the more
legitimacy they began to achieve in the eyes of black South Africans.
● It was clear that the ANC had survived in exile and was beginning to mobilise again.

The turning point: Mid-1970s

● 1971: A few trained MK activists re-entered SA and began to set up underground

political cells; ANC pamphlets started to circulate.
● 1973: Oil crisis and economic recession; a number of strikes unfolded in the
same year.
● 1975: Victorious armed struggles led to independence in Mozambique and Angola.
● 1976: The Soweto Uprising was a watershed moment in the country’s history.

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XX

Challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state

Key question: In what ways did Black Consciousness challenge the

apartheid state?

The origins of Black Consciousness (BC)

Late 1960s & 1970s: new generation of young black students, professionals and
community workers came together with a shared kind of thinking known as “black
consciousness”. → a new black cultural identity that was proud, assertive and modern.
By 1976 BC = ‘a way of life’, mobilising the youth in schools across SA. These young
leaders would play a vital role in the revival of the ANC in the coming years.

Nature & aims of Black Consciousness

1968: a group of black student leaders including Steve Biko broke away from the
non-racial National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Formed the South
African Students Organisation (SASO). SASO declared itself to be a black organisation
working for the liberation of blacks in South Africa at two levels – from psychological
oppression as well as from political oppression and exploitation. SASO was the
first consciously BC organisation to clearly express the nature and aims of black
consciousness. It said:
● blacks needed first to fight for psychological liberation, and the only way to
liberate their minds would be to break off all contact with whites and form their
own independent black organisations.
● black people must build up their own value systems, see themselves as self-
defined and not defined by others.
● black people wield power as a cohesive group.

Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)

In 1971 SASO organised a number of meetings with black community, church, youth
and cultural organisations to see if they could launch a united black consciousness
movement (BCM).
● Some, including Steve Biko, felt that blacks needed more time to develop confidence
before openly organising to challenge the state. But other BC leaders were impatient
and in 1971 the Black People’s Convention (BPC) was formed.
● Meanwhile, Black Consciousness literature and journalism flourished. Steve Biko
became editor of the BPC’s Black Review in which the ideas of BC were publicly
debated. Some newspapers, like the East London Daily Dispatch (edited by Donald
Woods) carried a special column that was often written by Biko.
● The BPC did not have the deep community roots of the banned ANC and it failed to
mobilise mass support in black communities. Most of its members were students
and members of SASO.

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● In contrast, the BCM was much

more successful among black
Steve Biko’s role
high school students who were ● Born in King Williams Town in the Eastern
attracted to the militant language Cape in 1946, after matriculating went
and defiance of authority. on to study medicine at the University of
● 1974 SASO and the BPC organised Natal in 1966.
a mass public rally to celebrate ● Became the first president of SASO when
Frelimo’s victory over Portuguese it broke away from NUSAS in 1968. →
colonialism in Durban in Believed that NUSAS was dominated
defiance of a government ban on by white liberals who could not free
public meetings. themselves from their privileged position
● As a result, police attacked the in society.
crowd of over 5 000 people, ● Edited the influential journal Black Review
beating and arresting hundreds. until he was banned in 1973 and continued
Nine SASO and BPC leaders to write anonymously after that.
were detained for many months ● Biko’s words informed many of BC’s
without trial. Eventually central ideas. He embodied:
they were charged under the ● the spirit of community that existed
Terrorism Act. among BC activists.
● the defiance and fearlessness, refusing
to be intimidated by authority no
matter what the state did to him.
● As one of the first BC leaders to be banned
by the state in 1973, Biko constantly broke
his banning orders and used the courts as
a way for getting his messages across.
Government perceptions of Black
Consciousness:
● 1973: Biko and 7 other BC leaders were served with banning orders that forced them
to move to isolated locations across the country.
● The state charged that expressing BC ideas in public was an act of terrorism. This
was affirmed by Judge Boshoff in the SASO-BPC trial in 1975.
● He felt that the ideas of BC, in emphasising group cohesion and solidarity,
encouraged feelings of hostility between blacks and whites, and that this constituted
an act of terrorism.

The challenge of Black Consciousness to the state

● In 1977, 18 black consciousness, media and church organisations were banned.
These included SASO, BPC, the South African Council of Churches and the World
newspaper, under its editor Percy Qoboza.
● August 1977 Biko was arrested in Walmer, Port Elizabeth after secretly visiting
activists in Cape Town → detained under Section 6 of the Terrorism Act and brutally
assaulted by police in prison and died of his injuries on 12 September in Pretoria.

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The 1976 Soweto uprising and Black Consciousness:

● In the mid-1970s, the South African Students Movement (SASM) was formed to
protest against inferior black education in South Africa.
● Clearly many leaders of SASM were influenced by black consciousness thinking and
had contact with BC leaders.
● SASM activists played a key role in organising the peaceful protest marches (against
instruction in Afrikaans) in June 1976 in Soweto.
● However, the intense state reaction to the marches turned a peaceful protest into a
nationwide explosion of youth anger and frustration.
● Police shot into crowds of school children killing hundreds. Students reacted by
setting fire to schools and government buildings.

As the massacres continued, workers began to organise stay-at-homes in support of

community demands and in protest at the savage repression of the state. By 1979 the
struggles of the youth, the communities and workers in the factories were slowly
coming together.

The legacy of Black Consciousness on South African politics

The legacy of BC does not lie in the organisations it created, but in the ideas it
generated.
● The bannings and detentions of 1977 meant the end of BC as an open political
movement in South Africa. But the anger, the defiance and the symbols remained.
● After 1977 the remaining BC leaders were divided over what strategies to follow
next.
● Many had begun to feel that BC had fulfilled its purpose and that the best way
to proceed in the struggle against apartheid was to re-establish links with ANC
structures both in exile and increasingly underground in SA.
● During the 1980s, many of the leaders that emerged in the non-racial UDF, ANC
and trade unions were activists that had cut their political teeth in the BCM. This
list includes Mosioua Lekota, Nkosasana Dlamini-Zuma and Cyril Ramaphosa.
● However, not all BC leaders were happy about the revival of the ANC and the non-
racialism of the mass democratic movement of the 1980s. In 1978 a group of BC
leaders formed the Azanian People’s Organisation (AZAPO).
● By 1979 state repression had restored the appearance of calm. But this time they
had only succeeded in pushing activists underground. Meanwhile, the forces of
resistance were beginning to devise new strategies.

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The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s

Key question: How did the apartheid government try to reform apartheid in
order to maintain it? What types of internal and external resistance to apartheid
helped lead to the end of apartheid?

Government attempts to reform apartheid

By the end of the 1970s, SA economy and society was in crisis. WHY?

The contradictions of apartheid

Apartheid had been designed to keep black people out of ‘white’ South Africa BUT
● By 1980 the shape of the economy had changed.
● rapid growth of the 1960s and early 1970s produced a modern industrial
economy based on manufacturing and mechanised commercial farming.
● big business began to put pressure on government to reform the harshest
aspects of apartheid. It started to relax the pass laws and in 1986 abandoned
them completely.
● The result was massive black migration into the urban areas. Between
1960–1980 the urban African population more than doubled and the number
of black Africans living in towns and cities increased from 32% to 49%.

Changes in Afrikaner politics

Apartheid had enabled Afrikaner businessmen to establish themselves alongside
English-speaking and foreign companies at the top of the economy.
● PW Botha followed business-friendly policies that alienated Afrikaner workers
and small farmers.
● In 1982, driven by fear of losing control and power, the white right wing
Conservative Party split from the National Party because they opposed any
reforms of apartheid.

Black labour and community resistance

The growth of black trade unions after the 1973 The violent repression of the 1970s
strikes and the broadening of the youth revolt that killed thousands of protesting
to include parents and workers worried the students on the streets sent shock
government. waves around SA and the world.
● Anger and desperation drove many BC ● The police and military had
leaders to form ANC underground structures crushed the uprisings of
and over 12 000 young people left the country 1976–9, but it was clear that
– most to join MK. Resistance was becoming repression alone would never
more organised and more revolutionary. bring stability.

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International developments
● By 1980, liberation movements had replaced colonial governments in Angola,
Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
● The ANC and MK were able to use these countries to infiltrate South Africa.
● The ANC enjoyed the support of the communist bloc, especially the Soviet
Union, East Germany and Cuba.
● Fearing this communist influence, Western governments tended to support the
white government in SA.
● However, under pressure from international anti-apartheid movements, the West
began to consider economic sanctions as a way to pressure the SA government to
reform.
● While most governments refused to act firmly against the SA government and its
policies, some international citizen-led movements were successful, particularly
the sports boycotts of the 1960s and 1970s.
● Under citizen pressure, most international sporting bodies expelled South Africa
and would not recognise white-only teams. This began to have an effect on white
South Africans for whom sport was an important part of their identity.

Apartheid state’s response: Total strategy

A policy designed by military generals who came to dominate Prime Minister

PW Botha’s government.
● Its purpose was to make apartheid more acceptable for some sections of the black
population, while ensuring that political and military power remained firmly in
white hands.
● The plan was to weaken black resistance with a mixture of reform and repression.
● After 1979, under Botha, the government developed a new policy called ‘total
strategy’ to counter what they saw as the ‘total onslaught’ of revolutionaries from
inside and outside SA.

This included:

● Reforming labour policies to suit the needs of the industrial economy and improving
conditions in black urban communities.
● The 1982 Black Local Authorities Act
● The tri-cameral constitution of 1983

The 1982 Black Local Authorities Act

● This act created elected Community Councils with administrative power over local
community affairs and services.

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● They hoped that offering black urban communities some control over local affairs
would satisfy their political aspirations and they would not demand democratic
rights at national level.
● To encourage confidence in these councils, the government also provided resources
to upgrade townships for those legally living in the cities, including electrification
and housing programmes.

PLUS The tri-cameral constitution of 1983

In 1983 the government changed the constitution of SA. PW Botha took the position
of President with increased executive power over government and the military. In an
attempt to win coloured and Indian minorities away from a united movement against
apartheid, the 1983 constitution created three separate parliamentary assemblies.
= Tri-cameral parliament
● The ‘House of Assembly’ → elected by whites
● The ‘House of Delegates’ → elected by Indians
● The ‘House of Representatives’ → elected by coloureds.
● Each assembly had control of the ‘own affairs’ of that group such as education,
housing and health services.
● BUT
● The white assembly retained power over everything else – the police, army,
home and foreign affairs and the economy.

The ‘tri-cameral’ constitution created the illusion of sharing power without giving
up control. It convinced no one except the government itself and those whites who
supported it.

Growing power of Trade Union Movement

Black workers rediscover their power

● In 1973, mainly in Durban, over 60 000 black workers took part in 160 strikes for
better wages and working conditions.
● The Durban strikes were a spontaneous outburst of worker anger at low wages, the
rising cost of living and the racism of employers.
● Some business leaders and government officials realised that they needed some kind
of worker organisation that they could talk to. New laws were passed that allowed
black workers to form trade unions as long as they registered with the government
and focused only on workplace issues.
● The reforms were intended to control trade unions, but they also created space for
workers to learn new skills of independent organisation.
● While black university campuses were mobilising around BC, some white
democratic student organisations helped establish strong, independent and non-
racial trade unions.

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● Most members of the independent unions were urban residents, but in 1982 the
National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) was re-established and soon had over
100 000 members, many of them migrant workers living in the ‘homelands’.

Political alliances with communities and liberation movements:

Before 1984:
● Striking workers called on all unions and communities to boycott the products of the
companies.
● Most of the new unions took care to focus mainly on negotiating improved wages
and working conditions for their members, rather than political issues.
● At times of violent police repression in communities, workers also protested by
staying away from work.
● The state acted ruthlessly against union leaders who they thought were too
‘political’ and many were detained or served with banning orders.

1984 onwards:
Apartheid repression was at its height = bloody and ruthless.
→ Most unionists were feeling that the unions were strong enough and could not remain
aloof from the political struggle going on in their communities. THIS LED TO

● The introduction of COSATU

● In 1985 the Unions brought their power into the popular insurrection with
the formation of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU).
● COSATU affiliated to the UDF and began to coordinate its activities with the
mass democratic movement. Unions became one of the most effective forms
of resistance organisation.
● COSATU actions
● COSATU mobilised the international trade union movement to call on
companies to disinvest from South Africa.
● At home it supported UDF campaigns for the release of Mandela and
political prisoners and the unbanning of the ANC and SA Communist Party.
● In May 1986 COSATU organised the largest strike in SA’s history when 1.5
million workers stayed away from work for 3 days demanding that the
government recognise May Day, International Worker’s Day, as a public
holiday.
● State of emergency
● Under the state of emergency, the government detained the COSATU
President Elijah Barayi and Secretary-General Jay Naidoo and 200 other
union officials.
● But COSATU continued to play a major role in the mass democratic struggle
right up to 1990 and beyond.

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Response to PW Botha’s reforms: the UDF

New forms of organisation

In the repressive climate of the early 1980s, most forms of organisation that emerged
were local community organisations with local leaders that were more difficult to
suppress than national organisations, including:
● Youth and student organisations: In 1979, the Congress of South African Students
(COSAS) was formed, which became affiliated to the UDF in 1984. COSAS was
different from earlier student organisations in that it consciously formed links with
trade unions and civic associations.
● Elected civic associations: Breakdowns in services led to communities forming
alternative locally elected civic associations, which organised parents and township
residents in campaigns around community issues like local government, rent,
municipal services, evictions and removals.
● Special interest and service organisations: These groups were united by a
commitment to a non-racial democratic society that promoted human rights,
including women’s rights, education, children’s rights, repression monitoring,
environmental sustainability, legal aid and anti-conscription groups.

In this way the people of SA organised themselves into hundreds of democratic

community-based bodies that the state could not destroy simply by arresting a few
leaders.

The United Democratic Front (1983)

● In August 1983 more than 600 youth, student, church, civic, women’s groups and
trade unions came together in Mitchell’s Plein, Cape Town to launch the United
Democratic Front (UDF).
● Aim: to unite all the existing community organisations into a broad movement
for democracy.
● It wasn’t a political party, but a “front”, working to establish a non-racial
democratic government in SA.
● Advantages: it was non-racial and could organise openly while the ANC was
underground.

New forms of protest action

Boycotts
1 New UDF affiliates mushroomed all over the country focusing on local issues.
Through the UDF these protests were linked into national political campaigns.

● These organisations’ main weapon was the boycott, i.e. Communities often called
consumer boycotts of particular products in support of workers on strike in factories
that made these products.

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● The outcome of the boycotts was two-fold: they caused a breakdown in local
government, exposing the tri-cameral system as a sham, and also seriously
disrupted black education, with youth organisations staging boycotts of schools
in protest against the system of inferior black education.
● As they gained in confidence the member organisations of the UDF began to
adopt ANC policy documents, slogans and symbols of struggle. The Freedom
Charter was adopted by hundreds of organisations and came to be seen as the
basis for a new South Africa.

Black opposition to UDF

● Inkatha: A Zulu cultural movement led by Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi.
● = Of all non-UDF organisations, it had the biggest genuine support base –
mostly among the rural kwaZulu ‘homeland’. In the 1980s it was transformed
into a political party, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), presenting itself
as an alternative to the UDF and ANC. It used violence to take control of
communities, leading to a civil war in KwaZulu.
● An important minority of black organisations:
● = While many BC leaders moved into the UDF, an important minority of black
organisations like AZAPO remained narrowly committed to BC and a radical
form of socialism. They formed the National Forum and criticised the UDF’s
non-racialism and commitment to the Freedom Charter. The PAC aligned itself
to this group.

2 Insurrection
By 1984 a new language was being spoken among UDF affiliates, in that they
would escalate all forms of resistance and make themselves ungovernable.

● In September 1984, one year after the UDF was formed, the police fired on a rent
protest march in the Vaal triangle township of Sebokeng. The Vaal townships
erupted.
● The government declared a state of emergency over all unrest-affected areas.
Troops occupied the townships and South Africa was on fire again.
● In January 1985, in his New Year message, ANC president Oliver Tambo echoed the
call to make South Africa ungovernable.
● In June 1986 the emergency was extended across the whole country to stop ‘Soweto
Day’ celebrations that were planned everywhere. 25 000 activists were detained.
● In 1987 the UDF and many other organisations were banned. Under the emergency
laws, the police and army had extraordinary powers to do virtually anything to deal
with the perceived crisis, without any accountability.

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3 Expanding the Front – the Black Sash and the ECC

UDF and affiliated organisations The Black Sash

● The UDF was committed to non- ● Formed in 1955 by Sheena Duncan
racialism and welcomed white and other white women to protest
organisations that committed against apartheid laws.
themselves to democracy and human ● Black Sash volunteers also set up
rights. legal advice offices all over the
● One example was the Black Sash. country, publicising acts of police
● It was a conscious policy of the UDF violence and providing support to
to ‘deprive the enemy of every support detainees, political prisoners and
base and of every potential ally’. their families during the 1980s.

The End Conscription Campaign (ECC)

● In 1983 a group of conscientious objectors launched the ECC to encourage young
white men to refuse to fight in the SADF. It believed that the state was using the
SADF to suppress opposition to apartheid.
● The ECC affiliated to the UDF and worked to build an anti-war culture among
whites using wall murals, T-shirts, posters and musical concerts and festivals.

4 The Mass Democratic Movement

After the UDF was banned people started referring to the Mass Democratic
Movement (MDM). Jay Naidoo, the General Secretary of COSATU, described
the MDM in these terms in 1989:

● The MDM is a movement, not an organisation, comprising mass-based organisations

(such as youth, workers, students, women and civics).
● It is the strategic alliance between COSATU and the UDF.
● It is committed to non-racialism, democratic practices and grassroots accountability,
the primacy of African leadership and leadership of the working class.
● It recognises the centrality of the ANC in reaching any solution in the country and
is also united by a programme of mass action, aimed at smashing apartheid and
rebuilding South Africa along the lines of the Freedom Charter.

SA became ungovernable!

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The cost of ungovernability

While progress was being made in terms of building a non-racial opposition to the state,
there were negative outcomes too.
● All this was achieved at great cost to the black communities and to the country. The
education boycotts left almost a whole generation of black youth with little or no
education and little chance of finding meaningful employment.
● The rent boycotts led to a breakdown of local services that civics and street
committees could not adequately maintain. Boycotts also created a culture of
resistance to any kind of payment for social services such as electricity, water, refuse
collection, etc.
● While conflict within communities intensified (with people perceived as
collaborating with the state either attacked or killed), so did police violence as well
as youth violence against collaborators.
● As the police started arming and supporting groups of migrant workers to attack
youth groups and trade unionists, the conflict grew into a virtual civil war.
Reform was only one side of total strategy. As its reforms were rejected, the state was
forced more and more to rely on repression to suppress the democratic movement.

Repression and destabilisation

● In 1985 after the Vaal uprising, the state declared the first of three states of
emergency. All public meetings were banned, activists detained, troops occupied
townships and many organisations such as COSAS were banned as well.
● The most used and most effective weapon in the state’s repressive arsenal was
detention without trial, which was often the reaction to civil society protests. Some
activists were detained for as long as 33 months without access to friends, family or
even legal representatives – much of it in solitary confinement.
● A pattern was emerging that included a ‘systematic assassination of the middle
level of leadership, not only of the United Democratic Front, but of other
organisations as well’.
● The militarisation of society
● During the 1980s white society became militarised. All white men were
conscripted for two years military service. This meant the government could
mobilise up to 400 000 trained soldiers when it needed them.
● Inside SA the government and army set up joint management centres in almost
every black community, which often took over the failed community councils to
provide services and to try to win support by upgrading townships. But they also
co-ordinated police and army activities , resulting in violence.
● More sinister were the state’s conscious efforts to exploit divisions within
black communities, by setting up armed vigilante groups made up mostly of
conservative migrant workers, who terrorised townships and rural areas with
beatings, murders and destruction of communities they perceived as loyal to the
UDF or ANC.

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International response – International anti-apartheid

movements
The struggle against apartheid was also an international struggle for justice and was
greatly influenced by:
● Anti-apartheid movements in Western countries who put pressure on their
governments and private corporations to, in turn, put pressure on the SA
government to negotiate an end to apartheid.
● Sport boycotts
● Sanctions
● Disinvestment.
● The people and governments in the frontline states neighbouring SA, who provided
support and protection for liberation movements, and some of whom paid an
extremely heavy price for giving this support.
● The Organisation of African Unity recognised ANC and PAC as the legitimate
representatives of SA people. Independent states like Botswana, Lesotho,
Swaziland and Zambia allowed ANC to open offices in their countries.
● MK was able to establish military bases closer to home, while their incursions
into SA increased steadily during the 1980s, although never posing a serious
military threat.

Result
● PW Botha tried to create a ‘constellation of Southern African States’ that would
be friendly to SA, including a few homeland leaders and conservative African
leaders.
● The majority of frontline states refused to join the apartheid alliance.
● The SA government embarked on a policy of destabilisation – especially in
Angola and Mozambique. This included:
● direct military raids and assassinations of ANC members in frontline states
● setting up and providing training, resources and support for anti-government
movements.
● After 1982, SA launched military raids, sabotage, assassinations, kidnappings,
bombings and espionage in several frontline states, including:
● Mozambique, Angola, Botswana and Lesotho.

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The beginning of the end

A number of factors led to the end of apartheid

● 1 Military defeat at Cuito Cuanavale, Angola

● In 1988 the SA army was fighting deep in Angola in support of UNITA and to
weaken SWAPO.
● But a combined force of Angolan and Cuban forces supported by the Cuban Air
Force inflicted a major military defeat at the town of Cuito Cuanavale.
● The SA military command was shaken and hurriedly withdrew from Angola.
South Africans realised they were not as invincible as they thought and the war
so far from its borders was costing millions every day.
● Independence negotiations with SWAPO followed quickly and in 1989 SWAPO
won Namibia’s first democratic election.
● The defeat at Cuito Cuanavale strengthened those members of the SA
government who were beginning to look at negotiation as a possible solution in
South Africa itself.
● 2 South African economy in trouble
● By 1989 the economy was in deep trouble: disinvestment and inflation were
slowly growing; increasing unemployment led to greater hardship and unrest.
● The state could only cover the cost of apartheid and repression by borrowing
massively.
● Reckless government spending, mismanagement, corruption, costly military
campaigns, strikes and other disruptions in the economy were all leading SA
towards an economic disaster.
● 3 Internal mass resistance
● A nationwide Defiance Campaign called on people everywhere to defy apartheid
segregation of living areas, services, beaches, buses and trains.
● In spite of the bannings, in 1989 the MDM organised a hunger strike of detainees
in prisons across SA that led to many being released.
● Banned individuals and organisations simply ignored their bans and openly
organised again.
● Mass non-racial demonstrations moved out of the When FW de Klerk
townships and into the white cities. replaced PW Botha as
President in August
1989, the troops and
police were more
By the end of the year, there was a sense that things were
tolerant of the protest
changing. FW de Klerk recognised that the homeland
actions.
system was outdated and accepted the principle of power-
sharing with blacks in SA.
● 1 The Harare Declaration
● In December 1989 The Harare Declaration was adopted by a conference of 4 600
MDM affiliates in Johannesburg called the Conference for a Democratic Future.

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● Summarised principles:
● SA will become a united, non-racial, democratic state where everyone,
regardless of race, colour, sex or creed, enjoys equal citizenship and
universally recognised human rights.
● This laid the foundation for the climate for negotiations.

RESULTS
● The Declaration instructed that the apartheid state:
● Release all political prisoners and refrain from imposing any restrictions on
them.
● Lift all bans and restrictions on all restricted organisations and persons.
● Remove all troops from the townships.
● End the State of Emergency and repeal all legislation designed to
circumscribe political activity.
● Cease all political trials and political executions.
● The Declaration also indicated the way forward in the process of negotiation:
● Discussions to take place between the liberation movement and the SA
regime to achieve the suspension of hostilities on both sides by agreeing to a
mutually binding cease-fire.
● Next would be the formation of an interim government to supervise the
process of the drawing up and adoption of the new Constitution, which would
include the principles outlined in the Harare Declaration.
● All armed hostilities will be deemed to have formally terminated.
● Finally, the international community would lift all sanctions imposed on the
state.
● 2 Discussions between De Klerk and Mandela:
● FW de Klerk’s decision to release certain prisoners from Robben Island
encouraged Mandela, and the two eventually met to discuss the way forward in
December 1989.
● On 2 February 1990, De Klerk announced in a speech to the SA Parliament
that the ANC, PAC and SACP would be unbanned and that Mandela would be
released.
● This happened on 11 February 1990 when Mandela walked out of prison in Paarl,
after which he made a momentous speech to supporters on the steps of the Cape
Town City Hall.
● Subsequently, Mandela and his wife Winnie toured overseas to reconnect with
leaders in exile, supporters and benefactors and to set up structures for the
change that was to come.

The release of Mandela from prison and the collapse of apartheid brought victory for
South Africans who had been part of the struggle for democracy in the country – it is
important to recognise the supreme price that was paid by so many to achieve this.

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

Summary
In Topic 4, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question:

Key question: What was the nature of civil society resistance after the 1960s?

In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below.

Unit 1 South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s

After the ANC and Umkhonto we Sizwe (the ANC’s armed wing) leadership was
sentenced to life imprisonment at the Rivonia Trial in 1964, organised black resistance
inside South Africa virtually disappeared for a decade. The apartheid state consolidated
its power, and it was difficult for black people and anyone who believed in freedom and
democracy not to despair.

Within this climate of repression, white South Africa initially prospered as it used cheap
black labour. However with opposition from the ANC underground, in prison and in
exile emerging with increasing strength after 1976, the country became increasingly
ungovernable and internationally isolated, and rapid economic decline set in.

Unit 2 The challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state

In the late 1960s and 1970s, while the ANC was slowly re-emerging in exile and in
prison, a new generation of young black students, professionals and community
workers inside South Africa were beginning to come together and express a new kind of
resistance thinking and organising that came to be known as Black Consciousness (BC).
Prominent BC leaders included Steve Biko, Barney Pityana and Mamphela Ramphele.
Inspired to some extent by BC, the youth in South Africa rose up in rebellion against the
apartheid government after the 1976 Soweto Uprising.

This proved to be a turning point in South Africa’s history as it spread to most sectors of
black communities countrywide, resulting in the mass actions of the 1980s.

Unit 3 The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s

As South Africa faced increasing turmoil in the early 1980s, the apartheid government
tried to reform apartheid by, for example, introducing a form of semi-autonomy for
black urban areas (Black Local Authorities Act of 1982) and a tri-cameral parliament
(1983). The intention was to make apartheid more acceptable to blacks, coloureds
and Indians. However, this attempt at reform backfired as it was rejected by almost
everyone, resulting in escalated protests and conflict.

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

The apartheid government responded with severe repression and declared repeated
states of emergency starting in the middle of 1985 and lasting for most of the rest of
the 1980s. This, however, added fuel to the fire as the United Democratic Front (and
later the Mass Democratic Movement) and trade unions organised a wide range of
resistance, such as boycotts, stayaways and mass protests. In addition, the international
community, alarmed by the apartheid government’s violent repression, isolated
South Africa through sanctions, boycotts and the withdrawal of financial support and
investments.

By 1989 the country was virtually ungovernable and its economy was spiralling
downwards. A radical change was needed to save the country from total collapse. This
occurred when FW de Klerk become State President in September 1989, unbanning the
ANC and other organisations and freeing political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela
in early 1990, which opened the door to a negotiated solution to the country’s problems
and the advent of democracy in 1994.

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

Questions

1 Key question: What was the nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and 1980s?

1.1 Why did the apartheid government create the bantustans? Provide three reasons.

1.2 Explain how the creation of the bantustans contradicted apartheid, and

helped to bring about the end of apartheid.

2 Key question: How did the apartheid government try to reform apartheid in

order to maintain it?

2.1 The apartheid government tried to reform apartheid in the early 1980s.

2.1.1 Why did they do this?

2.1.2 Give two examples of these attempts at reform.

2.1.3 Were these attempts at reform successful? Provide reasons for your answer.

3 Key question: What types of internal and external resistance to apartheid

helped lead to the end of apartheid?

3.1 After 1984 the trade unions became more involved in the struggle against

apartheid. Briefly explain why.

3.2 From the mid-1980s, new forms of protest against apartheid emerged.

3.2.1 List four of these new forms.

3.2.2 Explain why these new forms of protest were successful.

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

3.3 Who were the last two presidents of the apartheid government in South Africa?

3.4 What was the Harare Declaration?

3.5 Outline the role the following played in helping to end apartheid:

3.5.1 International sanctions

3.5.2 The Mass Democratic Movement

3.5.3 The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale in Angola.

Exam practice

1 Key question: In what ways did Black Consciousness challenge the apartheid state?

1.1 When Steve Biko said in 1971 “The most potent weapon in the hands of the

oppressor is the mind of the oppressed”, he meant that … (1 × 3) (3)

1.2 Read the Source on the next page and answer the following questions.

1.2.1 What was the main cause for the Soweto Uprising? (1 × 2) (2)

1.2.2 Outline the impact that Black Consciousness had on the Soweto

Uprising. (2 × 2) (4)

1.2.3 Give two reasons why West Rand Bantu Administration Board, liquor

stores and beer halls were “symbols of racial discrimination and

oppression” for these students. (2 × 2) (4)

1.2.4 From this Source, suggest what the attitude of the apartheid police

was towards the Soweto students. (2 × 2) (4)

1.2.5 Do you think this source is biased? Provide two reasons to support

your point of view. (1 × 3) (3)

[20 marks]

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

Source A

On 16 June 1976, 10 000 African students in Soweto, the segregated African township

of Johannesburg, joined a peaceful demonstration … The police opened fire at the

demonstrators, killing several children. A special police squad trained to combat urban

terrorism was brought into Soweto by helicopters, which were also used to drop teargas

canisters. In the ensuing confrontations between the police and Africans, mainly students,

large numbers of persons were killed and wounded. The Africans destroyed a number of

buildings – notably the offices of the West Rand Bantu Administration Board, liquor stores

and beer halls – which, to them, were symbols of racial discrimination and oppression.

Eyewitness accounts … indicated that the police had shot and killed school children

indiscriminately. A senior police officer told the press: ‘We fired into them. It is no good

firing over their heads’ …

According to official figures, 176 persons were killed and 1 139 wounded, many of

whom were small children. Over 1 300 persons were arrested. There is reason to believe

that the total was actually much higher.

(Source: From the Special Report of the Special Committee against Apartheid on the Soweto massacre
and its aftermath, submitted to the United Nations General Assembly on 3 August 1976.)

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Democracy in South Africa and remembering the past

Overview
In this topic you will revise:
● the negotiated settlement in South Africa
● the beginning of the solutions, including secret negotiations with the ANC
● and CODESA I and II
● the breakdown in negotiations, including the ‘whites only’ referendum
● the resumption of the multi-party negotiations, including the impact of Chris
Hani’s murder and the setting of election dates
● ongoing violence in the run-up to elections, including the St James Massacre
● the final road to democracy, including the Interim Constitution, the Bill of Rights
and the Government of National Unity
● how South Africa has chosen to remember the past
● the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
● remembering the past: memorials.

UNIT 1 Page 100

The negotiated • The beginning of the solution
settlement and • Breakdown of negotiations
the Government of • Multi-party negotiations resume
national Unity • Ongoing violence
• Final road to democracy in 1994

TOPIC 5 Page 99–128

Democracy in
South Africa and
remembering the past

UNIT 2 Page 113

• Various forms of justice
How has South Africa • Debates concerning the TRC
chosen to remember • Responses of political parties to the TRC
the past? • Remembering the past: Memorials and monuments

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Topic 1
XX

Negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity

Key question: How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of
the 1990s and how did South Africans come to terms with the apartheid past?

Events leading up to the negotiations

● By the 1980s South Africa was sinking into a spiral of political violence and
economic crisis.
● The insurrection had made large parts of South Africa ungovernable, with many
negative outcomes, including the disruption of black schools, civil conflict,
detentions, police violence and economic instability.
● There were also tensions between the two sides of the struggle:

Whites had been indoctrinated to believe that democracy would mean a

communist black government that would take everything they owned and
destroy their culture and way of life, and that military power was the only
thing that protected them from this.

Blacks did not trust the regime and feared that any talks would lead to a
sham settlement and little real change to the apartheid system.

● In 1985, PW Botha offered to release Nelson Mandela on condition the ANC withdrew
violence as a form of struggle.
● Mandela responded by saying that no talks could take place until government
policies (considered as ‘obstacles’) had been cleared and there was trust that a
genuine solution could be found.

The beginning of the solution

● In Pollsmoor prison, the Emergency of 1986 prompted Nelson Mandela to request a
meeting with the government.
● Mandela made the sole decision to enter into negotiations → didn’t involve his
prison colleagues or those in Lusaka (ANC leaders in exile). He said:
● ‘There are times when a leader must move out ahead of the flock, go off in a new
direction, confident that he is leading his people the right way.’ (Long Walk to
Freedom, page 627).

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Secret talks with the ANC in exile and with Mandela

After 1987, some government officials and white business leaders began to meet secretly
with ANC leaders.

Sequence of events
● In July 1987 a group of 60 liberal Afrikaner businessmen and cultural leaders met
the exiled ANC leadership for a week in
Dakar, Senegal. Mandela’s role
● There were about 20 such meetings
● 1987: In Pollsmoor, the talks
after 1987 – mostly held secretly in hotel
between Nelson Mandela and the
rooms in foreign cities.
government proceeded slowly
● These were not negotiations and
during this year, starting with the
no deals were struck. Instead, the
first meetings with Kobie Coetsee,
different sides were getting to know
Minister of Justice.
and understand each other and build a
● Among some of the critical
climate of mutual trust.
issues discussed were:
Between 1988 and February 1990 large
● armed struggle
delegations of up to 20 influential leaders
● ANC’s alliance with the
on both sides met at a country estate in the Communist Party
UK called Mells Park House, to discuss the
● goal of majority rule
conditions that would have to be in place for
● idea of racial conciliation.
● May 1988: Mandela met Botha’s
proper negotiations.
chief strategist Niels Barnard → 47
● But many leaders on both sides were
times between 1988 and 1990.
still opposed to the idea of talks.
● 1989: Mandela was given an open
● Militant ANC leaders like Mac
telephone line to consult with OR
Maharaj and Chris Hani were
Tambo (ANC President in exile) in
preparing a new series of MK attacks
Lusaka. PLUS was later allowed
against whites.
to meet United Democratic Front
● White political leaders and police
(UDF) leaders at Victor Verster
continued to hold onto exclusive
prison outside Paarl.
power with ever more brutal
● July 1989: Nelson Mandela finally
repression.
met with PW Botha himself.

1989 to 1991: Preparing the way for negotiations

During 1989 there was a lot of talking and relationship building, but little sign of a
breakthrough. A number of important events in 1988 and 1989 made a new approach
possible.

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● In 1988 the South African Army suffered a major military defeat in Angola at the
battle of Cuito Cuanavale.
● This shook the military establishment and enabled the liberals in the National
Party to argue more strongly that whites could not hold on to power by force
alone.
● The 1980s: there were more economic sanctions, while international pressure forced
many banks to stop investing in South Africa.
● By the time De Klerk became president, foreign companies were losing
confidence in the South African economy and taking their money out. The
economy was in deep trouble.
● At the beginning of 1989 PW Botha suffered a stroke, and the more liberal National
Party (NP) leaders were able to remove him as president and weaken the influence of
the military generals.
● In 1989 FW de Klerk was elected leader of the National Party → was a
conservative thinker, but he believed that reform was the only way to preserve
white power.

Preparing the whites for negotiations

● De Klerk believed that the NP and its black allies (like Dr Buthelezi of the Inkatha
Freedom Party – IFP) could negotiate a constitution that would preserve white
power and even challenge the ANC in elections.
● But whites were increasingly divided:
● De Klerk feared that white right wing leaders like Eugéne Terre’Blanche of the
Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) was driving a paramilitary movement.
● If they linked up with conservatives in the army, they might soon pose a
threat to the National Party reformers (led by De Klerk).
● He called an election in 1989 asking whites to support political reforms – though not
the end of apartheid.
● In this election, the National Party lost 27 seats – many to right wing parties.
● However, the fact that the liberal Democratic Party had also gained seats told
De Klerk that he could count on a large section of the white population to
support reform.
● Also, 1989 saw popular revolutions and the collapse of communist regimes in
Eastern Europe in the Soviet Union, which marked a new turn in world history.

Preparing the liberation movement for negotiations

THE PROCESS

● By August 1989 it was clear to many that negotiations were a possibility.

● ANC and Mass Democratic Movement (MDM) leaders needed to persuade their
members to support negotiations, but could only do so if they could get most
people to agree on conditions for a negotiated settlement.

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● In August 1989 the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) adopted the Harare
Declaration on negotiations with the South African government
● Drafted by the ANC, this document set out the principles under which political
negotiations would be acceptable to the liberation movement and its allies. In
December 1989, the declaration was adopted by 4 600 delegates at a conference in
Harare of the ANC and UDF-affiliated organisations

Unbanning of organisations
● 1990: De Klerk let it be known that he would make an important announcement
when he opened Parliament on 2 February 1990. Changing the course of South
African history, his speech outlined the following steps that would be taken:
● The ANC, PAC, SACP and a number of subsidiary organisations would be
unbanned.
● People serving prison sentences merely because they were members of one of
these organisations would be released.
● The media emergency regulations and the education emergency regulations
would be abolished, along with the restrictions in terms of the emergency
regulations on 33 organisations.
● The detention period in terms of the security emergency regulations would be
limited to six months.
● The Government took a firm decision to release Nelson Mandela
unconditionally.

On the day of his release, Mandela Release of political prisoners and

was taken to the Grand Parade of Mandela
in Cape Town where he read ● As an act of goodwill and to test what
an uncompromising speech, would happen, the government had already
composed by the leadership of released some political prisoners like Govan
the MDM. Mbeki and Ahmed Kathrada during 1989.
● This emphasised the need for ● In the two weeks after February 2nd most
South Africa to be led by ‘a other political prisoners were released.
body which is democratically ● On 11 February 1990 Mandela himself was
elected on a non-racial basis’. released.

Debates around negotiations: clearing the obstacles

South Africa was on a new road and there was no turning back, but there were still
obstacles that had to be overcome before serious negotiations about the future could
begin.

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● First were legal obstacles:

● the government repealed many discriminatory laws and repressive security
regulations. Exiled ANC and SACP leaders (Joe Slovo, Chris Hani and others)
returned home.
● 4 May 1990: First official meeting was held at President De Klerk’s Groote
Schuur residence between a government delegation and a group of ANC
leaders returned from exile and MDM leaders.
● The leaders committed themselves to creating conditions for peaceful
negotiations. Their agreement was recorded in the ‘Grootte Schuur Minute’.

The ANC suspends the armed struggle

One of the biggest obstacles from the government’s perspective was the fact that the
ANC refused to publicly suspend the armed struggle.
● MK members like leader Ronnie Kasrils did not trust the De Klerk government and
were unsure of its intentions.
● Another major obstacle was the continuing violence in the Rand townships
between ANC aligned urban residents and IFP aligned migrant workers living in
hostels.
● The week before the Pretoria meeting, on 22 July 1990, an armed group of IFP
supporters attacked residents of Sebokeng and killed 30 people, mostly ANC
supporters.
● Both the government and ANC realised that they needed to move quickly:
● at their meeting in Pretoria the government accepted the principle of
democracy and the ANC unilaterally suspended its armed struggle.

The role of the labour movement in negotiations

After trade unions were legalised in South Africa in 1979, the Federation of South Africa
Trade Unions (FOSATU) and the Council of Unions of South Africa (CUSA) were formed
by 1980.
● → Trade unions began to play a key role in calling for workers’ rights during
the 1980s.

● In 1982 Cyril Ramaphosa was one of the founding members of the National Union
of Mineworkers (NUM) and became its first General Secretary – he remained in this
position until June 1991 when he became General Secretary of the ANC.
● Smaller trade unions joined UDF in 1983 to work in a more coordinated way
for reform.
● NUM broke away from CUSA and formed COSATU in 1985. It grew into a powerful
umbrella organisation for a range of different unions.

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● After the unbanning of the SACP, ANC, UDF and PAC in 1990, unions and civil
society groups got involved in the negotiation process, but tended to join ranks with
established political parties.
● COSATU joined the ANC and SACP in a formal tripartite alliance in May 1990
● called for equality for workers
● better basic conditions of employment
● fair labour standards.
● After this its membership grew markedly.
● COSATU’s key rivals were NACTU (National Council of Trade Unions) – a blacks-only
union formed in 1986 and UWUSA (United Workers’ Union of South Africa) which
was affiliated to the IFP.
● In July 1990 trade unions, e.g. COSATU and UDF backed the ANC’s call for rolling
mass action and as a result 3 million workers stayed away from work.
● In August 1990 Mac Maharaj issued a statement calling for the release of COSATU
leaders who had been arrested and for the violence to end.
● This was followed up in September 1990 when leaders of the ANC, UDF and COSATU
met FW de Klerk:
● Asked for action to be taken to end the violence in South Africa.
● On 14 September 1991 the trade unions agreed to the National Peace Accord.
● Union representatives were involved as members of political groupings in the
negotiation process.
● In May 1992, when CODESA II ended in deadlock, COSATU joined the ANC in:
● calling for a week-long general strike
● demanding the institution of an interim government, the immediate transfer
of power to the people and free and fair elections to institute a constituent
assembly.
● On 3 August 1992 a week of mass action started to force a transition to
majority rule.
● Cyril Ramaphosa (NUM) & Roelf Meyer (NP) and their respective teams played
key roles in the negotiations process and were instrumental in both achieving a
settlement when talks broke down and in setting up the Multiparty Negotiation
Forum on 1 April 1993.

Role of trade unions in the new South Africa after 1994

● Many trade union leaders were absorbed into posts in the administration and
political framework, i.e. Cyril Ramaphosa became a Member of Parliament.
● The tripartite alliance was challenged as the GNU moved away from a socialist state
to one with a mixed economy.
● COSATU continued to take up the struggle for workers’ rights and interest
● this brought the union into conflict with the ANC government at times.

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What was CODESA 1?

CODESA I
● In December 1991 over 400 representatives of 17 political parties assembled at the
Conference for a Democratic South Africa, or CODESA 1.
● The talks did not start well. In his opening address President De Klerk launched a
bitter attack on the ANC.
● De Klerk suggested that the ANC could not be trusted to negotiate peace until it
had disbanded Umkhonto We Sizwe (MK).
● Nelson Mandela was outraged and declared that De Klerk headed a minority
regime & had little idea of what democracy means.

From this meeting it was clear that a great gulf needed to be bridged in the months that
lay ahead. Nevertheless, five working groups were set up and given six months to draft
proposals that would be endorsed by a second meeting of CODESA planned for May
1992.

However, by May 1992 the ANC and government were still far from an agreement:

The National Party was not

The ANC and its allies yet ready to accept this,
demanded a constitution insisting on ‘power-sharing’
based on majority rule in a arrangements that would give
united nation state. minorities the power to veto
any decision for many years to
come.

Outcome: CODESA in deadlock and parties left to continue informal discussions to see if
the disagreements could be overcome.

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Violence in the 1990s and debates about violence

● CODESA did not stop the violence.
● In the face of attacks by IFP supporters backed by the police, township residents
formed ‘self-defence units’ and fought back.
● Violence in townships and in rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal began to spiral out of
control as groups attacked each other.
● Racial murders from white extreme right wing groups added to the climate of fear.
● The ongoing violence through 1991 and 1992 placed great strain on the negotiations.
● The ANC repeatedly called on the government to ban IFP supporters’ carrying of
weapons in public (which the IFP insisted was an essential part of Zulu traditional
culture). The government sided with its ally the IFP.

Breakdown of negotiations
● On the night of July 17 1992, IFP-aligned hostel dwellers attacked the ANC-
supporting informal settlement of Boipatong.
● Residents alleged police involvement – later substantiated in Truth and
Reconciliation Commission (TRC) hearings.
● There was an explosion of anger across the nation. The ANC broke off all talks with
the government accusing it of complicity.
The ‘whites only’ referendum
CODESA breaks down De Klerk call for a referendum of
There were no further talks for almost a year.
white voters for two reasons:
Together with COSATU, the ANC sought to
● He did not have the support of all
channel this anger into a national campaign
members of his party.
of rolling mass action.
● Many called on him to break off
● = Public confrontation
talks as well.
● In public the ANC and COSATU ● This was a big gamble:
mobilised people to put pressure on ● if whites voted no to
the government to drop its insistence
reform, all that he had
on a minority veto and to act to prevent
tried to achieve would
violence.
be lost. But if they voted
● Rolling mass action included strikes
yes, then he would be
and massive public demonstrations
vindicated and have a full
against the government and the
mandate to continue talks.
homeland governments.
● In early August a national strike was
declared. Mandela led 50 000 in a march on the Union Buildings.
● On 7 September 70 000 ANC members marched on Bisho, the capital of the
Ciskei Bantustan, calling for its re-incorporation into South Africa. Ciskei troops
opened fire killing 28 marchers.
● Tension led to De Klerk and Mandela exchanging hostile letters about the
need to end the violence.

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Behind the scenes negotiation

● While formal talks between government and ANC were suspended, Cyril Ramaphosa
(NUM) and Roelf Meyer (NP) met in secret more than 40 times between June and
September 1992, to try and broker a resumption of talks.
● The deadlocked negotiations between the government and ANC sent the economy
into a spin and violence threatened to tear the country apart.
● Both sides had to prepare their supporters to make serious compromises.
● The ANC came to accept that some form of power sharing was necessary for a fixed
period after elections. They discussed the principle of ‘sunset clauses’ but did not
yet make this public.

What was decided?

● After a year of internal debate, the NP abandoned its insistence on explicit minority
vetoes and came to accept the idea that Afrikaners would be better protected under a
liberal democratic constitution with limited power sharing for the first few years.
● They also came to accept that the alliance with the IFP was an obstacle in the way of
resumption of talks.
The Sunset Clause and the Record of Understanding
● Over almost a year, Roelf Meyer and his allies succeeded in persuading the others in
the NP that they would have to accept the principle of full democratic government.
● In return, the ANC agreed that there would be limited power sharing in a
government of national unity (GNU).
SUNSET
CLAUSE

● It also agreed to a ‘sunset clause’ proposed by Joe Slovo that the

jobs of white officials in government would be guaranteed for
5 years.
● The government quietly abandoned its support for the IFP.

The Record of Understanding agreed that:

● A democratically elected constitution-making body would also act as a transitional

Government of National Unity.
● Most remaining political prisoners would be released.
● Hostels associated with violence would be fenced and tightly policed.
● The carrying of weapons in public would be prohibited.
● The right to peaceful mass action is affirmed.

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Multi-party negotiations resume

● For the next six months, from September 1992 to April 1993, government and ANC
negotiators took to the bush to participate in bilateral ‘bosberade’.
● Most of the major points were agreed in these meetings, but they would still have to
be negotiated and approved in a proper Negotiating Forum that included 19 of the
most important political groups and parties in South Africa.
● The Negotiating Forum was planned to begin in April 1993 at the World Trade Centre
near OR Tambo Airport.
● But there were still setbacks: The IFP, conservative and right wing whites and the
remaining Bantustan leaders of Ciskei and Bophuthatswana remained vehemently
opposed to the constitution that was taking shape.

Murder of Chris Hani The St James Church and

● Chris Hani, Secretary-General of
Heidelberg Tavern massacres
the SACP and former MK Chief It was not only right wing whites and the
of Staff, was gunned down just IFP who were opposed to negotiations:
as the Negotiating Forum was ● On 25 July 1993 four cadres of the
getting underway, on 10 April Azanian People’s Liberation Army
1993, by a Polish immigrant (later (APLA) attacked a congregation at the
found to have been part of a St James Church in Kenilworth, Cape
right-wing plot). Town, killing some and wounding
● The country braced itself for a many others.
wave of violence and revenge, ● In December, people using the same
however, the long tradition of weapons killed four whites at the
non-racialism in the democratic Heidelberg tavern in Cape Town.
movement held firm (reiterated
in a speech by Nelson Mandela In 1998 the attackers were granted
that was broadcast on national amnesty by the TRC, where they said
television). they were following orders and that they
regarded all whites as legitimate targets.

Date of elections set

These events only made most negotiators work harder for an agreement.

● In this new spirit of urgency, the Negotiating Forum set the date for South Africa’s
first democratic elections in one year’s time: 27 April 1994
● It began to work on an interim constitution under which the first elections would
be held.
● It also established an Independent Electoral Commission, an Independent Media
Commission and a Transitional Executive Council → would rule the country in the
run-up to the elections.

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What was the Freedom Alliance?

● Those opposed to the Interim Constitution now came together and called
themselves the Freedom Alliance.
● Membership: included the apartheid homeland leaders Lucas Mangope of
Bophuthatswana, Oupa Gqozo of Ciskei, and Mangosuthu Buthelezi of KwaZulu
together with conservative Afrikaners led by General Constand Viljoen and
the extreme right wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), led by Eugéne
Terre’Blanche.
● They knew they would have no political support at a national level, so they
demanded a federal system hoping that they could hold on to power in strong
provincial governments.
● The right-wing Afrikaners demanded an independent Afrikaner ‘volkstaat’ and
the IFP demanded greater sovereignty for the Zulu kingdom. They made it clear
that they would boycott the elections if their demands were not met.

The Interim Constitution and Bill of Rights

To break the deadlock, the Negotiating Forum abandoned the idea that
1
●
everyone should agree before a clause could be adopted (absolute consensus).

● They now worked on the principle of ‘sufficient consensus’ → meant that if

2 the great majority of delegates agreed, then a clause could be adopted in the
interim constitution.

3 ● Multi-party negotiations proceeded as delegates negotiated the terms of the

interim constitution and transitional process. Finally, on November 18 1993 an
interim constitution and Bill of Rights were adopted.

The final road to democracy

Over the next few months there were desperate attempts to persuade the Freedom
Alliance to drop their opposition to elections. Some concessions were made, but not
enough to satisfy them.
● On-going violence: the fall of Bophuthatswana and Ciskei and the shooting of IFP
marchers in Johannesburg
● The New Year 1994 dawned with no sign of agreement with the Freedom
Alliance.
● The public was concerned that the South Africa army would support the
homeland leaders and the Afrikaner right wing.
● Six weeks before the planned election, Chief Lucas Mangope asked Constand
Viljoen to send armed men to protect him from a possible uprising in
Bophuthatswana.

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● Viljoen proceeded to mobilise 4 000 armed men.

● But the AWB led by Eugéne Terre’blanche also arrived and the extreme racist
whites rode into town shooting bystanders.
● The Bophuthatswana army turned against Mangope and the occupying whites
were forced to withdraw.

Outcomes
● The ‘independent’ homeland of Bophuthatswana ceased to exist.
● The homeland government of Ciskei fell soon after.
● Constand Viljoen, leader of many conservative Afrikaners, abandoned the option
of military action and registered a political party called the Freedom Front to take
part in the elections.
● It seemed that the threat of right wing military resistance was over.
● The only significant party still opposed to elections was now the IFP.

The position of the IFP

● One month before the planned election, thousands of IFP supporters marched with
their red scarves, shields and spears through central Johannesburg to protest against
the planned elections.
● Outside the ANC headquarters (Shell House) ANC security guards shot IFP
marchers, supposedly in self-defence, but this was contested.
● It looked like the hopes of a free election in KZN were finished.
● However, one week before the election date, the IFP suddenly agreed to
participate
● → millions of stickers were hurriedly printed and stuck onto the ballot paper.

Elections and GNU

Many people expected a day of violence on 27 April 1994, when South Africans went
to the polls in the first fully democratic election in the country’s history. However, the
opposite happened.
● The vast majority of South African citizens queued patiently in a spirit of celebration
and unity to vote for their representatives who would rule the country.
● But there were claims of vote rigging and stuffed ballot boxes – especially from
rural voting stations in KZN and elsewhere.
● This meant the results were delayed.
● Three days before the results were finally announced FW de Klerk conceded that the
ANC had won the election. Mandela, in the interests of peace, accepted that the IFP
had won in Natal.

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In this spirit of compromise, a Government of National Unity (GNU) was formed with
Mandela as president and with FW de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki as two deputy presidents,
and six NP cabinet ministers in a 30-member cabinet.
● The first great achievement of the new democratic parliament was to draft a new
Constitution.
● There were compromises on the detail of clauses, but there was agreement on
most of the fundamental principles in the Constitution.
● By the mid-1990s, most South Africans had come to understand that their
rights were best protected by a constitution that protected the rights of all
citizens and cultures – and did not treat any groups differently.

South African Constitution (1996)

Today, South Africa’s Constitution is regarded as one of the most progressive
and liberal constitutions in the world:

Protects the rights of individual citizens and prevents abuse of power by any
government.

● But the real work of transforming and rebuilding the country was only
beginning.

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Topic X
1
XX

How has South Africa chosen to remember the past?

Key question: Why did South Africa choose a Truth and Reconciliation
Commission and how has the struggle against apartheid been remembered?

What are the various forms of justice that can be used to

deal with a divided past?

Recap:
The brutal apartheid system had abused the civic and human rights of the majority of
South Africans. The detentions and torture of the 1960s and 1970s had given way to the
abduction, torture and murder of the 1980s. The question facing South Africans was:
● What was the best way to deal with the violent past?
● There were two possibilities when considering judgement in terms of the past:

Retributive justice

It is the kind of
It is the form of
justice that happens
justice that considers
In post-War in a court of law and if
punishment to be the
Germany, after the convicted, the offender is
best response to a
Nuremberg trials, the given a punishment that is
crime.
Nazi leaders were given thought appropriate for
the death sentence or the crime committed.
long terms in prison.

Restorative justice

Instead,
In victims and
This form of justice South Africa’s perpetrators come
rejects the exclusive case the TRC and together in some way to
focus on punishment. perpetrators have to resolve collectively how to
take responsibility for deal with the aftermath
their actions as a way of the offence and its
of trying to repair the implications for the
harm they have future.
done.

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The route of restorative justice through the TRC was a way of dealing with the past in
order to move all South Africans to a more stable, decent and more peaceful future.

The TRC
Reasons for and origins of the TRC
● The idea for the TRC first came from the ANC:
● After the unbanning of the liberation organisations, the ANC faced accusations
of human rights abuses in its training camps in Tanzania and other parts of
southern Africa.
● It set up an internal inquiry and it was revealed that human rights violations had
occurred in the ANC camps.
● The ANC’s National Executive Committee (NEC) accepted the findings, but
decided that these violations needed to be seen against the overall human rights
violations that were perpetrated over decades in SA.
● So rather than the ANC looking for general amnesty for itself, it called for an
independent truth commission so that everyone could be accountable for the past.

The options facing South Africans in terms of dealing with the past were
● EITHER a blanket amnesty, which was not acceptable for criminal trials so would
not have worked
● OR criminal prosecutions, which would’ve meant that the ANC would not have
been able to rely on the apartheid security forces to ensure a peaceful election and
transition to democracy. (These security services were still strong and were needed
in the new state.)
● So it was decided to set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

What was the TRC?

It was essentially a political compromise in the interests of national reconciliation.
● It involved hearings that were held in public, which made it impossible for South
Africans to deny the atrocities carried out by the state in their name.
● The public hearings also began the process of accepting accountability for the
past and of a commitment to making sure that it would never happen again.
● The Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act of 1995 created the
TRC that had to facilitate this process.
● The Chairperson was Archbishop Desmond Tutu who was assisted by
17 commissioners.
● It was the world’s first truth commission that had hearings of victims and
perpetrators open to the public and that published its findings at the end
of the process.

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Hearings (began early in 1996) → held in community halls in cities and small towns,
often in the townships where the violence had happened and where the victims and
their families had lived.
● The hearings were broadcast on radio and television in all official languages.

What is the TRC Act?

This outlined the three preconditions to be met before amnesty could be granted:
● applicants had to make a full and truthful disclosure of events and actions around
the act of violence for which amnesty was applied;
● the applicant had to prove he/she had a political motive;
● and the act could not be out of proportion with the political objective. In other
words, amnesty would not be granted to someone who had committed murder
because of a political difference of opinion.

The role of the TRC

● To compile as complete a picture as possible of gross human rights violations that
had taken place on all sides between 1960 and 1993.
● To hear testimony from victims and perpetrators.
● To grant perpetrators amnesty from prosecution or civil action, where there was full
disclosure and a clear political motivation.
● To suggest how victims could be compensated through reparations.

Special hearings
These were also held on: prisons, women, children, state security, the military and
police, the different political parties, the media, the medical profession, and religious
communities, among other particular cases.

The TRC had three committees

● Committee on Human Rights Violations to hear the public testimonies by victims
of gross abuses of human rights. This was not a court of law.
● Committee on Reparation and Rehabilitation which investigated cases, gave
support and awarded reparations to victims.
● Committee on Amnesty, which could grant amnesty from prosecution under
certain conditions.

The hearings
● During the first six months the TRC heard evidence from the victims.
● Task of the HRV committee = investigate human rights abuses between 1960 and
1994, based on statements made by victims and their families to the TRC.
● Once victims of gross human rights violations were identified, they were referred to
the Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee.
● The hearings were conducted by groups of commissioners travelling around the
country to take testimony from those who had suffered human rights abuses and to
gather information about the atrocities that had been committed.

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The hearings of the Human Rights Violations Committee (HRVC)

● These hearings began in the East London city hall on 16 April 1996.
● They were held in community halls around SA – before each hearing, witnesses met
with the staff of the commission to make a written statement.
● White South Africans, who had voted for the apartheid government, were for the
first time confronted by the crimes that had been committed in its name.
● Only a proportion of the victims could in fact appear in public hearings. Their
participation was to an extent, symbolic.
● The TRC acknowledged the victim’s pain publicly and, for many, being able to tell
their stories was the beginning of a process of healing and closure. In many cases,
victims publicly forgave perpetrators.

The hearings of the Amnesty Committee

● Amnesty hearings were conducted as a legal process. The Amnesty Committees
consisted of judges, advocates and attorneys.
● Unlike the HRVC hearings, witnesses, victims, survivors and applicants were entitled
to legal representation.
● Also, all evidence was tested through cross-examination; and the Amnesty
Committee was able to subpoena witnesses.
● The primary function of the Amnesty Committee was to ensure that applications for
amnesty were done in accordance with the provisions of the TRC Act.
● Being granted amnesty for an act means that the perpetrator would not be
prosecuted for that particular act.
● If someone was denied amnesty they were liable for prosecution.

The Reparations and Rehabilitation Committee

● Tasked with recommending to the government a system of reparations for victims.
● It also provided victim support to ensure that the Truth Commission process restored
the dignity of victims.
● A President’s Fund, funded by Parliament and private contributions, was
established to pay urgent interim reparations to victims in terms of the regulations
prescribed by the President.

Outcomes of TRC
The TRC had a limited time period of two years. The overriding objective was to
encourage truth telling.
● However, in trying to compile the ‘picture of the past’, the TRC faced the dilemma
of how to validate the ‘subjective truths’ of the painful experiences and memories
of human rights violations of the victims, while at the same time producing a
suitably ‘objective’ and authoritative account of the apartheid past.
● One of the most important aspects of the TRC hearings was the fact that they
were held in public. Everyone daily witnessed the pain and suffering that
apartheid had caused to fellow South Africans.

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Major findings of the TRC

The final report handed over to President Mandela at the end of October 1998, was
contained in five volumes of findings on gross human rights violations, and found the
following:
● Apartheid was judged to be a crime against humanity.
● The National Party government of PW Botha was found to have been responsible for
murder, torture, arson, abduction and sabotage.
● The liberation movements were also found to have been guilty of gross human rights
violations.
● The report also criticised De Klerk’s government for activities of ‘third force’ in an
attempt to disrupt the pre-1994 negotiations.
● The ANC was criticised for the civilian casualties in MK operations: the torture and
executions in camps in exile and the use of violence against opponents.
● Finally the report found that South African society as a whole was damaged by
apartheid and was in need of healing.

DEBATES: these have been carried out for some time as to whether the TRC served its
purpose and how it could’ve been improved.

Positive aspects: The TRC as an instrument of reconciliation

● The TRC process did serve the purpose of confronting the evils of apartheid,
allowing transition from apartheid to democracy to happen in a peaceful, non-
violent way.
● The media played a critical role in this process.
● The public hearings that were broadcast daily on TV and radio included the
testimonies of both victims and perpetrators.
● This ensured that South Africans could not deny their violent past.
● The experience of telling stories and hearing confessions was a cathartic experience
that began a process of forgiveness and healing between victims and perpetrators.
● It also brought closure to families who had lost loved ones.
● For a few, there was a deep sense of guilt and soul-searching.
● But many whites accused the TRC of being a witch-hunt and of stirring up hatred:
● said it would make reconciliation impossible.
● Ultimately though, the TRC placed the truth on record, which allowed the
nation to move forward.

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Amnesty provisions and problems with amnesty

The provision of amnesty in return for full and truthful disclosure raised both moral and
legal issues:
● Amnesty for torture is prohibited by an international treaty, which South Africa
signed in 1993. Many therefore questioned whether perpetrators should then have
been tried in a court of law.
● Many South Africans felt that amnesty for perpetrators of gross human rights
violations during the apartheid era was morally unjust, yet others accepted that
this was the price South Africa needed to pay to ensure a peaceful transition to
democracy.
● While there was closure for some, others were infuriated to see the guilty granted
amnesty and able to walk free.
● It was problematic that many of the top apartheid leadership didn’t apply for
amnesty and refused to take responsibility for the apartheid abuses. Many believed
that the Amnesty Committee should have used their power to subpoena to ensure
that these officials were brought in front of the TRC.

The TRC’s mandate was

The TRC looked at apartheid
to gather information and
through the experience of a
investigate gross human
minority of political activists
rights violations during
and state security forces. This
SA’s apartheid past.
was an important task, but the
Therefore individual cases
damage that apartheid did to
of violence such as murder
generations of South Africans
and torture were examined.
was ignored.

Focus on gross
human rights of
1980s and ignoring
institutional violence and
the whole human rights
abuses of apartheid:

The apartheid system

that destroyed the lives of Apartheid conditioned South
millions economically & Africans into believing that
psychologically was not they were either superior
put ‘on trial’ – it ignored or inferior human beings.
those arrested for pass law The psychological damage,
violations , victims of forced particularly to those who were
removals; and those who went made to feel inferior, was
through Bantu Education. enormous.

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● The TRC process enabled the beneficiaries of the apartheid system to see themselves
as victims of the system, and to say that they did not know what was happening
when they voted the National Party into power.

Reparations
The Reparations Committee made two suggestions:
● Urgent interim relief for victims. This has been implemented to some extent.
● By the end of the TRC’s term, every victim should have been given monetary
compensation by the government.

In the years since the end of the TRC process, the victims have not received this
compensation.
● Government has admitted that this has been a failure – that there are no
mechanisms in place to assist victims.
● This has seriously challenged the model of restorative justice.

Responses of political parties to the TRC and its final report

NP & ANC:
● Both were dissatisfied with the final TRC report and tried to block its publication.

Former President FW de Klerk:

● He brought an urgent action in the Cape High Court, asking it to forbid the findings
against him from being included in the Commission’s report. These were removed at
the last minute.

The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP):

● The TRC findings on the IFP were also rejected – Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi
rejected the findings of the report which held him responsible for acts of gross
human rights abuse.

The ANC appeal:

● It objected to the risk that the liberation struggle would be criminalised, and lodged
an appeal in the courts to stop the handing over of the report to President Mandela.
However, the hand-over went ahead.

Conclusion
● For all its flaws the TRC was a process vital to South Africa’s peaceful transition and
is highly regarded as a model around the world.
● Admitting the truth about past abuses helped restore dignity and identity to
thousands of victims.
● Dealing with the past was essential for South Africa to move forward.
● The TRC started the process of reconciliation.

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How has the struggle against apartheid been remembered?

After the end of apartheid, South Africa faced the issue of how the struggle for liberation
would be remembered.

But over and above this, it was also about how the struggle could be remembered and
commemorated in a way that would bring reconciliation in South Africa.

Underpinned by a tension:

● = a monument or memorial is a lens on the past and can’t tell the whole story:
● → one side or perspective dominates as the ‘truth’.
● Therefore, when visiting any monument or memorial you need to ask the
following questions:
● What part of the story is being told?
● Whose story is being told?
● Whose point of view and values are reflected?
● What part of the story has been left out?

Can heritage and the construction of memorials contribute to

reconciliation and nation building?
National and local monuments or memorials have been constructed to remember the
struggle against apartheid and to try to bring about reconciliation.

National monuments
Freedom Park:
● This is an important example of a national monument commemorating past
conflicts.
● Situated near Pretoria, the park was built after the end of apartheid and opened to
the public in December 2007.
● SA’s history and the values of human dignity, rights and freedom are expressed
through the symbolic elements that make up the journey through Freedom Park.
● One of its elements – The Wall of Names – has the names of those who died
during eight conflicts within SA’s history: from pre-colonial wars to the struggle
for liberation. They include slavery, frontier wars, the South African War and the
World Wars.

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Exclusion and inclusion of name on the Wall of Names

● It was decided to omit the names of white soldiers who died during the Border
War as they were fighting on behalf of the apartheid government.
● The problem with this is that many view it as a one-sided, subjective account of
history.
● As a result, many white men in South Africa feel hurt that their sacrifices and
service as conscripted soldiers who fought the enemies at the time was not
acknowledged.
● Ultimately, memorialisation of war and heroes of war is a political process that
involves interpretation of history and experiences.
● A wall including 2 000 names of SADF soldiers was erected near a 1979 memorial
statue of a SADF soldier at Fort Klapperkop (on a hill close to Freedom Park).
● However, this site has not been adequately acknowledged in post-1994 South
Africa.

Local monuments
The Thokoza Monument:
● In contrast to Freedom Park, this is an example of a local monument, which opened
in October 1999.
● It was a community project and brings together two opposing sides in the former
conflict, commemorating all victims of the conflict – those of both the IFP and the
ANC.
● From 1990 to 1994, Khumalo Street in Thokoza township was a battleground during
the violence that broke out between the IFP and ANC.
● After the 1994 general elections relative stability was brought to Thokoza:
● relations between the IFP & ANC began to improve and the idea for a memorial
began to develop.
● Over 28 organisations committed themselves to the project:
● the site chosen for the monument was on Khumalo Street between the stadium
and the youth centre.
● The monument remembers all those who died in the political violence in order not
to repeat the past.

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Summary and questions

Summary
In Topic 5, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question:

Key question: How did South Africa emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 1990s and
how did South Africans come to terms with the apartheid past?

In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below.

Unit 1 The negotiated settlement and the Government of National Unity

The negotiated settlement and the GNU had their beginnings in secret talks between
the ANC-in-exile and concerned Afrikaner leaders. There was a realisation on both
sides that neither could ‘win’ and that some form of negotiated settlement would be
necessary. These secret talks then extended to include Nelson Mandela (while still in
prison) and members of the apartheid government, including PW Botha.

When FW de Klerk took over from PW Botha as State President, he unbanned the ANC
and other organisations, freed political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela and invited
all interested parties to participate in discussions on what should be done to achieve a
peaceful settlement in South Africa.

Consequently, on 4 May 1990, the first official meeting was held at President De Klerk’s
Groote Schuur residence between a government delegation and a delegation of leaders
of the ANC returned from exile and leaders of the MDM. Their agreement was recorded
in the Groote Schuur Minute.

The route to the agreement of an Interim Constitution under which the first democratic
elections would be held on 27 April 1994 was complex and fraught with difficulties,
including the assassination of Chris Hani, third force violence, the AWB invasion of the
World Trade Centre where the MPNF (which had developed out of CODESA I and II) was
meeting, the St James and Shell House Massacres, and the fall of Bophuthatswana.

Nonetheless, on 18 November 1993, an Interim Constitution, together with a Bill of

Rights, was adopted and five months later South Africa became a democracy, with
Nelson Mandela as the first democratically-elected president.

Unit 2 How has South Africa chosen to remember the past?

After the advent of democracy, South Africa had to consider how to heal the wounds of
not only the terrible abuses of human rights due to apartheid as a system, but also due
to the violence committed on all sides in the struggle against apartheid.

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For this reason, South Africa established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act of 1995). It used a system of
restorative justice to enable perpetrators and victims of violence to meet and, through
reparations and amnesty, work towards forgiveness, closure and reconciliation.
Although the TRC was quite successful as an instrument of reconciliation on an
individual level, it did not manage to address the abuses of apartheid at a structural
level, and many of the apartheid government leaders responsible for implementing and
maintaining apartheid did not appear before the Commission.

Another post-apartheid issue that needed to be addressed was how the country would
deal with remembering apartheid and the struggle against it. A means was needed
that would honour those who had made sacrifices to bring us freedom and remind us
of our united destiny, protected by a constitution that guarantees our human rights.
Monuments and memorials, such as Freedom Park and the Thokoza Monument, were
constructed as a result, although they have not been without controversy, because
different groups remember the past differently.

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Summary and questions

Questions

1 Who was the chairperson of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) and

how many commissioners did it have?

2 Name the three sections or branches of the TRC and list two functions of each.

3 Four groups / individuals had objections to the findings of the TRC.

3.1 Who were these groups / individuals?

3.2 What was the main objection of each group / individual?

4 Explain the significance of the monument in Cape Town (constructed after 1994 at

the V&A Waterfront) showing Nkosi Albert Luthuli, former Archbishop Desmond

Tutu, and former presidents Nelson Mandela and FW de Klerk.

Exam practice

1 What role did the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) play in dealing with

South Africa’s past? Use Sources A, B, C and D and answer the following questions.

1.1 Use Source A.

1.1.1 What was the main purpose of the TRC? (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Explain what prompted the writer to make the statement that ‘many

Africans who had suffered under apartheid must have found this

difficult to understand’. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.3 Why, do you think, the TRC ‘was always bound to be controversial’? (1 x 2) (2)

1.2 Study Source B.

1.2.1 What message does the cartoon convey? (1 x 2) (2)

1.2.2 Explain whether the cartoonist accurately captures the work of

the TRC. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2.3 Explain to what extent you agree with Tutu’s statement: ‘You should

have seen the ones that got away …’ (2 x 2) (4)

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1.3 Refer to Source C.

1.3.1 Explain how black and white South Africans viewed the work of the

TRC. Use the statistics in the source to support your answer. (2 x 2) (4)

1.3.2 Comment on whether this source adds value to a historian’s

understanding of the TRC. (2 x 2) (4)

1.4 Refer to Source D.

1.4.1 Quote evidence from the source to suggest that the TRC was a success. (1 x 2) (2)

1.4.2 Explain why you think Tutu was grateful to the thousands of South

Africans who appeared before the TRC. (2 x 2) (4)

1.4.3 What TWO regrets does Tutu have regarding the unfinished business

of the TRC? (2 x 1) (2)

1.4.4 Explain whether Tutu was justified in expressing these regrets. (2 x 3) (6)

1.5 Using ALL the sources and your own knowledge, write a paragraph of about

10 lines (about 100 words) explaining the impact of the TRC on South Africa. (10)
[50 marks]

Sources for Exam practice

Source A
The extract below is taken from Truth Justice Memory, compiled by the Institute for
Justice and Reconciliation in 2008. It explains the purpose of the TRC.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) ... was always bound to be controversial.

It was also cathartic (healing), not just for those who came before it, but also for others who

watched its proceedings. It was not about justice, though many Africans who had suffered

under apartheid must have found this difficult to understand, but about reconciliation by

persuading people to admit their crimes against their fellows.

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Source B
This is a cartoon by Zapiro that appeared in the Sunday Times on 2 August 1998.
It depicts the amnesty process of the TRC. Taken from Truth and Reconciliation in South
Africa: 10 Years On by F du Toit.

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Source C
This source is a result of a survey of the views of 3 727 randomly selected ordinary
South Africans carried out in 2000 and 2001. Taken from The Truth about Truth and
Reconciliation in South Africa by J Gibson.

Vast racial differences exist in how people evaluate the TRC, with the extremes being

defined by blacks and whites. For instance, while roughly three-quarters of black South

Africans approve of the work of the commission, only slightly more than one-third of

whites are so inclined. Coloured respondents hold fairly negative views towards the TRC,

although they are not as critical as whites, and Asian respondents tend to be relatively

positive, although not as favourable as blacks. The task on which the TRC is most

charitably [kindly] rated is that of helping the families of the victims to find out what

happened to their loved ones – uncovering the truth about the past. A majority of South

Africans of every race agrees that the TRC has done a very good job on this function. The

least positive aspect of the truth and reconciliation process has to do with compensation,

although even on this difficult issue, a majority of black and Asian South Africans rate

the TRC positively. In general, it appears that blacks are positive toward all aspects of the

work of the TRC, while whites judge nearly all of the TRC’s work negatively.

Source D
The following extract is from a foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Taken from
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report.

We are deeply grateful to the thousands of South Africans who came to the Commission

to tell us their stories. They have won our country the admiration of the world: wherever

one goes, South Africa’s peaceful transition to democracy, culminating [ending] in the

truth and reconciliation process, is spoken of almost in reverent [respectful] tones,

as a phenomenon [event] that is unique in the annals [records] of history, one to be

commended as a new way of living for humankind. I regret that at the time of writing we

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owe so much by way of reparations [payment] to those who have been declared victims.

The healing of those who came to us does hinge on their receiving more substantial

reparations and I would be very deeply distressed if our country were to let down those

who had the magnanimity [fairness] and generosity of spirit to reveal their pain in public.

I appeal to the Government that we meet this solemn obligation and responsibility,

and I should like to express appreciation that the Minister of Finance has made it clear

that he still regards reparations as unfinished business.

It is something of a pity that, by and large, the white community failed to take advantage

of the truth and reconciliation process. They were badly let down by their leadership.

Many of them carry a burden of a guilt which would have been lessened had they actively

embraced the opportunities offered by the Commission; those who do not consciously

acknowledge any sense of guilt are in a sense worse off than those who do. Apart from

the hurt that it causes to those who suffered, the denial by so many white South Africans

that they even benefited from apartheid is a crippling, self-inflicted blow to their capacity

to enjoy and appropriate the fruits of change. But mercifully there have been glorious

exceptions.

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The end of the Cold War and a new world order

Overview
In this topic you will revise:
● why the Cold War ended
● how the ending of the Cold War changed the world
● how the ending of the Cold War changed the direction of history.

• The failing Soviet System

UNIT 1 Page 130
• Mikhail Gorbachev
Events leading to the • Competing economic systems
end of the Cold War • Changing relations with the West
• The symbolic importance of the Berlin Wall
• Southern Africa

TOPIC 6 Page 129–154 UNIT 2 Page 133 • Gorbachev’s reforms in the Soviet Union
• Eastern Europe
The end of the Cold The end of the Cold • Impact of Gorbachev’s reforms on the Soviet Union
War and a new world War: The events of 1989 • The end of the Cold War: a turning point in South
order
Africa

• Globalisation
UNIT 3 Page 140 • Changes in the balance of power and its impact
A new world order • Dominance of global Western capitalism
• Emerging economies and different forms of
capitalism
• South Africa avoids civil war: challenges after 1994
• Responses to globalisation

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Topic 1
XX

Events leading to the end of the Cold War

Key question: Why did the Cold War end?

The failing Soviet System

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union was a closed political and economic system.
● From the late 1960s, it was clear the economic performance of the USSR was failing;
during the 1970s its industry stagnated and its agriculture regularly failed.
● Technological advances in the West – especially in the field of electronics – also
left the Soviet Union and its Allies lagging behind, impacting on many areas of life,
especially military affairs.
● For nearly 40 years the leaders of the Soviet Union and many of the countries in
Eastern Europe seemed, from the West’s point of view, to be ‘backward-looking’ and
caught in the trap of Soviet ideology. One explanation was that these leaders were
simply too old: 3 successive Soviet leaders – aged respectively 76, 80 and 83 – had
died in office in the 3 years between 1982 and 1985.
● Change did come, however, in 1986 when a new Soviet leader was elected.

Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Gorbachev: a 54-year old lawyer & the General Secretary of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union, became the new leader.
● Elected new Soviet leader in 1986. Big changes would follow both in
the Communist Bloc and, later, across the world.
● He seemed totally different from his predecessors, and was charming,
well-travelled, ambitious and articulate. However, the initial Western
response was very cautious – they saw his quick rise to power as a
result of the very closed system.
● His plan was 1st to reform the Soviet system and, eventually, to
preside over the break-up of the very political system that had
produced him.

Despite enjoying enormous power, Gorbachev’s ability to bring about change was
constrained by two main factors: the dire state of the Soviet economy and the
increasingly restless situation in Eastern Europe.

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1

What led to the end of the Cold War and the start of a new
world order?

Competing economic systems

1

USSR had a centralised state-run economy (Socialist / Communist) with an autocratic

one-party governance system.
● Central Planning:
● The co-ordination and control of all economic activities are under the authority
of the government, operating in a ‘closed system’.
● It relied on a bureaucracy that was in charge of setting all national goals –
especially important were economic ones.
● Weaknesses: this approach was inefficient and needed extensive on-going
subsidies to keep the system going.
● It was also very slow to respond to personal choice, destroying initiative and
entrepreneurship.

Results of this system:

● National economic performance suffered due to inefficiency.
● Investment in new infrastructure declined together with investment in research.
● The quality of life for citizens in the USSR
and in Eastern Europe fell further behind Western economy
that experienced in the West. System in the West was different:
● Led to economic and political reforms mainly free-market economy
in the USSR. (capitalism) and democracy.
● From the 1970s onwards, ‘free-
Changing relations with the
2 West
market economics’ changed the
political landscape world-wide.
As government withdrew from the
economy, business became more
Importantly for Gorbachev and the end of the
profitable and more international.
Cold War, the market approach to economic
management was supported by two Western
leaders who played an important role in the ending of Communism: Britain’s Prime
Minister, Margaret Thatcher (1971), and US President, Ronald Reagan (1981).
● Their elections reflected the significant change both in economic and political
thinking that had taken place worldwide (i.e. the shift towards free economic
policy). Both were also suspicious of Communism and, initially, of Gorbachev.
● The two superpower leaders met several more times and each meeting marked
another step towards ending the hostilities that had divided them for 40 years.

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1

The symbolic importance of the Berlin Wall

3

The Cold War was characterised by a number of crises, each of which brought the
Superpowers close to a nuclear war.
● The first occurred in Berlin, Germany, which was divided at the end of the Second
World War into 4 zones, controlled by victorious wartime powers: the US, Soviet
Union, France and Great Britain.
● But the start of the Cold War, and the alliance between the British, French and
Americans, meant that the city was effectively divided into two – one half was in
the West; the other half was in the East.
● The division of the city led to constant quarrelling, and in 1961 the East German
government began building a wall between the two halves, which would
eventually stretch for 155 kilometres.
● With the obstacles of concrete, barbed wire, armed guards and their dogs,
over the years many people tragically lost their lives trying to cross the wall
from East to West.
● ‘The Wall’ became a metaphor for the global Cold War conflict between East
and West, and was a symbol of the global divide.

Although Berlin’s famous Brandenberg Gate was located in the East German side of
the wall, it was used by Western leaders to protest what they thought was wrong with
Communism and to praise Western Capitalism. In June 1987 Reagan challenged the
sincerity of Gorbachev’s proposed reforms at this gate.

4 Southern Africa

Gorbachev’s political shifts did echo in Southern Africa.

● November 1986: Gorbachev met with the then president of the African National
Congress (ANC), Oliver Tambo, who was accompanied by Thabo Mbeki.
● In this first ever meeting between the ANC and the leader of the Soviet Union,
Gorbachev made it clear that the Soviet Union was strongly opposed to supporting
revolutions.
● This signalled an entirely new direction in the Soviet Union’s foreign policy, which
would alter the direction of the region enormously in the years to come.

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Topic X
1
XX

The End of the Cold War – The events of 1989

Key question: How did the ending of the Cold War and events elsewhere help to
end apartheid in South Africa?

Gorbachev’s many challenges

Communism created four urgent challenges for Gorbachev:
● Great need to change the thinking in the Soviet Union, especially in the bureaucracy,
which was fixed and rigid.
● Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were closely linked:
● they all faced both economic stagnation and social and political failure.
● Due to Cold War rivalry, the Soviet Union could no longer support revolutionary
movements in the Third World.
● The war in Afghanistan (invaded in December, 1978) was too costly for the USSR.
● Gorbachev had to gain the support of the Soviet military to end the war.

Gorbachev initiated reform at home through two policies:

● Perestroika
● aimed at reforming the Soviet economy.
● Glasnost (supposed to reinforce perestroika)
● It ended censorship, aimed to create public debate, e.g.
● freedom of the press.

The two new policies were intended to support each other:

● through glasnost, people were encouraged to speak about the economic changes
which had been brought by perestroika.
● glasnost and perestroika were not aimed at bringing an end to Soviet Socialism BUT
● to make it stronger.
● If successful, Gorbachev hoped the Soviet Union and its allies would have the same
economic success that was enjoyed in the West.
● Although Gorbachev hoped that the one policy could build upon the other
INSTEAD
● the two policies together
● → ended the entire system of Soviet Socialism.

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21

Events of 1989
Many events occurred worldwide that led to the end of the Cold War.

1 The USSR is dissolved:

As Gorbachev’s policies were implemented, and hardship followed, civil unrest broke
out between various groups in the Caucasus and, later, in the Baltic region.
● As old forms of nationalism emerged in these countries, the demands for
independence from the Soviet Union grew.
● Following Gorbachev’s attempt to establish a Federation of States, in 1990,
several of the Soviet states (including Russia, then under the leadership of
Gorbachev’s bitter rival, Boris Yeltsin), declared their independence from the
Soviet Union.

On Christmas Day, 1991 the USSR was dissolved after 74 years.

● Each of its 15 states became independent.
● = an important occurrence in the ending of the Cold War.

2 Eastern Europe:
Perestroika and glasnost also created demands for change in Eastern Europe, which was
under much of the same kinds of stress that the Soviet Union faced.
● Eastern Europe’s economy was under great pressure:
● This included a weakening manufacturing performance, agricultural failure and
an inability to keep up with changing technology.
● This had an important impact in Poland, where new political problems had
developed. Poland had a difficult history with Russia: in the past, Russia had
been invaded twice through Poland, while the nationalism of the Poles always
threatened the unity of the Soviet Bloc too.
● In 1978 the election of a Polish Pope, John Paul II, and his visit to Poland the
following year, helped to change the political debate in Poland and elsewhere in
Eastern Europe.
● Debate spread about issues like whether Polish Nationalism could survive in the
Soviet Bloc and if democracy was possible within the Soviet Bloc.
● Along with this interest in Polish politics came increased strikes in the country,
highlighting worker’s rights and the recognition of trade unions.
● In 1979 strikes drew attention to the trade union Solidarity and its leader (an
electrician called Lech Wałesa), who were both defended throughout the West.
● Faced with this pressure, the Polish Communist Party:
● granted rights to trade unions
● removed press censorship
● released dissidents
● provided access to the state-controlled media to the Catholic Church.

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● In return the strikers agreed to recognise the authority of the local Communist Party
and Poland’s alliance with the Soviet Union.
● Also, Solidarity had become a mass-movement and began to act like a party in
opposition to the Polish Communist Party. Importantly, the power of Solidarity
had largely broken the hold of Communism over the Polish political system -
although temporarily, Poland was still firmly within the Soviet Bloc.
● But days after an agreement on the recognition of Solidarity was signed, the Polish
government changed its mind.
● A national strike was called and, as it grew, the Soviet Union warned that the
“pillars of the socialist state” in Poland were under threat. Then, the armed
forces of the Warsaw Pact gathered on Poland’s borders to supposedly restore
the authority of Communism in an East European country.
● A few months later Poland’s leadership changed when a military man, General
Wojciech Jaruzelski, became the country’s Prime Minister.
● Concerned about a possible invasion by the Warsaw Pact, the Prime Minister, the
leader of Solidarity and a Catholic Cardinal, Josef Glemp, met. WHY?
● to discuss a way forward for Poland, but couldn’t reach an agreement.
● In December 1981, Jaruzelski declared a state of emergency, arresting 6 000
people, including the Solidarity leaders.
● For the next two years, he tried to prevent a Soviet invasion.
● The state of emergency ended in 1983. Jaruzelski didn’t want to move away
from the principles of Communism.
● Yet the country remained locked in political crises with further
demonstrations and riots called by Solidarity.
● This instability remained until Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union – it
was clear that the Polish
people were ready for What was happening in the Eastern Bloc?
the kind of changes that
In most other places in Eastern Europe,
Gorbachev wanted to
leaders peacefully stood down as Communism
make both in the Soviet
disintegrated around them. In Romania, Eastern
Union and in Eastern
Europe’s most notorious dictatorship, however,
Europe.
the country’s President, Nicolae Ceausescu (and
● Months before the Berlin
his wife) were put in front of a firing squad and
Wall came down, Jaruzelski
shot. The hard line Communist leader ran a brutal
won a general election by
police state and embarked on policies that were
a small margin, but the
destroying the country’s economy and forcing
Socialist era in Poland was
people to endure harsh food and power shortages.
over.
As communism fell in the other Soviet satellite
● With the wider collapse of
states, Ceausescu continued to reject any softening
Communism throughout
of the Warsaw Pact.
Eastern Europe, Jaruzelski
resigned the presidency,
paving the way for the election of Lech Wałesa to Poland’s highest office.

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3 The Fall of the Berlin Wall:

The German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany, was one East European
country that strongly resisted Gorbachev’s reforms.

Why did GDR resist Gorbachev’s reforms?

● East Germany enjoyed the highest standard of living in the Soviet Bloc, because the
West German government supported the growth of infrastructure and development
in its eastern neighbour.
● The GDR also enjoyed a strong relationship with the Soviet Union. i.e. The leaders
who would dominate politics in East Germany were trained in Moscow.
● Another reason was that the president of the GDR, Erich Honecker, was a dedicated
Communist.

HOWEVER
In the mid-1980s: Honecker started to follow a contradictory policy.
Compared with his predecessors, he developed stronger links with West
Germany, which was under the leadership of Helmut Kohl (who had
previously taken a strong stand against the Soviet Union).

● As a result of Honecker’s softer approach, exchanges began to take place between

politicians on both sides of the German divide. It was in this atmosphere that
perestroika and glasnost became policy.
● As Gorbachev’s reforms reached East Germany, demonstrations began in the
streets of Leipzig, Dresden and East Berlin. Honecker wanted to quash the
demonstrations but would not do so without Soviet approval. This would not
happen under Gorbachev’s leadership.
● In the late-summer of 1989, many East German citizens began to leave the
country through Hungary’s open border with its neighbour, Austria.
● Only a month before the Berlin Wall fell, Honecker resigned his office. He was
briefly succeeded by the leader of the East German Communist Youth, the
52-year-old, Egon Krenz.

When the Wall fell:

● Communist ideology was replaced with new understandings and explanations of

the world. With this, the old ways of doing things were gone forever.
● The idea that the Berlin Wall had fallen changed understandings in almost every
corner of the world. Undeniably, an event of global significance had taken place.
● In a speech on 19 December 1989 delivered by Helmut Kohl before more than
100 000 people in the East German city of Dresden, he promised that he would
seek unification of the country and also funding for East Germany.

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4 The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale:

It was clear that events in the wider region, following the fall of the Wall, were moving
in interesting new directions.
● The consistent pressure that America had put on South Africa because of its illegal
occupation of Namibia had moved negotiation forward on a 70-year-old conflict.
● But what had shifted to enable apartheid’s leaders to respond positively to this
pressure?

Recap of events that began in 1987 in south-eastern Angola

The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, which became famous as an important turning point
in the ending of apartheid, began as a minor conflict of Angola’s 27-year civil war.
● The initial exchange in Cuito Cuanavale was between two sides within the
Angolan civil war:
● the União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (UNITA) faction,
led by their rebel leader, Jonas Savimbi, and
● the Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho (MPLA)
faction which was led by the Angolan President, José Eduardo dos Santos.
● The government was supported by Cuban troops who had been involved in a
war for the country since the country’s independence in 1975. Their presence
undoubtedly made the events in Angola so central to the Cold War.
● July 1987: A series of battles took place at Cuito Cuanavale in Angola between
the apartheid defence force (SADF), and the army of the Angolan government
(FAPLA).
● By November 1987, the SADF, which supported Savimbi, had driven back the
FAPLA attack and was in a good position to launch an attack that many believed
could have destroyed them.
● Without consulting his long-standing Soviet allies, Cuba’s Fidel Castro, whose
troops had been in Angola, sent some of his best troops and pilots to counter the
South Africans.
● Reinforced by Cuban troops and superior air force, the FAPLA troops pushed
back the forces of UNITA and drove the SADF back.
● Castro’s move was significant because, even though the battle for Cuito would
continue for another six months until May 1988, it changed the balance of
power and forced SA to rethink its position.
● It was clear that the SADF had lost its long-standing position of military strength
in southern Angola.
● This was because the Cubans had superior aircraft (Russian MiGs).

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Outcomes of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale

● These circumstances pushed the apartheid government to seek peace in Angola and
to grant independence to Namibia.
● Apartheid officials met with representatives of the US, then with Cuban
representatives, and then with the Angolan government
● → in an effort to seek an agreement on the future of the Cuban troops in Angola
and over the future of the disputed territory: South West Africa (Namibia).
● In the end, the Cubans agreed to withdraw from Angola, which was seen as a Cold
War victory, especially for the USA.
● SA also agreed that its own forces would be withdrawn, which saved the apartheid
government from growing embarrassment and enabled it to focus on the need to
reform at home.
● Also, the apartheid government agreed to the independence of Namibia. A Peace
Accord reflecting these understandings was signed in New York on 22 December
1988 – 11 months before the Berlin Wall fell – and the independence of Namibia was
granted on 21 March 1990.

As Nelson Mandela has said, Cuito Cuanavale “was the turning point for the liberation
of our continent – and of my people – from the scourge of apartheid”.

5 FW de Klerk as a reformer:
SA’s official representative at the Namibian Independence celebrations was the man
who would formally end apartheid: SA’s new president, FW de Klerk who had only
succeeded PW Botha a few months earlier.
● Because De Klerk came from a family that had a history in National Party politics,
there was not much in De Klerk’s background to suggest that he was a reformer.
● Experience suggests that leaders who have strong links to a party, like De Klerk and
Gorbachev, can often make the biggest changes in a society.
● This is because citizens trust them more than they do other politicians.
● Shortly after he became president in September 1989, he changed his Cabinet by
removing hardliners who had been strong supporters of the Cold War-thinking that
had been behind the policies of his predecessor.
● De Klerk then allowed a number of protest marches to take place despite the state of
emergency.

The first of these, held in Cape Town on 13 September 1989

● Witnessed a number of anti-apartheid leaders –
● including Archbishop Desmond Tutu
● marching for peace.

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A month later, De Klerk also released a number of prisoners from Robben Island. These
included Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela’s friend, fellow prisoner and long-standing
political colleague.
● De Klerk and Mandela finally met on 13 December 1989, just more than a month after
the Berlin Wall came down. Their initial talks focused on a document that Mandela
had sent to the new president. Although it was reported to be tense, it was a good
meeting because both leaders wanted to end apartheid.
● → BUT the big public step came on 2 February 1990, when FW de Klerk, apartheid’s
last president, opened parliament and made his famous speech:

The ANC, PAC and Prisoners serving The restrictions under

+
sentences belonging

+
SACP and a number the State of Emergency
of other minor to these groups would on the media and on
political groups be released – this organisations (like the
were unbanned. included Nelson UDF) were lifted.
Mandela.

These events signalled the end of the Cold War’s long hold over SA
politics; Communism was no longer perceived as a threat.

Reactions to FW de Klerk’s speech

● The ANC, then in exile in Zambia, were highly suspicious of De Klerk’s speech,
thinking that his promise to release Nelson Mandela was a trick.
● Others in the country were worried that the unbanning of the ANC and the SACP
would increase the level of violence within the country.

BUT the speech was a signal that South Africans were going to seek a peaceful solution
to all that had previously divided them.
Formally, however, De Klerk’s speech was only completed nine days later on 11 February
1990, when Nelson Mandela was released from prison after being detained for 27 years.

→ The years ahead for Mandela and De Klerk would not be easy though, but during
the country’s search for democracy neither gave up on their determination to see an
outcome that would be acceptable both to South Africans and the world.
● Four years later SA re-joined the world, which was very different now that the Cold
War had ended.

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Topic 31
XX

A new world order

Key question: What were the long-term effects of the ending of the Cold War?

Globalisation
What was the nature of the post-Cold War World?
● Many argued that the end of the Cold War represented a new beginning in
international politics.
● Since both the Soviet Union had broken up and the Soviet Bloc collapsed, there was
a belief that the West had ‘won’ the Cold War.
● For the 40 years during the Cold War people understood the world as divided into
East and West, Communist and Democratic.

What could replace this type of thinking after the Cold War?

The American-Japanese thinker, Francis Fukuyama, offered a solution. He

suggested two things would become important to people after the Cold War:
The right to participate in a market-based economy – he believed that an
1 economic policy which supported the market contributed towards the end of
Communism.
● Fukuyama’s thinking on the end of the Cold War influenced the course of
events for more than ten years.
The right to exercise democracy: citizens all over the world would want the right
2 to elect the governments that would rule them.
● Fukuyama’s thinking reinforced the neo-liberal view that markets – rather
than states – should be the primary factor in determining all economic
relationships.
● So, while states were still central to the way in which the world was
organised, internationally, another way of organising social relationships
was necessary. This was to be through the market → called Globalisation.

Globalisation
● Globalisation argued that all social relationships could take place across the world.
● States as political entities were no longer thought to be essential.
● It meant the end of the Cold War and the victory of the US over the USSR.
● Led to increased trade between countries as trade restrictions were removed.
● Electronic communication, e.g. the internet, the world wide web and e-mail led to
globalisation.

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Impact of electronic communication

● The impact of electronic communication was far-reaching, for example, money
could be immediately transferred and traded without the consideration of working
hours.
● Time was no longer a limitation in trading either in products, finance or services.
● It certainly seemed like the world became ‘smaller’.

The change in international relations

After the Cold War, the experience of the United States and its Western allies was of
victory.

The revival of The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

● While its Cold War opposite, the Warsaw Pact, was disbanded at a meeting of East
European defence and foreign ministers in July 1991, NATO did not disband.
● NATO had been established in 1948 to defend the interests of North America
and Europe.
● Former members of the Warsaw Pact, though not all of them, ended up
joining NATO.
● Its revival suggested how the global ‘balance of power’ had changed:
● no longer was the world caught in a ‘balance’ of Cold War power. INSTEAD
● it had become dominated by a single country.
● Effectively, all power – political, economic, military and cultural – turned around
a single country, the USA.
● This had serious implications for the Third World (or the Global South)
countries:
● following the Bandung Conference of 1955, the Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM) was formed, suggesting that – despite the intensity of the Cold War
divide – it was possible for there to be a third position in international
relations.
● The term ‘Non-Alignment’ captured this position: they were not aligned either
with Communism or Capitalism.
● Although NAM undoubtedly had an impact on the ending of the Cold War,
unfortunately a series of crises weakened the movement and it failed to
influence the nature of international relations after the Cold War.
● SO: the world remained unipolar with the US as the leading power.
● But the impact of this across the world was significant because it seemed that
Third World countries started to settle disputes.

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The African context

● South Africa –
● The ending of the Cold War drove a process of accommodation and
reconciliation. By the time Nelson Mandela became president of SA in 1994,
Southern Africa, after decades of conflict, was at peace.
● Rwanda –
● As Mandela was taking the oath of office, Africa’s worst ever genocide was
taking place. Between April – June of 1994, an estimated 800 000 Rwandans
were killed. Most were members of the Tutsi tribe, with much of the violence
perpetrated by the Hutus. The genocide caused deep trauma throughout the
world, with the United Nations failing to intervene.
● Mozambique –
● It had a long-standing association with the Soviet Bloc, but after the Cold War,
had to rethink both its foreign and economic policies. The growing importance
of markets ended the state sponsorship of many areas of its national life,
including health, education and welfare. The importance of democracy as a way
to attract foreign investment and development aid, put pressure on the FRELIMO
government to seek ways of accommodating its long-term rival, RENAMO.
Eventually, its first-ever democratic elections were held in 1994, which were won
by FRELIMO.
● Zambia –
● It also experienced its first-ever multi-party democratic election, where Kenneth
Kaunda, who had been Zambia’s head of state since 1964, lost power after
27 years in power.
● Elsewhere in southern Africa –
● demands for multiparty democracy were on the move. In neighbouring Malawi,
the first multiparty elections held in the country for 30 years saw the defeat of
the country’s long-time president, Hastings Kamuzu Banda.

North–South relations
After the Cold War ended, North-South relations were instead determined by the belief
that markets were the best way to guarantee economic development.

Results:
● State spending on welfare, education and health was cut.
● Where appropriate, state institutions were opened to private investment while
Third World economies opened to market forces.
● There was also pressure to end one-party rule throughout Africa.

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Global capitalism and resistance

Since the Second World War, the international economic system had been organised
around the Bretton Woods institutions – the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
the World Bank (officially known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development).
● By the time the Cold War ended, they were enthusiastic supporters of neo-liberal,
market-centred economic thought and strong supporters of globalisation.

The Bretton Woods institutions and globalisation

● The IMF and World Bank developed policies that allowed market forces to determine
political and economic outcomes.
● Their approach freed up the constraints on trade by removing national barriers,
especially at the national level.
● It also encouraged individual countries to free up markets.
● The World Trade Organisation (WTO) played an important role in this opening up
of global markets.
● Established in 1995, the WTO was responsible for making the rules of trade between
countries and for the settlement of trade disputes between them.
● The WTO’s policies enthusiastically supported the idea of globalisation, which
made it the target of mass demonstrations from anti-Globalisation groups.
● These groups were concerned that the process of globalisation increased the
power of rich states and weakened the position of the poor.
● They also believed globalisation was destroying cultural diversity in the
world, as the language of globalisation was English, with American culture in
particular spreading throughout the world via television, leaving local culture
unable to compete.
● The frequent anti-globalisation demonstrations suggested that the idea of
neo-liberal globalisation, although it was seen to be the ‘logical’ way to run
the world after the Cold War, was not accepted by everyone.
● Instead, it was viewed as a destructive force, increasing the power of the rich
and weakening the power of the poor.

New forms of capitalism: The rise of emerging markets

Some countries even resisted efforts that encouraged them to embrace globalisation.
Increasingly the following countries have been called ‘emerging markets’: places where
economic growth is underway when, in the Global North, growth was slow and falling.
● Malaysia –
● In 1997 the government went against advice from the IMF who said that their
approach would make their economic problems worse. In the end, however, the
Malaysian government was shown to be correct.

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● China –
● Saw a different approach to the link between liberal democracy and economic
growth. The Communist Party government promoted free market policies
to improve the country’s economic performance, but it resisted any efforts
that encouraged the development of liberal democracy. There was a brutal
crackdown on pro-democracy demonstrators in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square
in June 1989, with many killed, but despite this, the Chinese government soon
resumed economic relations with the major world powers. The Chinese model of
globalisation has changed the direction of the country’s economic fortunes.
● India –
● Regarded as one of the great economic success stories of the post-Cold War
period. The lifting of government restrictions on trade, and especially on
industry, ended a long period of socialist planning. However, India’s government
has continued to support the development of roads and its educational system.
The incomes of India’s people have increased overall but so has the gap between
the rich and the poor.
● Russia –
● Here, policies that supported economic liberalisation were strongly promoted,
But the Russian economic experience with neo-liberalism ended largely in
failure: corruption was high and the gap between the rich and poor increased.
Nevertheless, the country is rich in natural resources and the promises of its
economic success have kept the Russian economy alive.
● Brazil –
● It, too, has had to carefully steer a path between opening up the country to
market forces, while at the same time balancing government concern for the
health, education and welfare of its people. Brazil is a country very rich in
resources, but the divide between the country’s richest and poorest people is a
cause for great concern. Fortunately, its efforts to bring democracy to the country
have been a great success.

BRICS
Today, Brazil, Russia, India, China, together with South Africa, make up a loose
international grouping called the BRICS:
● The four countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) showed that free markets
alone were not the best way to provide for people or to ensure continuous
economic growth.
● South Africa officially became a member nation on December 24, 2010.
● The idea of the grouping is based on the belief that by the year 2032, the economic
power of these countries together will overtake the six largest Western economies.
● These countries showed that a ‘mixed’ economy could create jobs and satisfy
social needs. This is a return to the ideas of Keynesian economics and is different
from what Fukuyama argued and different too from the claims of globalisation.

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Challenges facing the ‘new’ South Africa

The discussions around the best economic system to adopt after the end of the Cold War
affected SA too.
● In the years immediately after Nelson Mandela’s inauguration on 10 May 1994, South
Africa’s attention was focused on other issues:
● most importantly –
● how to bring previously conflicting groups together in order to build a united
country.
● The idea that SA was a ‘Rainbow Nation’ – a country that embraced all colours
(races) – was a powerful metaphor in the process.

However there were particular challenges:

● Reconciliation
● Economic reconstruction.

Reconciliation: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC):

● Established in 1994 the TRC was led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu.
● The country’s new Constitution reinforced the reconciliatory policy of President
Mandela:
● → the establishment of the TRC
● went some way both to explaining what had happened during apartheid and
● finding a way to bring people to confront what had happened to them.
● It reported terrible cases of torture and killing by apartheid forces:
● was able to grant amnesty to people, from all sides, who had committed
crimes that were politically motivated.
● Although it was strongly criticised, the TRC is considered to have contributed to the
country’s way forward.

Economic reconstruction
It was far more difficult to decide on a policy that would address apartheid’s core legacy
of white wealth and black poverty.
● Historically, both the ANC and the National Party had embraced Socialism.
● But from the 1970s onwards the National Party had moved towards freeing up
certain areas of the country’s economy.
● This move quickened in the 1980s when, wishing to get close to the Cold
War-thinking of both Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, the apartheid
government embraced the idea of neo-liberal economics.

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● Positioned on the other side of the Cold War divide, the

ANC was distinctly Socialist in its economic thinking.

economic
approach
● As ideas around economics changed, so did the approach
by many in the movement to the ways in which the
ANC
economy should be managed.
● The United Democratic Front – said to be the internal
wing of the ANC – embraced even wider thinking on the
question of the economy and its future.
● On its election to power, the ANC announced an economic
policy called the Reconstruction and Development
Programme (RDP), which was Keynesian.

The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP):

● It aimed to tackle the legacy of apartheid and to address the huge differences
between education, health, housing and welfare between blacks and whites.
● It also aimed to develop the country’s infrastructure.
● But it was inconsistent in its approach to financing the policy because it
hoped, on the one hand, to deliver more to the country’s citizens while, on
the other, not collecting enough in taxes to pay for them.

BUT
● Ultimately, in 1996, South Africa’s then Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki, announced
a new policy, called Growth Employment And Redistribution (GEAR), which
changed the direction of the country’s economic policy more towards the market.
● Pressured by the World Bank and IMF, its aim was to generate high economic
growth, which would hopefully create jobs and higher incomes.
● Unfortunately, the policy was not a great success and, as it has in many parts of the
world, increased the gap between South Africa’s rich and its poor.
● The country’s failure to grow economically increased the possibility for social unrest
and instability.
● This resulted in a further change in thinking around economics, which fostered the
idea of the role of government supporting a ‘Developmental State’.
● This returned the priorities of the government towards those that were imagined
under the RDP, signalling a greater involvement by the state in the economy.

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New threats to global order

While the idea of globalisation got people to talk about what the post-Cold War world
would look like, it generated a lot of resistance to it.
● A greater threat to the idea of globalisation came from the break-up of states, for
example, the Soviet Union, and also Yugoslavia. The split of Yugoslavia led to the
first war in Europe in almost 50 years. The events in the Balkans ran for 7 years
between 1990 and 1997. It was a very cruel and bitter war and involved ‘ethnic
cleansing’: a process in which people of one group are violently removed from
one place to another. The Balkan Wars finally ended with a peace treaty signed in
Dayton, in the American state of Ohio.
● The break-up both of Yugoslavia and of the Soviet Union presented an important
challenge to post-Cold War thinking.
● → Were concerns for local issues more important than the common interests that
seemed to be promoted by globalisation?

Result: the idea of localisation – being concerned with the immediate

surroundings – was set against the idea of globalisation. At the centre of
this debate was the question of identity, and so came the rise of a new and
powerful form of politics, identity politics.

→ Based on the ideas of Samuel P. Huntington in his book The Clash of Civilizations,
written in response to Fukuyama’s idea of The End of History.
= In the 1990s, the Balkans became a dividing line for a new issue in the post-Cold War
world. This was the divide between the Western World and the Islamic World.

Huntington’s ideas
● The future of the world would be determined by the failure of people to live
together because they believed in different things:
● This was based on the extremes of belief on both sides of a divide between
Christianity and Islam.
● In the United States in particular, Christian extremism was drawn into both
democratic politics and the politics of America’s place in the world.

→ The idea of ‘Terrorism’ as a threat to the post-Cold War world would grow both
in the US and elsewhere in the West.
● It increasingly referred to individuals or groupings that were opposed to the West
and its way of life.
● This explains the name “terrorist organisation” given to the Muslim-based
militant organisation called Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden.
● Interested in conducting a Jihad against the USA, bin Laden hoped to draw the
country into a long conflict that would help to end America’s economic system.

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9/11 and the “Global War on Terror”

In 2001 it was Al-Qaeda who planned and executed the first attack on the US in 60 years:
● These were the air-born suicide attacks on 11 September 2001 on the twin towers
of the World Trade Centre in New York.
● Together with the two other attacks on the same day these events are known
as “9/11”.
● America’s president, George W. Bush, wasted global sympathy for the US by
quickly declaring WAR.
● Five days after 9/11, Bush called for a ‘crusade’ against Al-Qaeda, which was
an organised military campaign led by the USA and its closest ally, Great
Britain.
● A month after the 9/11 attacks, the USA and its allies invaded Afghanistan,
the country seen to be the main supporter of bin Laden and Al-Qaeda.
● Iraq invasion:
● In March 2003, the US, this time without its allies, invaded Iraq to oust their
president, Saddam Hussein.
● America’s response to 9/11 led to the country fighting in many parts of
the world: apart from Afghanistan and Iraq, they conducted operations
in the Philippines, the Horn of Africa, the Sahara, Pakistan, Kashmir,
and Yemen.

The coming agenda

The ‘War on Terror’ – which has spread across the world – may be worsening the two
challenges that we all face:
● Economic: The gap between the rich and the poor, not only within individual
countries, but globally as well, is constantly growing. The result of this uneven
distribution of global wealth (known as ‘global apartheid’) is more violence, both
within and between states.
● In addition:
● market-driven capitalism is in crisis with failing levels of confidence in the
idea of debt, which for 20 years has fuelled global economic growth.
● The environment: It raises questions of the capacity of the planet Earth to carry and
sustain life on Earth.

Civil society responses to both these issues are increasingly organised on a global
level. Some of these movements are organised around the idea of protestation, while
others have involved themselves in the difficult task of educating people all over the
world to live differently from the way they currently live.

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Topic XX

Summary and questions

Summary
In Topic 6, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question:

Key question: How has the world changed since the 1960s?

In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below.

Unit 1 Events leading to the end of the Cold War

During the Cold War, the USSR and the Eastern Bloc made up a closed political and
economic system, behind the Iron Curtain. However, due to economic stagnation in the
USSR and events that took place in Eastern Europe (such as protests in Poland) in the
1980s, including the accession of Mikhail Gorbachev to Soviet leadership, the Soviet
Union began to disintegrate in the late 1980s. Its demise was signalled by the fall of the
Berlin Wall in November 1989.

Unit 2 The end of the Cold War: The events of 1989

Gorbachev’s reforms of perestroika and glasnost helped to bring about the
disintegration of the USSR. The fragmenting of the USSR influenced countries in Eastern
Europe that were under Soviet domination to begin protesting against their subjugation
and to clamour for democratic elections. Poland, led by the trade union, Solidarity, was
at the forefront of these protests, which spread to other Eastern European countries.
After protracted protests throughout the 1980s, Poland eventually achieved freedom
from Soviet domination in 1989. In most other Eastern European countries, the
Communist leaders stood down peacefully, allowing democratic elections to take place.

After the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, Gorbachev’s reforms intensified
dissent against Communist control in the USSR. On Christmas Day, 1991, the USSR
was dissolved after 74 years. Each of its fifteen states became independent. This
development was an important occurrence in the ending of the Cold War, which also
contributed to the end of apartheid in South Africa .

Unit 3 A new world order

For the 40 years of the Cold War, people throughout the world had looked at both
international and domestic politics through the ‘idea’ of the Cold War: the world as
divided into East and West, Communist and Democratic. The end of the Cold War
therefore opened up the possibility of a global world, undivided into East and West,
and driven by capitalism (since communism and socialism had – it was then considered
– failed as economic systems). However, through the dominance of the Bretton Woods
Institutions and shifts in the balance of power, the USA emerged as the global leader,

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dominating all spheres of life across the globe. This led to resentment as smaller nations
began to feel the impact of what amounted to US neo-colonialism and new economic
alliances – such as BRICS – were formed.

In South Africa, globalisation impacted in terms of decisions around which economic

system to adopt after 1994. The country adopted the Reconstruction and Development
Programme (RDP) as a policy to try to close the economic gap between blacks and
whites, but did not really achieve its aims, resulting in a widening gap and increased
social unrest.

Around the world, there have been different responses to the hegemony of globalisation.
In parts of Europe (Yugoslavia) there was a revolt against an enforced unity, resulting
in ethnic conflicts as ethnic groups fought against domination to establish themselves
as independent nations. In addition, since globalisation is driven by capitalism and
consumerism, industrial output increased significantly, leading to environmental
damage. Nations also began to incur debts in order to participate in the global economy.
Consequently, large protests against environmental exploitation and capitalist practices
have erupted worldwide. Other resistance against the hegemony of globalisation has
been a rise in fundamentalism, which has seen devastating terror attacks, such as the
9/11 bombing of the twin towers of New York’s World Trade Centre in the USA.

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Questions

1 Define the concept of the COLD WAR in your own words.

2 How did Gorbachev differ from his predecessors in his internal and external policies?

3 How did the central planning of the Soviet economic system lead to its downfall?

4 How did the change to market economic principles speed up change in the Soviet Union?

5 Why do you think the events in Poland could not be contained by the USSR?

6 Why did the East German leader decide to reform the relations between East and

West Germany?

7 To what extent do you think visionary leadership ended the Cold War, or was the

communist ideology a spent force?

8 What were the major implications of the collapse of the Berlin Wall?

9 How did the collapse of communism in the USSR influence South Africa’s

involvement in the Angolan War?

10 How did the defeat of the SADF at Cuito Carnavale influence the South African

government under FW de Klerk to initiate reform?

11 What were the key ideas in FW de Klerk’s speech on 2 February 1990?

11.1 What were the major implications of his speech?

11.2 How did the post-apartheid government try to deal with the following issues?

11.2.1 Reconciliation

11.2.2 Economic reconstruction.

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Exam practice

1 How did the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War

contribute to the ending of apartheid in South Africa?

1.1 Refer to Source A.

1.1.1 Why was the coming to power of Mikhail Gorbachev significant? (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 How did the Reykjavik summit pave the way for change in

South Africa? (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.3 Why was it necessary for the ANC and the South African government

to meet in secret? (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.4 Using the information from the source and your own knowledge,

explain why the ending of the Cold War brought about reforms in

South Africa. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2 Study Source B.

1.2.1 What impact did the fall of the Berlin Wall have on the Soviet Union?

(Extract 1) (1 x 1) (1)

1.2.2 How, according to the source, did the National Party intend

influencing white South Africans to accept change? (Extract 1) (1 x 2) (2)

1.2.3 How, according to Willem de Klerk, did the ANC transform ‘from

being part of the struggle’ to being ‘part of the system’? (Extract 2) (2 x 2) (4)

1.3 Compare Source A and Source B (Extract 1) and explain how Extract 1 of

Source B supports Source A in respect of the expected political changes in

South Africa. (2 x 2) (4)

[25 marks]

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Source A
This excerpt from A response to Guelke: The Cold War factor in South Africa’s transition,
January 1996 by J Daniel, refers to the influence of the Cold War on South Africa.
… The beginning was the ‘accession [rise] to power in the Soviet Union of

Mikhail Gorbachev and the crucial signal was the Reykjavik summit between

Gorbachev and Reagan in October 1986’ … ‘the United States agreed to a non-

interventionist [non-involvement] role in Eastern Europe, in return for which

the Soviet Union ceded Africa to the United States … specifically southern

Africa’.

… Fifteen months after Reykjavik, secret talks between South African

government officials and the ANC were initiated. But they still had to move

cautiously and largely clandestinely [secretly]. Two events changed that

scenario.

The first was the SADF’s (South African Defence Force) military at Cuito

Cuanavale in Angola in late 1987. Confronted by the increasingly obvious

limitations of a military strategy, President PW Botha authorised Pik Botha

to negotiate a way out of the Angolan-Namibian impasse [deadlock]. The

end result was the New York Accords of December 1988 which triggered the

withdrawal of both Cuban and ANC military forces from Angola and South

African troops from Namibia and which, in turn, led to its independence in

March 1990. The second was the enforced removal from office in September

1989 of an ailing PW Botha and his replacement by FW de Klerk.

It should be clear from the above that by the time of the events around the

Berlin Wall the momentum [drive] for change in South Africa was gathering

pace. It was now possible for FW de Klerk, under intense pressure from the

United States and facing the prospect of intensified [increased] sanctions, to tell

his critics that the Cold War was over, that ‘we had won and the Soviets lost and

that this had in turn, weakened the ANC in that it had lost its main sponsor’.

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Source B
The following source comprises two extracts on the fall of the Berlin Wall and the
impact this event had on South Africa.
Extract 1: Taken from New History of South Africa by H Giliomee and B Mbenga.
The dismantling of the Berlin Wall, which began on 9 November 1989,
dramatically heralded the end of the Soviet Union’s sway over Eastern
Europe, and also contributed to the breaking of the deadlock in South Africa.
Communism as a political and economic system was rapidly beginning
to disintegrate. These developments presented FW de Klerk with what he
termed a ‘God-sent opportunity’. The National Party could tell its constituency
that without Soviet-backing the ANC, with its ally the SA Communist Party,
no longer constituted a major threat to stability and private ownership. He
could also argue that communism was so discredited that the ANC would be
compelled to accept the free market, property rights and other investment-
friendly policies.
For the National Party government the fall of the Berlin Wall was a double-
edged sword. Anti-communism had long been the main reason why Western
governments accepted and even bolstered white rule in South Africa. But
the disappearance of the communist threat and the ANC’s retreat from
nationalisation had made the South African government’s anti-communism
old-fashioned, and deprived it of its strongest argument for Western pressure
to force the ANC to accept power-sharing …
Without the fall of the Berlin Wall, it is difficult to conceive of the ANC
coming to power five years later.

Extract 2: FW de Klerk: The man in his time by Willem de Klerk.

In ANC ranks, FW de Klerk’s speech caused a good deal of confusion. The
ANC had been caught on the wrong foot. They had expected Mandela’s
release, but not the unbanning of the organisation itself. In fact, their planned
strategy was to use the released Mandela for a massive campaign to demand
the unbanning of the ANC.
… from being part of the ‘struggle’, it had suddenly become part of the
‘system’ … From being an organised underground army it had been converted
overnight into a public organisation. Where it had basked in foreign applause
for its fight against apartheid, the ANC was plunged into the democratic
political process …

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Topic 1 Answers
1 What we the main developments in the Cold War 1948–1961?

1.1 Because Russia was not invited.

1.2 America, Britain and France introducing a new currency into the western zones.

1.3 318 days.

1.4 The western Allies set up NATO; Germany was divided into FDR and GDR.

1.5 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

1.6 That America should leave West Berlin within six months.

1.7 A symbol of freedom.

1.8 Colonel Batista

1.9 CIA

1.10 He asked Khrushchev to defend Cuba.

2 How did Mao Zedong rise to power?

2.1 Communal work teams on farms.

2.2 To increase industrial and agricultural productivity.

2.3 Because it competed for the loyalties of the people

2.4 To eliminate opposition to Mao Zedong.

2.5 The dynamic leadership of Mao Zedong had the support of the peasant class

primarily because he promised land and power to the peasant class.

3 How did USA get involved in Vietnam?

3.1 The Geneva Treaty.

3.2 Ho Chi Minh.

3.3 In an army coup.

3.4 To “take all necessary steps” to defend freedom in Vietnam.

3.5 An attack on American air bases.

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4 What was the nature of the war in Vietnam?

4.1 The bombing of North Vietnam.

4.2 Guerrilla warfare.

4.3 My Lai.

4.4 The Hue Assault.

4.5 Although it was a huge setback for the Vietcong, who lost thousands of

soldiers, it was also the beginning of the defeat of the Americans, who realised

they would never win the war.

Topic 2 Answers

1 What were the ideas that influenced independent African states?

1.1 Key concepts:

1.1.1 A form of socialism involving collective instead of state ownership in

which the state is run by a coalition representing all groups.

1.1.2 An economic system driven by personal freedom of choice, investment

of capital and the use of labour and resources to make profit.

1.1.3 A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible

members of a state, typically through elected representatives.

1.1.4 A type of state in which a single political party forms the government;

all other parties are either outlawed or allowed to only limited and

controlled participation in elections.

1.2 Because of the vacuum left by the colonial powers, which meant that newly

formed African states had to ‘create’ new forms of government to make the

transition to independence.

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2 What were the political, economic, social and cultural challenges and successes

that Congo and Tanzania experienced between 1960 and 1980?

2.1 From which colonial countries did the following achieve their independence

and who were their first leaders?

2.1.1 Belgium; Patrick Lumumba

2.1.2 Britain: Julius Nyerere

2.2 How Tanzania applied African Socialism:

● Tanganyika became independent in 1961 and was renamed Tanzania. Julius Nyerere
became Prime Minister and his party, TANU, formed a government.
● In 1962 Nyerere became president after amending the constitution.
● In 1967 the Arusha Declaration was accepted which showed a support for socialism.
● The Arusha Declaration promoted socialism as rooted in African homegrown values
and potential.
● Socialism was seen as an African tradition of peasantry, communal living and
sharing
● Nyerere said that African Socialism did not derive from European socialism and
Marxism but rather could teach European socialists about the true nature of
socialism.
● In ujamaa, all humans care for one another and are bound together by affection and
solidarity.
● Emphasis was placed on education. Elitism was ended by introducing universal
education based on traditional and Western models.
● Recognition was given to the importance of traditional values, indigenous
knowledge and wisdom.
● Soon after the Arusha Declaration was issued, banks and many large industries were
nationalised in Tanzania.
2.3 Kind of states that emerged:

2.3.1 Congo
● Centralised
● Unitary
● Military regime / dictatorship
● One-party rule
● The state assumed a guardian role and resorted to forceful maintenance of
law and order.
● ‘Mobutuism’ emerged: cult figure who used state power to prop up his power.
● He was more interested in building an authoritarian state than a united
nation.
● A consolidated, national identity was not achieved.

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2.3.2 Tanzania
● A single-party state
● Socialist ideology
● Aimed to mobilise all Tanzanians to help build a nation.
● He succeeded in overcoming ethnic differences to establish a united
Tanzania.
● Tanzania assumed a national identity.
● Elections were held to choose the ‘best’ individual but only one party, TANU,
existed.
● Nyerere became president for life.

3 What was the impact of internal and external factors on Africa between 1960 and 1980?

3.1 Internal
● The legacy of colonialism
● Ethnic diversity
● State failure
● Geographical location

3.2 External
● Cold War
● Foreign aid
● Export–import cycle
● The 1973 oil crisis

4 What role did the USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa play in bringing the

Cold War to African countries after 1960?

4.1 UNITA, FNLA, MPLA (you should provide their English – or Portuguese – names in full)

4.2 UNITA and FNLA: primarily USA; MPLA: primarily USSR

4.3 Interests of powers in Africa:

4.3.1 The USSR: strategic position in Africa; minerals and resources; spread

of ideology; counter USA ideology.

4.3.2 The USA: strategic position in Africa; minerals and resources; spread of

ideology; counter USSR ideology.

4.3.3 Cuba: spared of ideology; resources

4.3.4 China: counter US and USSR imperialism; access to resources;

alignment with countries that could support it at the UN; trade partners

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4.3.5 South Africa: keep Marxism out of SA; prevent or delay SWA

(Namibian) independence; keep ANC out of SA

5 How were independence and peace realised in Angola?

5.1 1975 (5 January); Portugal

5.2 Civil war:

5.2.1 Primarily UNITA and MPLA

5.2.2 Ideological differences; personality clashes; each wanted power (you

could also mention the influence of the superpowers)

5.3 Motive of powers:

5.3.1 The USA: To create spheres of influence; prevent USSR ideology from

taking root (also issues of resources, etc.)

5.3.2 The USSR: To create spheres of influence; prevent USA ideology from

taking root (also issues of resources, etc.)

5.4 You should mention Namibia, Zambia and Zaire and impacts, such as

destruction to infrastructure, displacement of people, refugees, etc.

5.5 It dented the SA military, which decided it would not be worthwhile in the long

run to get involved in a protracted war against Angola, supported by Cuba. SA

therefore withdrew, and UNITA lost its support, making it easier to negotiate a

peace agreement.

5.6 Peace accord / treaty:

5.6.1 Bicesse Accord (although fighting continued, this accord was ratified

by the Luena Memorandum when the fighting eventually ended).

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Topic 3 Answers
1 What forms of civil society protest emerged from the 1950s to 1990?

1.1 To the decade from 1960 to 1969/70 when people in the West enjoyed

unprecedented prosperity, freedom and social mobility due to breaking down

of social barriers, increased access to education and to medical advances, such

as contraceptives.

1.2 gender equality; civil rights; democratic rights.

1.3 You can mention any of the following: Trade Unions (1920–1950s); FEDSAW

(1953); Women’s Charter (1954); Defiance Campaign (1950s); march to Union

Buildings to protest against passes (1956); participation in drawing up the

Freedom Charter (1955); Black Sash (1955)

1.4 Peace movements: Disarmament; Student; Anti-war

1.4.1 Disarmament: e.g. Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, UK (London);

Student: most Western countries, as well as some in Europe, Mexico,

Japan, etc.; Anti-war: mainly USA.

1.4.2 Disarmament: against nuclear weapons and nuclear testing; Student:

hostility against what it viewed as a corrupt and hypocritical social

order; Anti-war: protest against Vietnam War.

2 Why did the Civil Rights Movement emerge in the USA and what were its short- and

long-term gains?

2.1 White, racist, supremacist group in the USA

2.2 Because of the legacy of slavery handed down from the transatlantic slave

trade when thousands of slaves were brought from Africa to work on plantations.

2.3 Martin Luther King Junior

2.3.1 Passive resistance; do no harm.

2.3.2 He was assassinated

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2.4 Sit-ins, marches, boycotts, civil disobedience, Freedom Rides, etc.

2.5 Their efforts resulted in the eventual desegregation of schools in the South.

2.6 Long-term: desegregation of schools, voting rights, full equality before the law.

Short-term: raised awareness of people around the world regarding the plight

of African-Americans; desegregation of public amenities (through sit-ins, for

example); Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (which had

long-term implications).

3 Why did the Black Power Movement emerge in the USA and what were its short- and

long-term gains?

3.1 A political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies aimed at

achieving self-determination for people of African/Black descent.

3.2 They popularised it; gave it political directions; helped to give it a social

dimension (clinics, educations, etc.).

3.3 Black Panther Movement

3.3.1 Marxism / socialism

3.3.2 In part as a reaction to the way in which it was perceived that

capitalism was keeping African-Americans oppressed; also as a way

of forging their own political identify and an attempt to uplift the poor

through the spread of wealth and services.

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Exam practice

1 Why did the Civil Rights Movement emerge in the USA and what were its short- and

long-term gains?

1.1 Selma to Montgomery march:

1.1.1 Segregated schools, housing, jobs etc.; Denied the right to vote;

Subjected to literacy tests and discriminatory practices. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Was a charismatic leader; Well respected leader with strong following;

People had faith in King’s leadership; Was a strong advocate of justice

and civil rights; Any other relevant response. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.3 The right to vote a basic human right; African-Americans subjected to

segregation and discrimination in daily life; African-Americans loyal

citizens contributing to American economy yet denied the right to vote;

Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.4 Television coverage showed the brutality of state troops; Support for

the Civil Rights Movement grew because of the harsh action taken by

the USA government; Brutality generated support and sympathy for the

Civil Rights Movement; Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.5 Her actions launched the Civil Rights Movement; Encouraged others

to resist discrimination; Stood up for her rights, refused to yield to

political pressure; Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.6 YES
● It increased awareness among citizens of the USA especially among African-
Americans
● Brought greater pressure on the USA government
● Galvanised support among various activists
● African-Americans were later recognised as citizens of the USA
NO
● If you state NO, you must support your answer with
relevant evidence. (2 x 2) (4)

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Topic 4 Answers
1 What was the nature of the apartheid state in the 1970s and 1980s?

1.1 Because it believed that black people were not South African, but belonged

to other nations (e.g. Zulu); they should live in their own country / nation

(homeland); black people were inferior to white people; should not mix or live

among white people; wanted to preserve the ‘white’ way of life (included not

allowing black to take white people’s jobs); any other relevant response.

1.2 Apartheid and the bantustans became a contradiction because ‘white’ SA,

while trying to force black people out of ‘white’ SA (into homelands), actually

needed them in order to prosper. So, migrant labour became entrenched, which

undermined the bantustan / homeland system and helped to put pressure on

‘white’ SA, eventually making a contribution to the end of apartheid.

2 How did the apartheid government try to reform apartheid in order to maintain it?

2.1 Attempts at reform:

2.1.1 Because there were many demonstrations and SA was becoming

difficult to govern, so they thought if they reformed apartheid, black

people would be happy and stop demanding equal rights, the vote, etc.

and so stop protesting.

2.1.2 Black Local Authorities Act (1982); Tri-cameral Parliament (1983).

2.1.3 No; people rejected them as window-dressing that brought no

meaningful change. People wanted was full citizenship rights (same

as whites) – nothing less would do. Evidence is the continued and

escalating protests and violence throughout the 1980s.

3 What types of internal and external resistance to apartheid were there, which

helped lead to the end of apartheid?

3.1 They realised that as a collective they had enormous power, through stayaways

and strikes, to force change.

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3.2 New forms of protest:

3.2.1 Insurrection; civic actions; rolling mass action; expanded front through

UDF; MDM, etc.

3.2.2 Because they were widespread and at grassroots level, so the police

could not arrest members; were found in every corner of the country;

very easy to mobilise people; very difficult to suppress.

3.3 PW Botha; FW de Klerk

3.4 It was a ratification by the OAU of the ANC’s proposed negotiating process with

the apartheid government.

3.5 Role of incidents and movements:

3.5.1 Any suitable explanation, such as: deprived SA of markets for exports

(so the country could not earn foreign currency to buy imports); helped

prevent many exports to SA, which made life hard; in the area of

sport it prevented SA teams from playing overseas or overseas teams

from playing in SA; it also became involved in disinvestment so many

overseas’ business withdrew their money from SA. All these combined

and had a negative impact on the economy and people’s morale, which

helped to make white people willing to end apartheid.

3.5.2 Through mass protests, demonstrations, rolling mass action, civic

disobedience and so on, the MDM helped to make SA ungovernable.

This helped to force the apartheid government to consider ending apartheid.

3.5.3 This showed the apartheid government that it was not invincible,

so they withdrew from Angola, which helped to pave the way for

Namibian independence, which helped to clear obstacles in the way

of SA negotiating with the ANC and other powerbrokers with the

possibility of ending apartheid on the agenda.

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Exam practice

1 In what ways did Black Consciousness challenge the apartheid state?

1.1 Any sensible interpretation that shows an understanding that it is easy to

oppress someone who feels inferior (mind of the oppressed), which is what

apartheid was designed to make black people feel about themselves. (1 × 3) (3)

1.2 Source C:

1.2.1 Students’ rebellion Afrikaans enforced as the medium of instruction in

schools. (1 × 2) (2)

1.2.2 It made students aware of their human rights; conscientised them and

made them stand up and take action. (2 × 2) (4)

1.2.3 They were part of the apartheid government’s attempt to reform

apartheid by giving black people more say in how they ran their own

local affairs (1982 Black Local Authorities Act); therefore rejected by

those against apartheid; people who worked there were regarded as

sell-outs to the apartheid government; beerhalls were seen as apartheid

government method to keep black people enslaved (cheap alcohol);

any other relevant response. (2 × 2) (4)

1.2.4 It was callous; had the attitude that they needed to be taught a lesson

(by shooting at them); saw them as inferior; any other relevant

response. (2 × 2) (4)

1.2.5 Your own reasoned response. If you say yes, provide reasons, such as

only one point of view is given; it comes from a UN document (the UN

was against the apartheid government). If you say no, you will have to

argue very persuasively. (1 × 3) (3)

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Topic 5 Answers
1 Archbishop Desmond Tutu; 17

2 Human Rights Violations Committee: Went around the country to listen to

testimonies; provided a forum / space where victims and perpetrators could face

each other, confess, ask for forgiveness and forgive; any other relevant response.

Amnesty Committee: Listened to cases to decide if perpetrators should be given

amnesty of face criminal charges; tested evidence through tested through cross-

examination’ ensure that applications for amnesty were done in accordance

with the provisions of the TRC Act; any other relevant response. Reparations and

Rehabilitation Committee: Had the task of recommending a system of reparations

for victims to the government; provided victim support to ensure that the Truth

Commission process restored the dignity of victims; a President’s Fund, funded

by Parliament and private contributions, was established to pay urgent interim

reparations to victims in terms of the regulations prescribed by the President; any

other relevant response.

3 Objections to TRC findings:

3.1 ANC; IFP; NP; FW de Klerk

3.2 Generally that the TRC did not take into account the whole story (e.g. ANC felt

that its atrocities committed in the name of fighting for freedom could not be

equated with apartheid police apartheid committed during the oppression

of people). They did not agree with some of the facts, e.g. Chief Mangosuthu

Buthelezi rejected the findings of the report which held him responsible for

acts of gross human rights abuse.

4 Your own answer, but you should indicate that although it does not include

women, it is an attempt at inclusivity and reconciliation by placing together former

oppressor (De Klerk) and the oppressed who fought for freedom.

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Exam practice

1 What role did the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) play in dealing with

South Africa’s past?

1.1 Source A:

1.1.1 To bring about reconciliation by persuading people to admit to their

crimes; Healing; Nation building. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Africans who had suffered under apartheid would have wanted

retribution and justice; Africans who had suffered for so long were

not ready to forgive and forget the past so quickly; Any other relevant

response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.3 Motives for the TRC would be viewed with suspicion by some sectors;

Some people not sincere, honest and truthful; There were positive and

negative criticisms; Any other relevant response. (1 x 2) (2)

1.2 Cartoon:

1.2.1 Some people appeared before the TRC; Others escaped the TRC; Tutu

is amazed /shocked that many prominent people did not appear before

the TRC; Any other relevant response. (1 x 2) (2)

1.2.2 You can either choose ACCURATE or INACCURATE and substantiate

your response with valid reasons.

ACCURATE
● Some people appeared before the TRC whilst others got away
● Prominent politicians (represented by the bigger fish) did not appear before
the TRC
● Many people appeared before the TRC and received amnesty
● Any other relevant response.

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NOT ACCURATE
● May be biased
● Many of prominent politicians also appeared before the TRC
● By portraying the politicians as fish swimming in the sea may symbolise that
at some stage they would be caught – not true – they did want to appear
before the TRC
● Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)
1.2.3 You can either AGREE OR DISAGREE and substantiate your response

with valid reasons.

AGREE
● Because the TRC did not have the power to subpoena people, many people
got away
● Especially the powerful politicians did not appear before the TRC
● Any other relevant response.
DISAGREE
● Not all got away
● May be biased
● Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.3 Source C:

1.3.1 Three-quarters of black South Africans approve of the work of the

commission while one-quarter of blacks did not approve; One-third

of whites approve of the work of the commission while two-thirds of

whites did not approve; Blacks view the TRC positively while whites

view it negatively; Any other relevant response.

1.3.2 You can either say YES (adds value) or NO (does not add value) and

substantiate your response with valid reasons.

YES (ADDS VALUE)
● It gives the reader an understanding of how the different racial groups viewed
the TRC
● It gives the reader an understanding of the work of the TRC
● It evaluates the TRC in terms of uncovering the truth and reparations /
compensation
● Any other relevant response.

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NO (DOES NOT ADD VALUE)

● Could be biased
● Statistics do not provide reliable information – could be manipulated
● Sample is too small to make generalisations
● Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.4 Source D:

1.4.1 Thousands of South Africans came to the Commission to tell us their

stories; SA’s peaceful transition to democracy, culminating in the TRC

process, is spoken of almost in reverent tones, as a phenomenon that is

unique in the annals of history; Any other relevant response. (1 x 2) (2)

1.4.2 They contributed to SA’s peaceful transition to democracy; The truth

was uncovered; History was made; Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.4.3 That the white community did not take advantage of the TRC; The

denial by whites that they had benefited from apartheid. (2 x 1) (2)

1.4.4 You can either say he was JUSTIFIED or that ye was NOT JUSTIFIED

and substantiate your response with valid reasons.

JUSTIFIED
● The TRC was an avenue to come clean, yet they did not take advantage of it
● It is common knowledge that many whites benefited from apartheid
● The whites had an opportunity to contribute to racial harmony; to contribute
to the new SA
● Any other relevant response.
NOT JUSTIFIED
● Tutu may have been too harsh
● In the spirit of reconciliation, he should have been lenient
● Any other relevant response. (2 x 3) (6)

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 Suggested answers

1.5 Paragraph: You should include the following aspects in your response: (10)
● Improved race relations between black and white South Africans
● Helped with the process of nation building and reconciliation
● Better lives and security for all established
● National unity was promoted through hearings
● Both sides of the conflict came to testify, i.e. liberation movement and government
● Amnesty led to perpetrators willingness to testify
● Victims came to know what really happened during the apartheid years
● Victims could reconcile with the fact the remains of their loved ones were located
and the appropriate last rites could be observed
● Many unaccounted victims were identified, graves located and exhumed and given
to families for reburial
● Racial groups evaluated the TRC differently
● Any other relevant response.

Topic 6 Answers

1 A war between nations (usually powerful ones, e.g. USA) where they do not fight

directly against each other (hot war) but there is a lot of political and military

tension between them and they often support other groups in proxy wars. The Cold

War (approx 1947 to 1991) was a sustained state of political and military tension

between powers in the Western Bloc, dominated by the USA with NATO among

its allies, and powers in the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the USSR along with the

Warsaw Pact. The two major powers – each possessing nuclear weapons and

thereby threatened with mutual assured destruction –never met in direct military

combat. Instead, in their struggle for global influence they engaged in ongoing

psychological warfare and in regular indirect confrontations through proxy wars.

2 His policies were aimed at interacting with the world (the USSR had always turned

its back on the world); getting the Soviet people to discuss their situation; trying to

get the economy on more of a market footing (pervious leaders had not allowed any

dissent and had total control of the economy); any other relevant response.

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3 It stifled innovation; people were not rewarded for effort; decisions took a long time

to make; quality was inferior; most production went into weapons and machines.

This stagnated USSR economy; became unable to generate income to support the

population; any other relevant response.

4 It made people want to be free, to own goods, to be rewarded for hard work and so

on. These ideas and desires pushed into the political domain and helped to speed up change.

5 Your own answer, but you need to point out that changes in the USSR made

the Poles unwilling to continue to be suppressed by communism. Also, under

Solidarity, the Poles had a long tradition of protest.

6 To try to stop the East German people from revolting fully. He thought by giving

them a bit of freedom, they would stop demanding complete freedom.

7 Your own answer, but you need to show that it was probably a combination of

Gorbachev’s reforms and the weak Soviet economy and general dissent in the

various republics that led to the end of the Cold War when the USSR dissolved.

8 The Wall was a symbol of the Cold War, so when it came down, it was the symbolic

liberation of all humanity from the Cold War divide that had split the human race

into two sides. Gave the world new hope for unity and peace.

9 It meant that the apartheid government could no longer use communism as an

excuse for not allowing the ANC in the country; also meant the ANC could no longer

rely on Soviet support, so they were forced, to an extent, to enter into negotiations

with the apartheid government.

10 It meant that apartheid soldiers withdrew from Angola, removing an obstacle to

negotiations; showed the apartheid government that it was not invincible and that

it would be better to negotiate a settlement to bring peace than to continue suffering

losses in a war it could probably not win.

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11 Unbanning of ANC, etc; release of political prisoners (including Mandela);

willingness to negotiate with all people / parties in SA to find a peaceful solution to

the country’s problems.

11.1 It changed SA forever; ended nearly 400 years of white domination (i.e. since

1652); opened the way for democracy and human rights; any other relevant response.

11.2 Dealing with issues:

11.2.1 Through the TRC and the building of monuments and memorials (you

could also mention the multilingual national anthem; Mandela’s

involvement in the Rugby World Cup in 1996, etc.).

11.2.2 First through the RDP and then through GEAR. You should explain

what these are and how the new government tried to use them to

redress the legacy of apartheid.

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Exam practice

1 How did the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War contribute to

the ending of apartheid in South Africa?

1.1 Source A:

1.1.1 Brought about the demise of Communism; Forced the apartheid

regime to bring about change; Gorbachev was open to negotiations

and reforms; Led to the ANC changing its political stance and to begin

negotiations with the NP government; Any other relevant response. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Led to talks between SA government and ANC / secret negotiations;

Pressure by the USA for SA to make changes; Any other relevant

response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.3 Fear that the respective supporters would reject it; Exploratory

meetings to chart a way forward; Meetings not formally mandated but

was an attempt to find a middle ground to the challenges facing the

country; ANC was still banned and the NP government was not to be

seen to be talking to the ANC; SA was not ready to embark on open

meetings for negotiations; Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.4 Communism was no longer seen as a threat; SA was now forced to

negotiate with anti-apartheid organisations and speed up reforms; SA

found it had no support from its western allies to maintain the status

quo; ANC was perceived to be weak without support from the USSR;

Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2 Source B:

1.2.1 Brought an end to Soviet control in Eastern Europe; Led to the eventual

disintegration of the USSR; Communism began to disintegrate; Any

other relevant response. (1 x 1) (1)

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1.2.2 ANC was not being supported by the Soviet Union anymore; The

end of communist rule in Russia / whites no longer should fear;

communism and USSR takeover; Ensured economic stability/ no fear

of nationalisation; SA would continue to remain a capitalist economy;

Any other relevant response. (1 x 2) (2)

1.2.3 ANC was now forced to discard the armed struggle and to negotiate

/ ANC had to change from an underground army into a public

organisation; ANC had no choice other than to enter into negotiations

with their enemies; ANC forced to work with the government of the day

to find political solutions; Any other relevant response. (2 x 2) (4

1.3 Compare sources:

● Both sources refer to the opportunities De Klerk had to introduce reforms and
commence with negotiations
● Source B (Extract 1) relates to the fall of the Berlin Wall and the opportunities given
to De Klerk to begin with reforms
● Source B (Extract 1) The NP government no longer had an excuse that SA formed a
bulwark against communism
● Source A focuses on the ending of the Cold War – opportunity given to SA to
commence with negotiations
● Source A shows withdrawal of the USSR from intervening in the internal affairs of
Africa (SA). (2 x 2) (4)

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 We must be there to help our learners understand Via Afrika
Economics

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

how life is, and encourage them because things
won’t always go the way they want. We must be able
to teach them that there are challenges, and that
they must be patient. If you give them that bigger
picture, you’ll be surprised: tomorrow one of them
will come back to you, driving a big car and saying,
“You know, I’m like this just because of you.”
Grade 12 Study Guide

— Pumza Mushanganyisi, Teacher C. Chaplin, I. Badenhorst, G.S.T. Mabaso, H.S.S. Tshabalala,

J.S van Zyl, J. Griesel

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Economics

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 4 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 5–6 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 21 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 21 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 21 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 22 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at economics@[Link]?
Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
 C. Chaplin

S t u d y G ui de

Economics
Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-308-6
 Contents

Term 1 .................................................................................................................... 1
1 Topic Circular Flow ............................................................................................ 1
2 Business Cycles ............................................................................................. 13
3 Public Sector ................................................................................................... 20

Term 2 .................................................................................................................. 38
1 Economic systems: protection and free trade (globalisation) ........................... 38
2 Dynamics of markets: perfect markets ............................................................. 44
3 Dynamics of markets: imperfect markets ......................................................... 59
4 Dynamics of markets: market failures.............................................................67

Term 3 .................................................................................................................. 72
1 Economic growth and development) ................................................................ 72
2 Economic growth and development: industrial development policies ............... 78
3 Economics: basic concepts and quantitative elements (economic and social
performance indicators)................................................................................... .....84
4 Economic issues of the day: inflation..............................................................89
5 Tourism and economic redress: environmental sustainability ...................... .....96
6 Basic economic problem: environmental sustainability...................................103

Answers term 1-3............................................................................................ . ...107

End-of-year examination paper microeconomics.................................................143

Final examination paper macroeconomics...........................................................148
Memo microeconomics.......................................................................................155
Memo macroeconomics......................................................................................162
 TERM 1

Term1
Topic 1 Circular flow
Overview

This topic discusses the open economy circular flow model and the various markets that
facilitate economic activities. It also deals with national accounts aggregates and
conversions, and the multiplier effect in the economy.
In this topic, you will learn about:

 The open economy circular flow model

 The markets
 National account aggregates and conversions
 The multiplier

The markets
The circular flow model
 Goods market
 The participants • Factor market
 The flows • Financial market
• Foreign exchange market
• Flows through different markets

National account aggregates and conversions

The Multiplier
 Basic prices  Meaning of the multiplier
• The multiplier process in a two-sector
 Factor cost
model
 Market cost
 The multiplier effect in a graphical form
 GNI
• The multiplier process in the three and
 GDP
four sector models

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Unit 1 The open economy circular flow model

Introduction

The circular flow model shows us how the economy functions by illustrating the relationship in the
economy between production, income and spending. As consumers we have to make choices as
there are scarce resources to satisfy our unlimited needs and wants.

Macroeconomics explains how the economy functions as a whole while microeconomics explains
how particular and specific elements of the economy operate, for example importers, consumers,
etc.

1. The complete diagram

The circular flow model of an open economy shows the workings of an economy that is open to
foreign trade. South Africa has an open economy because we trade with other countries.

1.1 Participants

The flows of production, income and expenditure are influenced by four participants: households
(consumers), firms (business enterprises), government (public sector) and the foreign sector.

1.1.1 Households

In economics a household is any number of people that live together and make joint economic
decisions. A household can consist of one person or a number of people. They sell their factors of
production (productive resources) to the factor market. The factors of production are bought by
firms to produce goods and services. Households spend the income they earn to buy goods and
services from firms. We call spending on goods and services consumption expenditure (C).
Households do not spend all their money on goods and services. They keep their savings (S) with
financial institutions such as banks and insurance companies. They also pay taxes (T) to the
government in various forms such as value-added tax or income tax.

1.1.2 Firms

Firms produce the goods and services that are bought and consumed by other participants such as
households. In order to do this they buy factors of production from households. In return for the
goods and services they produce firms earn revenue.

1.1.3 Government

The government buys factors of production from the factor market to produce goods and services
for the public. In exchange for public goods and services, firms and households pay taxes
to the government.

1.1.4 Foreign sector

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The foreign sector consists of imports and exports of goods and services. Importers buy goods and
services from other countries, whilst exporters sell goods and services to other countries.

1.2 Real flows and money flows

The circular flow model shows us the real flow and the money flow. The flow of goods and services
between the various participants is called real flow. Examples include flows of:

 Factors of production from households to firms

 Goods and services from firms and the foreign sector to households.

The flow of money earned and spent between the various participants is called
the money flow. Examples include flows of:

 Payment for factors of production in the form of rent, profit, wages and
salaries and interest from firms to households
 Payment for goods and services by government.

It is important to remember that for every money flow there is a real flow and that real flows and
money flows move in opposite directions.

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1.3 Leakages and injections

There are always interruptions in both the real flow and the money flow which are caused when
there are injections into the economy or leakages from it.

1.3.1 Leakages

A leakage happens when money leaves the circular flow and decreases the amount of money in
circulation in the economy.

There are three types of leakages:

 Savings (S): Some households do not spend all their money and save
some of it. This money goes to a financial institution, for example, a bank.
 Taxes (T): Households and firms pay taxes to the government, for example value-
added tax (VAT) and income tax. The amount of tax decreases the disposable
income of households that therefore spend less on goods and services.
 Imports (M): This represents spending on foreign goods and services.
Money is withdrawn from circulation and goes to foreign markets to pay
for the imports.

1.3.2 Injections

An injection happens when money enters the circular flow and increases the amount of money in
circulation in the economy. This can happen in three ways:
 Government spending (G): The government spends money on goods and
services to provide economic and social services and infrastructure, for
example hospitals, schools, dams and roads. An increase in government
spending increases the spending on goods and services and the flow of
spending, production and income increases.
 Investment (I): This is the money spent by firms to buy capital goods.
They obtain loans from financial institutions to buy plant, equipment
and property. They can also use this money to build up inventories and
to buy intermediate goods or raw materials. When there is an increase in
investments, the flow of spending, production and income increases.
 Exports (X): Money flows into the circular flow from other countries.
As more goods and services are sold to foreign countries, more foreign
exchange is earned. This will increase income, spending and production.

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1.4 Model equations

If leakages (L) and injections (J) are equal, income will be constant.

This is expressed as follows:

L=S+T+M=G+I+X

Production, income and expenditure can be expressed as follows:

Production = income = expenditure.

P=Y=E

Gross Domestic Expenditure (GDE) is calculated as follows:

Final consumption expenditure by households (C) + Gross capital formation

(I) + Final consumption expenditure by general government (G).

GDE = C + I + G, where C, I and G include imports and exclude exports.

GDP at market prices (mp)

= GDE + (X – M)
= C + I + G + (X – M)

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Unit 2 The markets
1. Goods market

The goods market provides goods and services in exchange for money. Households, government,
firms and the foreign sector buy goods and services offered in the goods market. Although there are
many different markets in macroeconomics we group all these markets together and consider the
goods market as a single market. We call this aggregation.

2. Factor market

The factors of production are bought and sold in the factor market. The factors of production are
exchanged for money.

3. Financial market

Financial institutions act as agents to facilitate the lending and borrowing of capital. The financial
market is divided into the money market and the capital market.
 The money market is the market for short-term savings and loans.
Short-term is defined as lasting less than a year. The South African Reserve Bank is a major
institution in the money market.
 The capital market is the market for long-term savings and loans. Long-term investments
and mortgage bonds are examples of capital market activities. The Johannesburg Securities
Exchange is the major institution in the capital market.

4. Foreign exchange market

Foreign trade requires foreign currencies and these currencies can only be exchanged in the foreign
exchange market. If you import goods from the United Kingdom you will have to pay for them in
pounds and if you export goods to the USA you will be paid for them in dollars. The foreign exchange
market determines the rate at which the foreign currencies are traded. This is called the exchange
rate.

5. Flows through different markets

Factors of production flow through the factor markets from households to firms to produce goods
and services (real flow). Goods and services flow from firms through the goods market to
households (real flow). Savings flow from households to financial markets (money flow) and these
savings are made available to firms in the form of loans to further production by buying capital
goods (money flow). The flow of exports to other countries through the foreign exchange markets
(real flow) and the income received for exports through the foreign exchange market (money flow).

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Unit 3 National account aggregates and conversions
1. National accounts aggregates

We can identify the national accounts as follows:

 Production refers to the gross domestic product (GDP(P)) as gross value
added.
 Expenditure refers to the gross domestic expenditure (GDP(E)).
 Income refers to the gross domestic income (GDP(I)).

1.1 Deriving the national accounts aggregates

In South Africa our national accounts are prepared by the South African Reserve Bank.

1.1.1 Production

This is the GDP (P) which is the sum of all production units produced by the primary, secondary and
tertiary sectors in the economy. GDP (P) is the gross value added of total output less the value of the
input utilised in the production process.

1.1.2 Expenditure

Expenditure on GDP is the total expenditure on final goods and services produced within the
boundaries of a country. It is calculated by adding all expenditures of the four participants in the
economy (households, government, firms and the foreign sector).

1.1.3 Income

Every factor of production earns income when goods and services are produced. Therefore
the total income earned must be equal to the total value of production. Gross Domestic
Income (GDI) is the sum of all income earned by resident individuals or firms in the
production of goods and services.

1.2 National account conversions

Four sets of prices are used in the national accounts: basic prices (BP), factor cost (FC), market prices
(MP) and net or gross figures.

Basic prices are the initial prices in the production of final goods and services, before considering any
taxes and subsidies on products and production.

Factor cost (FC) is used when GDP is calculated using the income method. The factor price
represents the price received by each factor of production – rent, wages and salaries, interest and
profit.

Market prices (MP) are used when GDP is calculated using the expenditure method. These are prices
that consumers pay for goods and services. Market prices include taxes and subsidies.

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The net figures used in national accounts have already had an amount of money subtracted from
them. A net amount reflects the total after the provision for depreciation has been deducted.

National figures give information about the economic activities of the permanent residents of a
country.
The Gross National Income (GNI) at market prices is calculated as follows:
GNI = GDP (MP) + primary income from the rest of the world – primary income to the rest of the
world.

Domestic figures refer to all economic activities that occur within the boundaries of a country.

GDP is expressed in both nominal and real figures. Nominal figures refer to GDP figures that have not
yet taken into account changes in price levels while real figures have taken these changes into
account.

Unit 4 The multiplier

1. Meaning of the term multiplier

An increase in the level of spending in the country results in higher GDP and a decrease in spending
results in a decrease in GDP. We learned in the previous Unit that the components of GDP are C + G
+ I + (X – M). Therefore, an increase in any one of these components, say investment, will increase
real GDP. However, the change in output (real GDP) and income will be much greater than the initial
change in investment. This result is called the multiplier effect.

The multiplier effect is the extent of the change in real output and income that is caused by a change
in aggregate demand. The size of the change in output (real GDP) and income is determined by the
multiplier.

2. The multiplier process in a two-sector model

Consumers either spend their money or save it. The proportion spent shows the marginal propensity
to consume (MPC) and the proportion saved shows the marginal propensity to save (MPS). The MPC
tells us how much of their new income a person is likely to consume.

The formula for calculating MPC is:

ΔC
MPC =
ΔY

where:
∆C is the change in consumption.
∆Y is the change in income.

The formula for calculating MPS is:

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ΔS
MPS =
ΔY
where:

∆S is the change in savings.

∆Y is the change in income.

2.1 Calculating the multiplier

We can use the multiplier as a better way of calculating the change in real GDP instead of calculating
successive rounds of spending. To determine the value of the multiplier, we need to know the value
of MPC. Remember the formula for MPC is ∆C ÷ ∆Y.

The formula for the multiplier is:

1
k=
(1 – MPC)

Where k represents the multiplier.

2.2 The size of the multiplier effect

How big or small will the eventual change in income be if money is injected into the economy? The
answer to this question depends on the size of the MPC. The bigger the multiplier effect and the
smaller the MPC, the smaller the multiplier effect. In other words, the multiplier effect has a direct
relationship to the MPC.

3. The multiplier process in the three and four sector models

The three-sector model includes government. When we calculate the multiplier, we must include
the effect of taxation as a leakage.

Our formula will then be:

k=1
(MPS+MRT)

Where: MRT = is the marginal rate of taxation.

In the four-sector model we include the foreign sector. The multiplier is calculated by including the
marginal propensity to import, MPM. The formula for a four-sector economy is:

k=1
(MPS+MRT+MPM)

Where: MPM = is the marginal propensity to import.

4. The multiplier in graphical form

The multiplier can also be shown graphically

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Questions

1. List the four participants that influence the flows of production, income and expenditure. (8)

2. Explain what is meant by the term household in economics. (4)

3. Explain what you understand by the term leakage in economics. (4

[Link] what you understand by the term injection in economics. (4)

5. Give a formula for calculating the Gross Domestic Expenditure of a country. (4)

6. Explain what is meant by the economic term aggregation? (4)

7. Name the two parts of the financial market?. (4)

8. Why is the foreign exchange market important for importers and exporters? (4)

9. Study the following table and answer the questions:

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2009
R millions

Compensation of employees 1 077 833

Net operating surplus 731 204

Consumption of fixed capital 332 584

Gross value added at factor cost 2141 621

Other taxes on production 42 101

Less: Other subsidies on 9210

production

Gross value added at basic 2 174 512

prices

Taxes on products 238 557

Less: Subsidies on products 14 914

Gross domestic product at 2 398 155

market prices

Final consumption expenditure 1 460 911

by households

Final consumption expenditure 502 492

by general government

Gross capital formation 470 963

Residual item -15 095

Gross domestic expenditure 2 419 271

Exports of goods and services 657 192

Less: Imports of goods and 678 308

services

Expenditure on gross domestic 2 398 155

product

(GDP at market prices)

Primary income from the rest of 34 075

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the world.

Less: Primary income to the rest 87 593

of the world .

Gross national income at market 2 344 637

prices

(Source: South African Reserve Bank, Quarterly Bulletin, March 2012)

a. What is the difference between gross domestic expenditure and expenditure on gross domestic
product. (4)
b. What is meant by gross capital formation. (2)
c. In 2009 households received R_______ for the provision of labour to the economy. (1)

d. If factor prices are used to calculate the gross domestic product then the gross domestic product
was equal to R_______ in 2009. (1)

e. In 2009 the subsidies received by firms on production were R_____. (1)

f. In 2009 the taxes on products, were R______. (1)

g. In 2009 consumption spending by households was R ______. (1)

h. In 2009 the primary income South Africans earned from the rest of the world was (more,

less) than the primary income we paid to the rest of the world. (1)

i) Explain why the expenditure on gross domestic product in 2009 was less than the gross

domestic expenditure. (2) (14)

10. Indicate and explain whether the following variables are leakages or injections.

Variable Leakage or Reason

injection
Savings
Investment
Taxation
Government spending
Imports
Exports

(18)

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Topic 2 Business cycles

Overview

This topic discusses business cycles, reasons for their occuring and measures the government can
take to try and even out fluctuations in business cycles.
In this topic, you will learn about:

 The composition and features of business cycles

 Explanations
 Government policy
 The new economic paradigm (smoothing of cycles)
 Features underpinning forecasting with regard to business cycles.

Composition and features of business cycles Government policy

 Expansion and contraction  Fiscal and Monetary policies

 Peaks, downswings, troughs & upturns  Demand and supply side actions
 Exogenous and endogenous factors
 Changes in business cycles

Forecasting

Economic indicators
-leading
-lagging
- coincident

Unit 1 The composition and features of business cycles

1. The nature of business cycles

The level of economic activity in a country changes all the time. A period of high activity is called an
expansion (or upswing) and a period of low activity is called a contraction (or downswing). These
periods of expansion and contraction recur in a cyclical fashion. Periods of expansion and

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contraction in the economy are captured by a graph called the business cycle. The business cycle
depicts fluctuations which occur in the economic activity of a country.

1.1 The expansion phase

This phase is characterised by growth in real GDP and income. It consists of two phases – recovery
and prosperity. During the prosperity phase there is an increase in real GDP, income and
employment. Businesses make high profits and this attracts other businesses to enter the market. As
more businesses open, more factors of production are employed. The increase in income causes an
increase in aggregate demand which in turn forces producers to increase output. This causes an
increase in investment spending as producers expand their businesses and buy more inventories.

Expansion ends when it reaches the maximum point of the business cycle – the peak. The peak is
the upper-turning point where the economy has reached its full capacity. It cannot grow beyond this
point. This is also a point of full employment where factors of production have been fully utilised.
This point is characterised by high rates of inflation.

1.2 The contraction phase

This phase is characterised by a period of gradual decline in economic activity. There is a decrease in
aggregate demand that forces a decrease in output. The decrease in sales leads employers to reduce
employment and income decreases. There is a downward spiral of real GDP, employment, income,
and in the standard of living. The contraction period consists of two phases: recession and
depression. A recession follows immediately after the peak. It is a phase where economic activity
starts to slow down. It is also called the economic downturn. It occurs when there is a continuous
decrease in economic activity for a period of six consecutive months (or two quarters). If a recession
continues for more than two quarters, the economy enters a depression phase.

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Unit 2 Explanations of the business cycles
1. Introduction

Business cycles can be caused by factors outside the market economy (called exogenous factors) or
business cycles are an integral part of the market economy (called endogenous factors).

2. Causes of business cycles

2.1 Exogenous factors

Classical economists of the 19th century believed that the market economy was always stable and
that any fluctuations were caused by outside factors - exogenous factors.

Examples of exogenous factors include:

 Natural disasters
 Political reasons
 Psychological reasons
 Changes in weather patterns
 Technological innovations
 Shifts in consumer tastes and preferences.

2.2 Endogenous factors

The Keynesian school of thought believes that the market economy is by its very nature unstable and
is characterised by periodic waves of high and low economic activity. They believe that business
cycles are an integral part of the market system itself. They believe that business cycles are caused
by endogenous factors that emanate from the system itself and that since the market is not able to
correct this it is the governments duty to intervene.
Exogenous factors include:

 Changes in investment may put the economy into a growth or declining phase
 Changes in aggregate demand
 Changes in aggregate supply
 Technological changes and innovations
 Monetary policy changes.

3. Changes in business cycles

Joseph Schumpeter, the Austrian economist, documented a list of different kinds of business cycles
and named them after the people who discovered them. He grouped them into short-, medium- and
long-term business cycles.

 The Kitchin Cycle: discovered by the British economist Joseph Kitchin. It is the shortest
business cycle and lasts for 3–5 years and is caused by changes in inventory levels.
 The Jugler Cycle: discovered by the French economist Clement Juglar, it lasts from 7 to 11
years and is caused by changes in investment in equipment and machinery.

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 Kuznets Cycle: discovered by Simon Kuznets, a Nobel laureate. It lasts from 15 to 20 years
and is caused by changes in infrastructural investment in housing and building construction.
 Kondratieff Cycle: is the longest cycle which lasts for 45 to 60 years. It was discovered by
Russian economist, Nikolai Kondratieff. It consists of six Juglar cycles and is caused by
technological changes and innovations.

Unit 3 Government policy

1. Introduction

According to J.M. Keynes, the market economy cannot survive on its own and it requires
government intervention to stabalize the business cycles. To counter the problems of business cycles
governments can use fiscal or monetary policies.

2. Monetary policy

The South African Reserve Bank implements monetary policy. The Governor of the Reserve Bank, in
consultation with the Minister of Finance, decides on the best policy to apply. There are two
instruments of monetary policy: interest rates and money supply.

2.1 Interest rates

The Reserve Bank must try and keep inflation under control at all times. During a period of
expansion, there is an increase in aggregate demand for both local and imported goods. The sudden
increase in demand causes an increase in the prices of goods and services. The best monetary policy
in this situation is to increase interest rates which reduces the demand and therefore slows down
the increase in price levels.

2.2 Money supply

The Reserve Bank uses its supply of security instruments such as government bonds and treasury
bills to control money supply. If there is too much money in circulation the SARB sells these
securities to banks and other financial institutions. The SARB debits the bank’s account with the
value of the sale and the bank’s balance with the Reserve Bank is reduced. This reduces the ability of
the bank to offer credit. The Reserve Bank will use this policy during prosperity to mop up excess
money in circulation. If there is not enough money in circulation it does the opposite.

3. Fiscal policy

Fiscal policy is used by the South African government to adjust its levels of spending in order to
monitor and influence our economy. Its counterpart is monetary policy which is used by the central
bank to influence a nation’s money supply. These two policies are used in various combinations in an
effort to direct our country’s economic goals.

3.1 Taxation

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By increasing taxation the government can reduce the amount of money in circulation. By lowering
taxation it can increase the amount of money in circulation.

3.2 Government spending

An increase in government spending will have a multiplier effect in the economy – national income
will increase by an amount far greater than the actual amount spent. Government must reduce
public expenditure during prosperity when the economy is overheated as an increase in spending
would only make inflation worse.

Unit 4 The new economic paradigm (smoothing of cycles)

1. Rationale for the new economic paradigm

It is often difficult for difficult for governments and economists to decide when to implement new
policy changes. This has prompted them to look for other ways to smooth out the impact of business
cycles. The new economic paradigm offers one solution – the possibility of growth without inflation.
The new economic paradigm uses two instruments, namely, demand-side and supply-side policies.

2. Demand-side policy
 The aggregate demand created by households, businesses and the government (C + I + G) is
the driving force in the economy.
 A change in aggregate demand will have a direct effect on unemployment and inflation.
 An increase in aggregate demand forces producers to employ more labour to meet demand.
As a result production and income increase but increase in demand puts pressure on the
general price level. As a result, inflation increases.
 When aggregate demand decreases, producers will reduce their production. In reducing
production, firms will retrench workers and decrease the income of households.
 The effect is an increase in unemployment and a decrease in inflation.

2.1 General price level (inflation)

The conclusion of the new economic paradigm is that when the increase in aggregate demand is
accompanied by a simultaneous increase in aggregate supply, economic growth will be achieved
without an increase in inflation.

2.2 Unemployment
An increase in aggregate demand causes firms to produce more in order to meet demand. Firms will
employ more workers to increase production and will therefore reduce the rate of unemployment. A
higher employment rate will give households more income and therefore more to spend on
consumption. This, of course, will create inflation. This trade-off between unemployment and
inflation was discovered by the economist, A.W. Phillips who developed the Phillips curve (PC).
2.3 Stagflation
Stagflation occurs when inflation is accompanied by stagnation in the growth rate and an increase in
unemployment. During stagflation there are simultaneous increases in inflation and unemployment.

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3. Supply-side policy
Supply-side economics stresses that economic growth depends on the stimulation of aggregate
supply. The most important aspect of economic growth is the allocation and efficient use of the
factors of production, especially labour and capital.
 Technical or productive efficiency. This occurs where the firm uses its
resources to produce goods and services at the lowest possible cost.

 Allocative efficiency. Competition increases allocative efficiency because firms that can use
their resources more efficiently can attract resources away from firms that are less efficient.

 D ynamic efficiency. This is the ability of a firm or industry to adapt quickly to changes in
consumer demand and technology.

Unit 5 Features underpinning forecasting with regard to

business cycles
1. Features

Economists study and monitor a variety of economic variables in order to try and predict the future.
The behaviour of these indicators tells them what is likely to happen in the economy.

1.1 Economic indicators

The following economic indicators are used to forecast the future direction of the
business cycle:

 leading
 coincident
 lagging indicators

1.1.1 Leading indicators

Leading economic indicators change direction before the economy does. Leading economic
indicators are important for investors because they are used to predict the likely future of the
economy. An example are stock market returns.

1.1.2 Lagging indicators

Lagging economic indicators change direction a few quarters after the economy has already
changed. They reach the turning point long after the actual business cycle has turned and confirm
the change that was predicted by the leading indicators.

1.1.3 Coincident indicators

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Coincident economic indicators move at the same time as changes in the economy. For example, an
increase in the number of house sales indicates that the economy is entering a prosperity phase.

1.2 The length of the cycle

The length of a business cycle is a horizontal distance measured from peak to peak or from trough to
trough.

1.3 The amplitude of the business cycle

Amplitude is the vertical distance between the trend line and the turning points of the business
cycle.

1.4 The trend

The trend shows the general direction of the economy. It shows whether the economy is growing,
remaining constant or declining over time.

1.5 Extrapolation

Extrapolation is a technique used to predict the future based on previous experience. If the economy
has followed a certain path in the past, it can be predicted that it will continue doing so in the future.
Extrapolation is done by extending the trend line. However, caution must be exercised because the
future trend may not be affected by the same causes.

Questions

1. What do you understand by the term "expansion phase"? (4)

2. What do you understand by the term "contraction phase"? (4)

3. Name three economic indicators are used to forecast the future direction of the business cycle (6)

4. Draw a diagram of the business cycle in which you identify the four phases of the business cycle
and give a short description of each phase. (16)

5. Indicate whether the following variables increase or decrease during a contraction phase. (9)

Variable Contraction phase

a) Gross domestic product

b) Level of economic activity

c) Total spending

d) Level of production

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e) Consumer spending

f) Investment confidence

g) Investment spending

h) Imports

i) Inflation

6. Give three reasons why an expansion phase might turn into a contraction phase. (6)

7. Differentiate between endogenous and exogenous causes of the business cycle and give an
example of each. (6)

Topic 3 Public sector

Overview

This topic discusses the importance of the public sector and also discusses the success and failures of
the public sector on South Africa. You should be able to critically discuss the problems of public
sector provisioning in South Africa.

In this topic, you will learn about:

 the composition and necessity of the public sector

 problems of public sector provisioning
 objectives of the public sector and its budgets
 fiscal policy (including the Laffer curve)
 reasons for public sector failure.

The composition of the public sector Problems of public sector provisioning

 Objectives
 national government  Public sector budgets
 provincial governments  Fiscal policy
 local governments or municipalities - the Laffer curve
 state owned enterprises.  Reasons for failure

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Unit 1 The composition and necessity of the public sector

1. The composition of the public sector

The public sector consists of the following four levels of government:

 National government
 Provincial governments
 Local governments or municipalities
 State owned enterprises.

The national government is represented by the following positions: the President, Cabinet Ministers
and Members of Parliament. The government is responsible for national issues such as defence and
education.
The provincial government is responsible for addressing national issues within their own province.
Provincial governments receive a budget from national government, but they also generate their
own income, mostly from taxes.

The local government is responsible for issues that affect local communities such as roads,
electricity, and sewerage and is managed by mayors and city councillors.

State-owned enterprises (SOE) are owned and managed by the state and tries to do so in the best
interests of all citizens.

2. The necessity of the public sector

The public sector is crucial to the state. It provides the structure and law and order that allows our
society to exist. The public sector determines the policies they believe will improve the living
conditions and lives of all the citizens.

2.1 Need for government intervention

The private sector is motivated by profit and cannot satisfy all the needs of society. Some citizens
will end up being excluded from the economic cycle and won't be able to afford to pay to satisfy
their basic needs. Government intervenes through the public sector to ensure these needs are
satisfied.

Government intervention is required in the following situations:

 When goods have little or no profit. The private sector is not interested in providing goods
with little profit e.g. sanitation
 When very large capital investment is required. Infrastructure requires extremely large
capital investments that the private sector can’t pay for.
 When the returns on capital investment are extremely long-term. The private sector does
not invest in ventures that take a long time to show profits.

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 To achieve political and socio-economic aims. The government provides some goods and
services to address political and social issues.

Unit 2 Problems with public sector provisioning

1. Problems of public sector provisioning

1.1 The problem accountability

 Economic accountability: Government is responsible for managing the economy.

 Financial accountability: State funds are controlled by the Treasury. Strict procedures must
be followed when expropriating government funds.
 Political accountability: Ministers are responsible for their departments and must account to
Parliament for their actions.
 Auditor-General: The annual reports of government departments need to include, among
others, audited financial reports and statements of programme performance.
 Portfolio committees: In the National Assembly, there is a Portfolio Committee for each
government department. Committees are responsible for monitoring the performance of
their respective departments.

1.2 The problem of assessing needs

Government must be able to ensure that its citizens are able to satisfy their basic needs. To do this
the government must first assess the needs of its people. The government needs to know the size of
the population, their ages, and other information in order to be able to do this. They will use a
number of institutions to collect and interpret this information, including census statistics provided
by Statistics South Africa and surveys conducted by hospitals and schools.

1.3 The problem of efficiency

Efficiency is a problem in the public sector because efficiency is seldom measured or assessed. This
situations leads to a lack of accountability and it becomes difficult to determine whether the public
sector is using its skills and resources in the best possible way.

1.4 The problem of pricing policy

The aim of government provisioning is to achieve social, economic and political objectives and it is
therefore not guided by profit maximisation but by social responsibility. The government gives goods
and services to people free of charge which is expensive for the government.

Public goods can be one of two types: non-excludable goods or non-rival goods.

 Non-excludable goods are those goods which are consumed collectively by the community
without excluding others. Non-excludable goods benefit every citizen and are not paid for
directly.

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 Non-rival goods do not diminish in supply for one person when another person consumes
those goods.

1.5 The problem of parastatals

Without competitors, and with government funding and support, parastatals are very often
inefficient with low productivity and a poor service culture. Because of the problems associated with
public enterprises have led government to embark on the privatisation or restructuring of some
state owned enterprises.

The following are ways that the government can privatise parastatels:

 Sale of public assets

 Contracting out/outsourcing/tendering
 Public-private partnerships
 The state stops providing a service
 Deregulation.

Unit 3 Objectives of the public sector and its budgets

1. Objectives of the public sector

The public sector tries to ensure that as many people as possible enjoy a high standard of living. In
order to do this the government tries to achieve the following objectives:

 To improve economic growth

 To achieve full employment or to reduce unemployment
-In the short-run, the state can accelerate employment creation through direct employment
schemes,
- Over the medium term, the state can support labour-intensive activities,
- In the longer run, as full employment is achieved, the state must increasingly support
knowledge-intensive and capital-intensive sectors in order to remain competitive.
 To maintain price stability
 To maintain exchange rate stability
 To achieve a fair income distribution (economic equity).

2. Budgets of the public sector

The government uses budgets as a tool to plan and monitor its revenue and expenditure. The South
African budget is divided into two categories, the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) and
the main budget.

MTEF is a plan of estimated revenue and expenditure which runs for a period of three years.

The objectives of a MTEF are to:

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
Close the gap between the financial needs for each department and what government can
afford
 Remove uncertainty among ministers for the next three years
 Improve the allocation of resources to strategic priorities among
departments
 Increase the level of transparency of both policy and funding so that
ministries can plan ahead and programs can be sustained.

In October of each year the Minister of Finance presents a Medium-Term Budget Policy Statement
(MTBPS). MTBPS is a policy statement issued by government which defines the parameters for the
following year’s budget. The purpose of the statement is to set the policy context and direction so
that departments, provinces and municipalities can prepare their budget plans for the following
three years.

On Budget Day, the Minister of Finance delivers to parliament the ‘Budget Speech’ and tables the
Division of Revenue Bill, the national Appropriation Bill, the Estimates of National Expenditure and
the Budget Review. The national budget is presented as two pieces of legislation which are
introduced simultaneously:

 The Division of Revenue Bill: prescribes how revenue will be divided between the three
spheres of government and the nine provinces.
 The Appropriation Bill: allocates funds to different national departments. Once it becomes
an Act, it gives them authority to spend the money allocated to them.

3. Sources of government revenue

 Taxes: this is the main source of revenue for government

 Loans: when there is too little tax revenue to achieve objectives, the government may
borrow from other countries, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or the World Bank.
 Donations: foreign states may donate money to a government to help
achieve a specific objective..
 Administrative income: this is revenue received from licences and fines.
 Commercial income: income earned for services rendered by the state.
 State property: income from mining, state forests and other government
properties and assets.

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Unit 4 Fiscal policy (including the Laffer curve)

1. Description of fiscal policy

The two main instruments of fiscal policy are government taxation and government spending. Fiscal
policy is used to stabilise the economy by adjusting the levels and allocations of taxes and
government spending.

2. Features of fiscal policy

 Neutral fiscal policy: happens when government runs a balanced budget.

 Expansionary fiscal policy: is aimed at stimulating economic activity. It happens when
government expenditure exceeds tax revenue .
 Contractionary fiscal policy: happens when the government runs a budget surplus.

3. Instruments of fiscal policy

3.1 Taxation

Taxation is the compulsory levy charged on persons, companies and goods and services in order to
finance government expenditure. Taxation is applied either directly or indirectly. Direct taxation is
charged on persons and business enterprise that earn an income. Indirect taxation is charged on
goods and services sold.

3.2 Government spending

Government spending consists of government consumption and government investment.

4. Goals of fiscal policy

Macro-economic goals normally include the following:

 Economic growth
 Job creation
 Price stability
 Balance of payments stability
 Equitable distribution of income
 Alleviation of poverty.

Micro-economic goals are used for a single economic participant or group of participants. Sectoral
goals are used to develop particular economic sectors, for example, mining.

5. The effects of fiscal policy

5.1 Economic growth

An expansionary policy may include an increase in government spending and/or reduction in

taxation. These measures will leave consumers with more disposable income to spend.

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5.2 Price stability

An expansionary fiscal policy may have an inflationary effect on the economy.

5.3 Exchange rates

Government can influence the exchange rate system by manipulating the value of its currency
against other currencies.

5.4 Economic equity

An objective of government is to ensure a fair distribution of income.

5.5 Crowding-out effect

An expansionary policy can cause a crowding-out effect in the economy. When an increase in
government spending is financed by borrowing, it can cause a steep rise in interest rates. The
increase can be so high that the private sector finds it difficult to compete with government in the
money market.

5.6 Incentive to work and the Laffer curve

Fiscal policy impacts on the labour market by encouraging or discouraging productivity. A very high
tax rate reduces people’s willingness to work. This phenomenon is explained using the Laffer curve.
The Laffer curve is a graph that shows the relationship between government revenue raised through
taxation and the tax rate.

Unit 5 Reasons public sector failure

1. Description of public sector failure

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A public sector failure is a government intervention in the economy that creates inefficiencies and
leads to a misallocation of scarce resources.

2. Features of public sector failure

The following features characterise government failure:

 Non-service delivery
 Wastefulness
 Ineffectiveness
 Lack of monitoring and evaluation
 Redundancy.

3. Reasons for public sector failure

3.1 Subsidies

Government sometimes provides subsidies to certain firms in order to reduce their costs of
production or to encourage the production of that good and this may create barriers to entry for
new firms.

3.2 Taxes

Taxes on goods and services can raise prices artificially and distort the efficient operation of the
market and can discourage individuals from working hard.

3.3 Administered prices

Governments can impose minimum and maximum prices for goods. This creates distortions that lead
to other problems.
 Shortages may arise when government fixes prices below the market
price.
 Surpluses may be caused when government fixes prices above the market
price.

3.4 Information failure

Government often lacks all the information and facts necessary to make decisions.

3.4 Bureaucracy

Excessive bureaucracy tends to cause more problems than good.

3.5 Moral hazard

If people know that they will not carry the costs, they do not take the necessary steps to reduce
them and abuse the system.

3.6 Costs

Bureaucrats are not as cost conscious as people in the private sector.

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3.7 Rent-seeking

All interest groups such as households, businesses, organised labour and consumers want to
improve their wellbeing at the expense of government. As a result there is constant conflict between
government and these interest groups.

4. Effects of public sector failure

Public sector failure can be categorised according to social, economic, political and environmental
effects.

4.1 Social effects

 Service delivery: public sector failure is reflected most clearly in non- or poor service
delivery.
 Poverty: an important government objective is to alleviate and reduce poverty.

4.2 Economic effects

 Economic growth: public sector failure is a barrier to economic growth.

 Waste of resources: the public sector is not motivated by profit and is therefore not as cost-
conscious as the private sector.
 Price instability: public sector failure may lead to unstable prices for goods.
 Unemployment: the public sector must provide systems, services and policies that provide
opportunities to create employment.

4.3 Political effects

 Large bureaucracy: a failing government is often characterised by a large number of

bureaucrats.
 Inefficiency: a lack of monitoring and evaluation causes inefficiency, poor workmanship and
low productivity in the public sector.

4.4 Environmental effects

Degradation: the failure of the public sector to implement environmental policies has caused the
degradation of some of our natural resources.

Questions

1. What does the term fiscal policy mean? (4)

2. List five goals of macro-economic policy for the public sector? (10)

3. Name two effects of public sector failure at a social level? (4)

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4. Discuss the aims of the state's economic policy. (14)

5. Name four reasons for public sector failure. [8]

6. Explain the Laffer curve by using a graph. [16]

7. Discuss the problems of public sector provisioning, giving examples. [40]

8. Explain how Fiscal Policy can be used as an economic tool by the government and its effects on
the economy. [16]

Topic 4 Economic growth and development: foreign

exchange market (Globalisation)
Overview

International trade is a vital part of modern economies.

In this topic, you will learn about:

 The main reasons for international trade

 The balance of payments
 Foreign exchange markets
 The establishment of foreign exchange rates
 Corrections of BOP surplus and deficit (disequilibria).

 The main reasons for international trade  Foreign exchange markets

 The balance of payments  The establishment of foreign exchange
 Corrections of BOP surplus and deficit rates
(disequilibria)  Supply and demand on the forex
markets

Unit 1 The main reasons for international trade

1. Introduction

International trade refers to any trade between different countries in the world and is also called
foreign trade.

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2. Reasons for international trade

There are two main reasons why countries trade with each other. Firstly, a country may have an
absolute advantage in the production of two different products. This means that each country can
produce one of the products at a lower cost (cheaper) than its trading partner.

Secondly, countries trade because the opportunity costs involved in the production of two products
are different. If one country can produce both products more economically than another country,
then they will decide what to produce based on the comparative advantage in the production of the
two products. The country that can produce a specific good at the lowest cost will specialise in that
product. There are several reasons for comparative advantage, such as differences in technology,
the availability of resources and differences in consumer tastes and demand.

Unit 2 The balance of payments

1. Introduction

Many consumer and capital goods produced in other countries are consumed in South Africa. Many
of the goods produced in South Africa are consumed elsewhere in the world. The term imports refer
to goods and services that are produced in other countries but that are consumed in South Africa.
The term exports refer to goods and services that are produced within the boundaries of a country
but that are consumed elsewhere in the world. The various flows of money, goods and services
between households and firms in South Africa and households and firms in the rest of the world is
recorded in the balance of payments.

2. The balance of payments

The balance of payments is a systematic statistical account that allows a government to keep
accurate records of all economic transactions between the residents in one country (in our case
South Africa) and residents in the rest of the world, in a specific period of time, normally a year.

3. The composition of the balance of payments

The balance of payments consists of four basic accounts:

 The current account

 The capital transfer account
 The financial account
 Unrecorded transactions.

3.1 The current account

The current account reflects a number of entries. The first entry is the rand value of goods exported
to the rest of the world. The next entry is service receipts and payments for services. Then income
receipts and income payments. The last entry in the current account is Current Transfers.

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3.2 The financial account

The financial account is the second main component of the balance of payments. This account is
used to record all international financial transactions that involve assets and liabilities of a country.

3.3 Unrecorded transactions

The next component of the balance of payments is unrecorded transactions. When international
trade transactions in goods and services are recorded in the balance of payments, the principle of
double entry is used. However, in practice, this is seldom the case. All mistakes and omissions that
were made in the process of recording the individual components of the balance of payments are
entered as unrecorded transactions.

3.4 Gold and foreign reserves

When international trade takes place and products are exported, for example from South Africa to
the USA, producers in South Africa want to be paid in South African rand. When goods are imported
from the USA by a company in South Africa, the firm in the USA wants to be paid in US dollars. The
term foreign currency refers to the different means of payment that are used to make these
payments.

Gold and foreign reserves are regarded as the most important total in the Balance of payments for
the following reasons:

 They reflect the overall position of the Balance of payments.

 There may be differences between the payments and receipts of foreign currency from
week to week or month to month. Foreign reserves ensure the smooth flow of international
trade and international finance.
 Foreign reserves stabilise the rand and prevents dramatic changes in the exchange rates of
the South African rand and the other currencies. Foreign reserves reflects the ability of
financial authorities to stimulate the economy without running into financial difficulty.

Current account of the South African balance of payments

Annual figures (R millions)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Current account

1-Merchandise exports 331 338 412 220 497 618 655 759 503 656 566 760

2-Net gold exports 27 023 35 470 39 898 48 534 52 776 59 499

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3-Service receipts 71 808 82 643 97 110 105 351 100 760 102 362

4-Income receipts 29 550 41 207 48 448 48 254 34 075 34 099

5-Less: Merchandise imports 360 362 476 966 573 850 739 852 554 161 598 151

6-Less: Payments for services 77 197 96 623 115 934 138 885 124 147 134 843

7-Less: Income payments 60 975 75 982 117 266 122 129 87 593 87 022

8-Current transfers -15 680 -15 768 -16 575 -18 906 -22 428 -16 762

(net receipts +)

9-Balance on current account -54 495 -93 799 -140 551 -161 874 -97 062 -74 058

Source: South African Reserve Bank, Quarterly Bulletin, March 2011

Unit 3 Foreign exchange markets

1. Introduction

When goods are imported, foreign producers must be paid using foreign currency. Businesses and
individuals in other countries that buy South African products will have to pay for them in rand, and
will exchange their own currencies to do so.

2. The concept: foreign exchange markets

A foreign exchange market brings together buyers and sellers of different currencies. The foreign
exchange market consists of authorised currency dealers who buy and sell foreign currency on
behalf of their clients.

The foreign exchange market is an international market that includes the buyers and sellers of
foreign currency from states throughout the world.

Unit 4 The establishment of foreign exchange rates

1. Introduction

The economic term rate of exchange (or exchange rate) refers to the rate at which one country’s
currency is exchanged (or swopped) for another country’s currency.

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2. Interpretation of exchange rates

The exchange rate is always given as a ratio of one country’s currency in terms of another country’s
currency. When the exchange rate between two currencies changes, one currency will increase in
value (appreciate) and the other currency will decrease in value (depreciate). There are two main
exchange rates that impact the South African economy: the US dollar and the euro.

3. Determination of the rand- dollar exchange rate

The market for US dollars is one of the most important elements of the foreign exchange market.
The general rule for dollar demand is: The higher the price of the dollar in terms of South African
rand, the smaller the amount of dollars demanded. There are various sources for the supply of
dollars in the South African foreign exchange market such as:

 The first is producers in South Africa who export their products to the USA.
 Foreign investors will also supply dollars when they exchange them for rands to invest in
South African shares or bonds.
 Foreign tourists who bring dollars with them to South Africa and then have to
exchange them to pay for goods and services.
 Speculators who expect an increase in the value of the rand will exchange dollars for rand
until the rand has appreciated.

4. Currency appreciation and depreciation due to changes in the supply and demand

Any factor that causes a change in the demand or supply of foreign exchange will cause a change the
exchange rate. When the dollar becomes more expensive against the rand, it means that more rand
will be needed to buy one dollar.

Change Impact on the exchange rate

Increase in demand for foreign currency Depreciates

Decrease in demand for foreign currency Appreciates

Increase in supply of foreign currency Depreciates

Decrease in supply of foreign currency Appreciates

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5. Intervention in the foreign exchange market

Trade in foreign exchange can be very speculative. It is common for the monetary authorities of a
country to intervene in foreign exchange markets in order to limit the fluctuations in the exchange
rate. Monetary authorities can intervene in two ways. Firstly, the central bank can manipulate the
fluctuations in the exchange rate by means of a policy called managed floating. Secondly the
exchange rate can be managed by implementing a floating currency system.

Unit 5 Corrections of Balance of Payments surplus and deficit

(disequilibria)
1. Introduction
It is in the best interest of the country if there is a balance between total imports and total exports.
This balance between exports and imports will ensure that the balance of payments and the
exchange rate remains fairly stable.

The sum of the balances of the current account, the capital account, unrecorded transactions and
the net gold and foreign reserves of the country should add up to zero.

2. Balance of payments surplus or deficit

If the total payments made by the country exceed the total income received by the country in a
specific period of time, the balance of payments will be in deficit. If the total income received by the
country is greater than the total payments made by the country in a specific period of time, the

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balance of payments will be in surplus. In order to determine whether the balance of payments are
in deficit or surplus, the final balances of the current account, the financial account, gold and foreign
reserves of the country, as well as unrecorded transactions, must be added together.

2.1 The current account

 The total income on the current account is calculated by determining the sum total of
merchandise exports, net gold exports, service receipts and net receipts of current transfers.
 Total payments from the current account are calculated by determining the sum total of
merchandise imports, payments for services and income payments
 The balance of the current account is the difference between total income and total
payments in the current account.
 The current account will be in deficit if total payments in the current account exceeds (or is
greater than) total income in the current account.
 The current account will show a surplus when the total income of the current account is
greater than the total payments in the current account.

2.2 The financial account

 The balance of the financial account is determined by calculating the sum total of net direct
investment, net portfolio investment and net other investment.
 The financial account will have a surplus if the inflow of capital exceeds the outflow of
capital for a specific period.
 The financial account will have a deficit when the outflow of capital exceeds the inflow of
capital in a specific period.

Questions

1. List the reasons why countries trade with one another. (6)
2. Distinguish between the law of absolute and comparative advantage. (4)
3. Briefly explain how a flexible exchange rate corrects a deficit on the current account of the
balance of payments. (6)
4. Complete the table below by indicating whether the following events will cause a rightward
or leftward shift of the demand or supply curve for dollars. Indicate whether the rand/dollar
exchange rate depreciates or appreciates. (14)

Event Shift Depreciation or appreciation

of the rand/dollar exchange
rate

a) An increase in the number

of tourists visiting South
Africa this year

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b) An increase in the
international demand for gold

from South Africa

c) An increase in the amount

of capital goods that South
African firms buy from the
rest of the world

d) An increase in the amount

of imports bought by
households

e) A decrease in the amount

of foreign bonds bought by

South Africans

f) A decrease in fixed
investment by foreigners in
South Africa

g) An increase in the amount

of South African bonds
bought by foreigners

5. Choose the correct option in brackets:

a) If the inflow of foreign currency exceeds the outflow of foreign currency the

foreign reserves (decline/increase).

b) An increase in foreign reserves indicates that the inflow of foreign currency is

(more/less) than the outflow of foreign currency.

c) If the combined balance on the current and capital account is positive, foreign

reserves (increase/decrease).

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d) A deficit on the current account coupled with a deficit on the financial account

(increases/decreases) foreign reserves.

e) If the deficit on the current account is larger than the surplus on the financial

account foreign reserves (decline/increase). (10)

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Term2
Topic 1 Economic systems: protection and free trade
(globalisation)
Overview

This topic looks at ways in which local trade can be protected from competition and also the
advantages and disadvantages of globalisation.

In this topic, you will learn about:

 Export promotion
 Import substitution
 Protectionism (the arguments)
 Free trade (the arguments)
 A desirable mix
 Evaluation.

Export promotion Import substitution

 importance  methods
 consequences  reasons
 methods of promotion

Free trade Evaluation of South Africa's policies

 arguments for free trade  Marakesh agreement

 arguments against free trade  SACU
 Cotonou Protocal
 GSP
 SACU
 WTO
 Cairns Group
 World economic Forum

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Unit 1 Export promotion

1. The concept

 International trade is the buying and selling of goods and services between one country and
another.
 We call goods bought into the country imports and those sold to another country as exports.
 Free trade occurs when imports and exports flow freely between different countries of the
world.
 Although free trade has its advantages it is not accepted as being beneficial to everyone.
 Strong foreign competition can cause countries to impose trade barriers to protect their
local industries. We call this protectionism.
 Two strategies can be followed to overcome this problem: export promotion and import
substitution.

Export promotion means that the government assists and encourages local firms to sell goods and
services in international markets. Producers in South Africa can apply for these incentives from the
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). An example of such an incentive is the Export Marketing
and Investment Assistance (EMIA) scheme. Administered by the DTI it compensates exporters for
the costs involved in developing export markets for South African goods.

2. The importance of export promotion

 Exports help stimulate economic growth.

 Exports help pay for imports and improve the position of the balance of payments.
 The increase in demand leads to larger scales of production which in turn leads to a decrease
in production costs, called economies of scale, which will make local producers more
competitive internationally.

,
3. The consequences of export promotion

 It allows both local producers and the South African government to strengthen their
relationships with trading partners.
 Strong relationships result in trade, investment and advances in technology that are
beneficial to all concerned.

4. The promotion of exports

 Incentives and subsidies can help promote exports.

 Incentives are measures offered to producers to encourage them to export their products.
An example of an incentive is a scheme run by the IDC that makes finance available at
reduced rates for certain business expansion schemes that are expected earn increased
foreign exchange .
 Subsidies are cash payments made to exporters to encourage the export of their goods and
services.

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Unit 2 Import substitution

1. The concept

Import substitution occurs when the government of a country encourages the use of locally made
goods and services rather than imported ones. This helps promote the growth of local industries
thereby promoting economic growth.

The government uses the following import controls to encourage import substitution:

 Import tariffs
 Import quotas
 Custom duties.

2. The reasons for import substitution

Reasons for import substitution include the following:

 It is easier for producers to enter an identified market if the domestic market is protected.
 To solve balance of payments problems
 To develop the local manufacturing industry. This will create additional
job opportunities because the secondary sector is the largest employer of
all sectors.

Unit 3 Protectionism (the arguments)

1. The concept

Protectionism means the implementation of trade policies aimed at restricting the importing of
certain goods and services in order to protect local industries.

2. Arguments in favour of protectionism

 Protecting infant (new) industries: If a new industry is protected in its early years it may be
able to grow and become competitive later on.
 Stable wage levels and standards of living: Countries with low wage levels are able to export
their goods to other countries at low prices thereby threatening the existence of the local
industries.
 Trade restrictions and unemployment: When a country suffers from a high level of
unemployment there will be pressure to impose trade restrictions to protect local industries.

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 Preventing dumping: In the short term local consumers are able to buy goods cheaply but in
the long run it leads to reduced choice and higher prices the foreign firm is able to charge
because they have forced the local producers out of business.
 Protecting strategic industries and encouraging self sufficiency: Some industries are essential
for a countries survival and as such must be protected.
 Balance of payments corrections and stabilising the exchange rate: Protectionism can be
used to reduce imports thereby improving the balance of payments and exchange rate.
 Earning government revenue: Import tariffs are a important source of revenue.
 Multinational companies: Multinational companies can dominate less developed countries.

Unit 4 Free trade (the arguments)

1. The concept: Free trade

Free trade refers to the flow of exports and imports between different countries in the world free
from any interference from trade barriers with no forms of protection being used to protect new
industries in developing countries.

Benefits of free trade are:

 It leads to a decrease in the domestic prices of goods and services.

 It encourages the development and use of more efficient methods of
production.
 It exposes domestic consumers to new products.
 It provides domestic consumers with a wider range of consumer products.

2. Arguments in favour of free trade

 Improves global efficiency: Resources are allocated more efficiently as markets expand.
 Specialisation: Free trade allows countries to specialise in industries where they have a
competitive advantage.
 Economies of scale: Costs can be significantly reduced if businesses take advantage of the
economies of scale a global market offers.
 Innovation: Increased competition encourages innovation.
 Spreads democratic values: Businesses that trade on an international basis have to comply
with international law.
 Choice: Consumers are free to buy goods and services from anywhere in the world.
 Lower prices: Specialised production and an efficient allocation of resources leads to lower
prices.

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Unit 5 A desirable mix
1. Introduction

Most countries use a combination of both free trade and protectionism. Globalisation means that no
country is excluded from international trade.

2. What is the desirable mix?

 The worlds economy is characterised by globalisation and international trade. All countries
are encouraged, especially developed countries, to implement a free trade policy. In theory,
the removal of all trade barriers will provide the best conditions for international trade.

 In reality, however, international markets are not perfectly competitive and the theory, on
which free trade is based, does not resemble conditions in the real world. It is sometimes
necessary to use some protectionism to achieve national objectives. When a protectionist
trade policy such as a trade tariff is implemented, an economy is likely to suffer economic
losses. However, the state may benefit in other ways such as by protecting jobs.

 Countries sign international agreements that establish trade protocols which dictate how
international trade will take place. Examples include the African Union (AU) and the
European Union (EU).

 The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only international global organisation that deals
with the rules of trade between countries. It seeks to reduce worldwide trade barriers so
that more countries benefit from international trade.

Unit 6 Evaluation
1. Introduction

South Africa's economic policy emphasises that exporting goods will stimulate economic growth.
South Africa has signed an agreement with the WTO to liberalise trade. The government has used a
Proudly South African campaign to encourage South African consumers and foreign visitors to buy
locally produced goods.

2. Free trade or protectionism for South Africa?

In 1994, South Africa signed the Marrakesh Agreement indicating that it had adopted a Free trade
approach. In doing so, South Africa made a commitment to open international trade by lowering
subsidies and exchange controls.

South Africa participates in the following organisations and agreements with the aim of developing
more free trade and development:

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 Southern Africa Development Community Protocol on Trade.
 Southern African Customs Union (SACU).
 Cotonou Agreement – this is an agreement aimed at the reversal of economic and
technological marginalisation of Africa, Caribbean and Pacific group countries in terms of
global trade and investment
 United States Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) which grants duty free treatment for
more than 4 650 products
 SACU-China FTA negotiations
 World Trade Organisation (WTO)
 Cairns Group – this is an association of countries that export agricultural products with the
objective of free and fair trade in the global agricultural market.
 World Economic Forum – the annual meeting of world economic leaders in Switzerland has
become the world’s global business summit.

Questions

1. What does the phrase free trade mean? (2)

2. What does the phrase export promotion mean? (2)

3. What does the phrase import substitution mean? (2)

4. List seven advantages of free trade. (14)

5. Discuss the various protocols that South Africa has signed since 1994. (16)

6. Write a brief note on the advantages of import substitution. (16)

7. Discuss four arguments in favour of protectionism. (16)

8. Explain any three disadvantages of import substitutio n. (6)

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Topic 2 Dynamics of markets: perfect markets

Overview

This topic examines perfect markets and how well they answer the
basic economic questions of:
What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce?
In this topic, you will learn about:

 Perfect competition
 Individual business and industry
 Market structure
 Output
 Profits
 Losses and supply
 Competition policies.

Individual businesses and the industry

Characteristics of a perfectly competitive
market
• The difference between the industry and
 Many buyers and sellers
the individual business
 Homogeneous • The different revenue concepts and curves
 Perfect information of the business in a perfectly competitive
 No collusion market
 Freedom of entry and exit • The different cost concepts and curves of
 Unregulated the businesses in a perfectly competitive
 Mobility of factors of production. market.

Output decisions
Market structure
 Profit maximisation for a firm under
perfect competition in the short-run Organisation of a perfectly competitive
• Market price changes in the short-run market.
• Long-run costs of the individual business.

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Unit 1 Perfect competition

1. Introduction

In economics we are looking for ways in which our scarce resources are used efficiently to produce
goods and services that satisfy our needs and wants. In a market economy businesses produce goods
and services. The way in which they will behave is influenced by the market structure they find
themselves in. In this unit we are looking at how they behave under perfect competition. In Grade
11 you learnt that when a market is perfectly competitive, there are many relatively small businesses
that produce or manufacture homogeneous (identical) goods or services. None of these businesses
has the power to influence or change the price at which the product is sold. Where there is perfect
competition the market price of the product is determined through the interaction of demand and
supply.

2. Characteristics of perfect competition

 Many buyers and sellers: For a perfectly competitive market to exist there must be many
buyers and sellers of a specific product. This ensures sufficient competition so that no buyer
or seller can influence the products price.
 Homogeneous product: The products must be similar or identical to ensure that no seller
can distinguish his product from his competitors which would allow him to charge a higher
price. As long as the products are homogeneous there is no reason for a buyer to prefer one
product over another.
 Perfect information: All the buyers and sellers must have complete and correct information
about the market conditions.
 No collusion: Each buyer and seller must act independently thereby avoiding collusion.
 Freedom of entry and exit: Buyers and sellers must be free to enter or leave a market. There
must be no barriers to entry allowing new businesses to enter and compete against existing
ones.
 Unregulated market: There must be no government interference.
 Mobility of the factors of production: The factors of production must be free to move from
area and industry to others.

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In perfect competition the individual firm is a price taker and must sell its product at the market
price

New suppliers are able to enter the market, due to the existence of profits and therefore supply will
increase and the price will decrease until a new equilibrium price and quantity is reached.

Unit 2 Individual business and industry

1. Introduction

We can define an industry as being all the businesses that produce the same good or service. The
industries output will be sum total of the output of all the individual businesses. Different industries
will have different sizes. An individual business is a single producer of a specific good or service.

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The way in which businesses behave within an industry depends on how the industry is organised.
The economic term market organisation refers to the way in which the industry is organised. This
will include amongst other things the ability of a business to influence prices (price-maker).

2. The difference between the industry and the individual business

2.1 The industry

As mentioned above an industry consists of all the different businesses that produce the same
product. If all products are homogeneous (similar) they will all be sold at the same market price.
However, even though the products produced by an industry are exactly the same, there are other
products that can be used to replace a product to satisfy the same need. All products have a
substitute product that can replace them.

2.2 The individual business

Individual businesses don’t have any influence on the market price for which they sell their
homogeneous products.

3. The different revenue concepts and curves of the business in a perfectly competitive market

We will be looking at the following revenue concepts:

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 Total revenue (TR)

 Average revenue (AR)
 Marginal revenue (MR).

Total revenue (TR) refers to the total income received when a business sells a specific quantity of
goods or services at the market price.

It can be calculated as follows:

TR = Price × quantity sold.

Average revenue (AR) is equal to total revenue divided by the quantity sold.

The equation is: AR = TR ÷ quantity sold.

Marginal revenue (MR) is defined as the additional or extra revenue earned when one additional
unit of the product is sold. We use the following equation to calculate marginal revenue:

MR = (New TR – previous TR) ÷ (New quantity sold – previous quantity sold)

The following example shows the relationship between the different revenue concepts :

Quantity Price (P) Marginal Revenue Total Revenue Average Revenue

(MR) (TR) (AR)
Q

0 5 0

1 5 5 5 5

2 5 5 10 5

3 5 5 15 5

4 5 5 20 5

5 5 5 25 5

6 5 5 30 5

Revenue curves

Revenue curves are a graphic representation of the total revenue, average revenue and marginal
revenue of a firm or an industry. By examining the curves on the curve we can easily see what is
happening to revenue over a period of time.

Profit maximisation

In perfect competition the firm maximises profits if it produces that quantity where the marginal
revenue (MR) is

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equal to the marginal cost (MC).

MR = MC profit maximisation

As long as the marginal revenue is greater than the marginal cost, the marginal revenue contributes
towards total profits. By producing and selling an additional unit, the producer gains more than it
costs to produce the additional unit and its profits increase.

MR > MC profits increase

When marginal revenue is less than marginal cost total profits will decline. It is costing the
firm more to produce the additional unit than it gets from selling the additional unit. It is
therefore not in the interest of the firm to produce the extra unit.

MR < MC profits decline

4. The different cost concepts and curves of the business in a perfectly competitive market

 In order to receive revenue, businesses must incur costs. These costs can be expressed at
total costs, average costs or marginal costs.
 There is a short run and a long run for businesses.
 Short run costs can be divided into fixed costs and variable costs
 Fixed costs (FC) plus variable costs (VC) = total costs (TC). (FC + VC = TC)
 In the short run fixed costs cannot be changed. In the long run all costs are variable.

Cost concepts

Costs can be shown graphically in the same way as revenue curves

Total costs (TC): the total cost of production including variable and
fixed costs.
TC = TFC + TVC

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Average costs (AC or ATC): the total cost per unit.

AC = TC ÷ number of units produced. Also,
AC = AFC + AVC.

Average fixed costs: total fixed costs divided by the number of

units produced.
AFC = TFC ÷ number of units produced.

Average variable costs: total variable costs divided by the number of units
produced.
AVC = TVC ÷ number of units produced.

Marginal costs (MC): the change in total costs if one extra unit of output is
produced.
MC = Change in TC ÷ Change in Quantity produced.

Unit 3 Market structure

1. Introduction

Perfect competition (i.e. a market structure allowing for competition) as the most efficient market
structure because it ensures that:

 Goods and services are produced at the lowest cost

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 Scarce resources are used in the most efficient manner.

The conditions needed for a perfect market to exist are not always possible in the real world
resulting in many different market structures. We can distinguish between the following basic
market structures:

 Perfect competition
 Monopolistic competition
 Oligopoly
 Monopoly.

The following four characteristics are used to distinguish between the different market structures:
 The number of buyers and sellers in the market.
 The nature of the product.
 The availability of information.
 The freedom to exit from or enter the market

2. The organisation of the perfectly competitive market

 The number of buyers and sellers in the market

The quantity demanded by consumers depends on a variety of factors such as the their ability to pay
for the product, the type of need or want satisfied by the product, the price of the product and the
size of the population. Since all products in a perfectly competitive market are homogeneous there
will be a large number of buyers who will demand the product. None of these buyers, however, can
influence the market price of the product since the quantity each demands is small compared to the
total market demand for the product.

 The nature of the product

Homogeneous products are goods or services that are exactly the same and here is no reason why
consumers will prefer one to another.

 The availability of information

In a perfectly competitive market all individual businesses and consumers have perfect knowledge.
This means that no individual businesses can benefit, at the cost of the other businesses.

 Exit and entry to the market

In a perfectly competitive market, all producers and suppliers are free to enter the market at any
time.

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Unit 4 Output
1. Introduction

In a perfectly competitive market a business's objective is to maximise its profits. As an individual

business it cannot change the products price and needs to decide if:

 It should continue with production or close down its operations

 The quantity that it needs to produce to maximise its profits.

We use the term output to describe how many products the business will produce and sell at this
market price to maximise its profits.

2. Maximum profit for a business under perfect competition

There are two ways a producer can decide how much to produce:

 The marginal revenue - marginal cost rule: This says that the business should produce that
level of production where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. (MR = MC)
 Total revenue - total cost approach: Produce the level of output where the positive
difference between the total revenue and the total cost is the greatest.

3. What happens when the market price changes in the short-run?

If the market price changes, the business will have to adjust its decision on the quantity of goods they will
produce and sell. According to the profit maximising rule, they will always produce the quantity where
the MR = MC.

4. Long-run costs of the individual business

The long-run is a period of time long enough for a business to change all of its factors of production
and inputs in order to adjust its level of output. In the long-run, the business does not have fixed
costs. All costs are variable. The total costs of the business in the long-run are therefore equal
to the total variable costs (TC = TVC)

The relationship between the LRAC and the LRMC is the same as the relationship between the SRAC
and SRMC.

The long-run average cost curve of the business is U-shaped. This implies that as the level of output
increases initially, the long-run average costs (LRAC) will decrease.

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5. Optimum size of the business in the long-run

A business operating in a perfectly competitive market structure will try to maximise its profit in the
long-run. Businesses will continue to expand as long as there are economies of scale that can be
realised.

Unit 5 Profit

 Profit is the difference between the total revenue and total costs. The business makes a
profit when the total income exceeds the total costs of the business.

 Normal profit is the best return that the businesses self-owned, self employed resources
could earn elsewhere and can be regarded as the minimum payment required by the owner
of the business to stay in that particular business.

 Economic profit is equal to the total revenue that exceeds the total cost. It is the extra profit
the owner of the business receives above the minimum payment required to stay in that
particular business. This is why it is sometimes called excess profit or pure profit.

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2 Maximum profit according to the marginal revenue and marginal cost approach

Businesses can use the marginal revenue−marginal cost approach to determine the maximum level
of output. Profit is maximised when MC = MR

3 When does a business make an economic profit?

If MR is greater than MC then the business is making an economic profit

Unit 6 Losses and supply

1. Introduction

Under perfect competition, the market price is determined through the interaction of demand and
supply . If market forces change and the market price decreases, there is nothing that the business
can do to influence the market price. The only thing that the business can do is to change the level of
output to limit any loss that it may suffer.

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An economic loss occurs when the average cost of the business is greater than the average market
price. The profit maximising rule states that if the business wants to maximise its profit (or minimise
its loss), the firm must produce that level of output where the marginal revenue is equal to the
marginal cost.

2 What happens if the market price decreases? When will the firm close down?

As long as the price is equal to or higher than average cost per unit the firm makes a profit. If
the price falls below the average cost per unit and total revenue is less than total cost the firm
makes a loss.

According to demand and supply analysis, as more firms enter the market, the supply increases and
the supply curve shifts to the right, so the price of the product decreases. As the price of the product
decreases, the firm will receive less in total revenue, and economic profits will start to decline. This
process will continue until only normal profits are earned in the market.

When firms in a particular market make a loss it is time to consider leaving the market. As more and
more producers leave the market the supply will decrease. In terms of demand and supply analysis,
this will cause an upward shift of the supply curve and the price will increase. Firms that stayed in
the market will now be able to earn only a normal profit.

It is through changes in the market price and the entry and exit of firms that ensures that an efficient
allocation of resources takes place in a perfect competitive

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Unit 7 Competition policies
Governments use competition policy to try and improve the efficiency of the markets because
resources are scarce and our needs are unlimited. Competition policies in South Africa aim to:

 Increase the markets efficiency

 Trying to give previously disadvantaged people equal opportunity to participate in the
economy
 Contribute to developmental objectives.

The government introduced the Competition Act 1998, its aim is to promote and maintain
competition in South Africa to achieve the following:

 To promote the efficiency, adaptability and development of the economy.

 To provide consumers with competitive prices and product choices.
 To promote employment and advance the social and economic welfare of
South Africans.
 To expand opportunities for South African participation in world markets
and to recognize the role of foreign competition in South Africa.
 To ensure that small and medium-sized enterprises have an equal
opportunity to participate in the economy.
 To promote the spread of ownership and to increase ownership stakes of
historically disadvantaged people.

The government created the following institutions to help achieve the Acts objectives:

 The Competition Commission: It is empowered to investigate, control and evaluate

restrictive business practices, any abuse of dominant positions and mergers to achieve
equity and efficiency.
 The Competition Tribunal: Amongst other things it has the power to authorise or prohibit
large mergers.
 The Competition Appeal Court: It has the power to appeal or review any decision made by
the Competition Tribunal.

Questions

1. List seven characteristics of perfect competition? (14)

2. What is the difference between normal profit and economic profit? (8)

3. a) Use demand and supply curves to show what would happen on the market for

potatoes if the demand for potatoes increases. (4)

b) Show how the above change in the market for potatoes will influence the demand

curve for the individual producer of potatoes. (2)

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4. Use the table below to fill in the main differences between the different types of markets.

Structure Number of firms Characteristics Market power Entry and exit

of product

Perfect
competition

Monopolistic
competition

Oligopoly

Monopoly

(16)

5. Complete the following table below and show where the firm will maximise its profits.

Quantity (Q) Price (P) Marginal Marginal Cost Contribution to

Revenue (MR) (MC) profits

1 6 2

2 6 3

3 6 4

4 6 5

5 6 6

6 6 7

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(8)

7. Draw a demand curve for an individual producer under perfect competition and indicate the
marginal revenue and average revenue. (4)

8. Explain why, under perfect competition, economic profits by individual producers will
eventually decline. (4)

9. What are the main aims of competition policy in South Africa? (4)

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Topic 3 Dynamics of markets: imperfect markets

Overview

In this topic, you will learn about:

 The dynamics of imperfect markets with the aid of cost and revenue curves
 Monopolies
 Oligopolies
 Monopolistic competition.

Imperfect markets

Technical inefficiency

Allcoative inefficience

Monopolies Oligopolies

 Characteristics  Characteristics
 Profits  Profits
 Short and long run  Short and long run
profits. profits.

Monopolistic competition

 Characteristics
 Forms of competition
 Profits
 Short and long run
profits.

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Unit 1 The dynamics of markets with the aid of cost and

revenue curves
1. Description of imperfect markets

The two concepts of efficiency that we use in economics are technical efficiency and allocative
efficiency.
 Technical efficiency is when the market produces the maximum quantity of goods and
services from the available resources.
 Allocative efficiency occurs when the market produces the best mix of goods and services
that the consumers desire.

Under perfect competition the forces of demand and supply create allocative efficiency is reached
and technical efficiency is ensured by competition between businesses.

The conditions for perfect competition are rarely met in the real world and imperfect competition is
more common than perfect competition. There are three types of imperfect markets: the monopoly,
the oligopoly and monopolistic competition.

Unit 2 Monopolies
1. Introduction

A monopoly exists when there is only one seller of a good or service for which there is no substitute
and it is impossible for another business to enter the market. it is the opposite of perfect
competition.

2. Characteristics of a monopoly

 There is only one seller of the good or service

 The good or service is unique and there are no close substitutes
 There are barriers to entry
 The monopolist is regarded as a price-maker (influences the market price)
 It is possible for the monopolist to make an economic profit in the long run
 It benefits from economies of scale
 Monopolist controls access to information.

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Monopolies are therefore price-makers as opposed to perfect competition where the individual firm
is a price-taker. Monopolies can determine the market price of a product. Therefore the marginal
revenue and average revenue of the firm are no longer the same as the demand curve.
 The demand curve for the monopoly is also the market demand curve.
 The marginal revenue of a monopolist is lower than the demand curve.

3. Determination of profit and loss in the short-term

Profit maximisation position of a monopolist occurs at point E1 where MC = MR.

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Short- run profits
While the individual firm in a perfect competition is a price-taker, the monopolist is a price-maker.
While the individual firm in a perfect competition is faced with a horizontal demand curve, the
monopolist is faced with a downward-sloping demand curve. A firm in a perfect competition can sell
any quantity at the market price, but the monopolist can reduce his price up to a point where he
makes maximum revenue.
Short-run losses
It is possible for the monopolist to make a loss as well. The monopolist makes a loss if total cost
(ATC) is more than average revenue (AR). Remember, AR is the price at which the product is selling.
Now, if the cost is more than revenue, the company will make a loss.

Long run profit The monopolist makes economic profit even in the long term. Equilibrium in the long
term is determined where LMR = LMC

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4. Comparison with perfect competition

 Demand curve: the individual firm in a perfect competition faces a perfectly

elastic demand curve and therefore it cannot change the price. The monopolist faces a
downward-sloping demand curve
 Efficiency: businesses in a perfect competition achieve both productive and allocative
efficiencies. The monopolist produces smaller quantity than the perfect competition.
 Profit: the economic profit made in a perfect market decreases gradually as more firms
enter the market. In the long term, a perfect competition produces normal profits. In a
monopoly, economic profits are sustained indefinitely. The monopolist continues making
economic profit both in the short-run and the long-run.

Unit 3 Oligopolies
1. Description of oligopolies

An oligopoly is characterised by an industry dominated by a small number of large businesses. The

businesses either sell identical products or differentiated products. There are also significant barriers
to entry.

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2. Characteristics of oligopolies

 Significant barriers to entry

 A number of businesses dominate the market
 The product may be identical or differentiated
 Interdependent decision making
 Limited number of businesses makes them price-fixers

3. Non-price competition in an oligopoly

Oligopolies prefer to use non-price competition to build customer

loyalty. Examples include:

3.1 Advertising

They use advertising to gain a competitive edge over their competitors. The aims of advertising are
to:
 provide information about the product
 persuade the consumer to make a purchase
 remind the consumer of the benefits of buying that particular product.

3.2 Branding

Branding is when a product or business is given a particular image which is appealing and attractive
to its consumers.

3.3 Other forms of non-competition include:

 Free deliveries and installation
 Extended warranties for consumers and credit facilities
 Longer trading hours
 After-sales service
 Expansion into new markets through diversification of the product range.

4. Collusion

Collusion is a defining characteristic of oligopolistic industries. Intense competition and

interdependent decision-making encourage oligopolistic firms to cooperate. This cooperation can be
in the form of overt collusion or tacit collusion.

5. Cartels

Cartels are formed when businesses agree to fix prices or to limit supply. They can be unreliable
because one firm can cheat on others and sell their product at a lower price to attract buyers. An
example of a South African cartel is De Beers.

6. Prices and production levels in an oligopoly

It is difficult to draw the demand curve, marginal revenue curve and marginal cost curve for an
oligopoly because the oligopolist must take into account the reactions of its rivals. It is impossible to

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quantify reactions and there are therefore many different models that are used to explain the
demand curve of the oligopolist.

7. Comparison with perfect competition

 Prices are higher in an oligopoly

 The oligopoly produces a lower output
 An oligopoly enjoys higher profits.

Unit 4 Monopolistic competition

1. Description of monopolistic competition

Monopolistic competition is more realistic than perfect competition or pure monopoly as it has the
characteristics of both monopoly and perfect competition. The most distinguishing feature is that
the products of various businesses are different, despite being close substitutes for each other.
Products are therefore differentiated. Under monopolistic competition there is freedom to enter
and to exit the market.

2. Characteristics of monopolistic competition

 Existence of a large number of businesses

 The products in monopolistic competition are differentiated, but relatively close substitutes
for each other
 Has influence over the price
 Each firm acts more or less independently and can formulate their own price-output policy
 To promote sales, firms use non-price competition methods, such as advertising
 Freedom of entry and exit.

3. Non- price competition

Monopolistic businesses rely on quality, promotion, packaging, location or other factors to

distinguish their product from competing brands rather than price. Examples include:

 Branding
 Advertising
 Packaging
 Service
 Information.

4. Prices and production levels

As with perfect competition, it is possible for the monopolistically competitive firm to make
economic profit in the short-run.
Long-run equilibrium will be reached when only normal profits are earned and there is no further
incentive for new firms to enter the market.

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5. Comparison with perfect competition

Under monopolistic competition the price is higher, the average cost of production is higher
and the level of output is lower therefore the individual firm under perfect competition is
more efficient than the firm under monopolistic competition

Questions

1. What are the main differences between allocative efficiency and technical efficiency? (4)

2. List four examples of non-price competition methods that an oligopolist may use. (8)

3. List seven characteristics of a monopoly? (14)

4. Explain the differences between a monopoly, oligopoly and monopolistic competition in terms of
the following criteria:

a) Number of sellers

b) Nature of the product

c) Collusion between sellers

d) Restrictions on entry. (12)

5. Which of the following firms might be able to make an economic profit in the long run?

a. Firm under perfect competition

b. Monopolist
c. Firm under oligopoly
d. Firm under monopolistic competition
Give reasons for your choice. (4)

6. a. Draw a diagram to show the profit maximisation position of a monopolist. Identify the profit
maximisation potion, the price and economic profits clearly. (6)

b. Explain why a monopoly is regarded as inefficient. In your answer you should refer to the
following:

 The monopolist as price maker

 The demand curve and the marginal revenue curve
 Its profit maximisation position
 Its average cost of production
 Price of the product
 Economic profits. (6)

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Topic 4 Dynamics of markets: market failures

Overview

Market failures have consequences not only for individuals but for society as a whole.
In this topic, you will learn about:
 Causes of market failures
 Consequences of market failures
 Cost-benefit analysis.

Causes of market failures Consequences of market failures

 Imperfect market structures  Public sector intervention:

 The existence of public goods and - taxes and subsidies
merit or demerit goods - regulation of production or consumption of
 External costs and benefits output.
 Imperfect information
 Imperfect distribution of income and
wealth
 Immobility of factors of production.

Cost-benefit analysis

 The advantages of cost-benefit

analysis
 The disadvantages of cost-benefit
analysis
 Calculating private and social costs and
benefits.

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Unit 1 The causes of market failures

1. Introduction

Market failures occur when the resources of the community are allocated inefficiently.

2. Causes of market failures

 Imperfect market structures

In the real world perfect market structures do not exist. Producers may be in a position to influence
the price of the product due to the nature of the product and limited access to key natural
resources. These barriers give producers some element of control over the price of the product. As a
result of the barriers that limit entry to the market, various imperfect market structures developed
in the form of monopolies, monopolistic competitors and oligopolies. Imperfect market structures
lead to the inefficient allocation of resources.

 The existence of public goods and merit or demerit goods

Public goods are consumed by the community as a whole. It is impossible to exclude some
consumers from using or consuming the product. As a result of this non-exclusivity, the private
sector is usually unwilling to provide these public goods. Public goods therefore have to be provided
by the government.

 The presence of external costs and benefits (positive and negative externalities)

Negative externalities are the costs that people incur from activities in which they have no direct
involvement. For example, if a business pollutes the air, people living in surrounding areas may
experience health problems and other adverse effects. The community will have an increased
burden in the private costs of additional health care.

 Imperfect information (asymmetric information)

One of the conditions of perfect competition is that all buyers and sellers should have perfect
knowledge of the market conditions so that they can make informed decisions. Households and
firms should therefore have information on the quality, availability and prices of goods and services.
However, in reality buyers and sellers experience a great deal of uncertainty and ignorance.

 Imperfect distribution of income and wealth

The free market system tends to generate an unequal distribution of income across the population.
The income of consumers determines their access to consumer goods and services. The higher the
income, the more goods and service a consumer can purchase and consume. This leads to an
eventual improvement in the living standard of the population. When the government redistributes
income from higher income groups to lower income groups, this will lead to a change in the
consumption pattern of consumers.

 Immobility of factors of production

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Markets may not respond to changes in consumer demand if resources cannot be easily reallocated.
If the demand for one product decreases and the demand for another increases, it should be easy
and quick to reallocated resources to satisfy demand. Most markets do not adjust quickly to changes
in demand and supply.

Unit 2 Consequences of market failures

1. Consequences of market failures

 The monopolist or oligopolistic business has some control over the price of the product and
there are barriers that prevent new businesses from entering the market. This allows
businesses to realise excess profits. The community therefore loses out on the benefits of
more products and lower prices.

 Private producers are not willing to produce public goods and the government is forced to
intervene and produce public goods.

 Some products are so complex that it is impossible for all consumers and producers to know
everything about them. Some forms of imperfect information can be corrected by
formulating simple rules such as the regulation against misleading advertisements. The
government can also intervene and provide information to all members of society.

Unit 3 Cost-benefit analysis

1. The cost and decision criteria

A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a method used to compare the total social costs and benefits of
alternative projects, activities or investments. It is an accounting procedure used to compare the
total cost of a project against its total benefits.

In deciding whether to proceed there are three possible criteria that are used to make the decision:

 Net present value (NPV): this reflects the present value of an investment
project. If the net present value is positive it is worthwhile for the government to invest in
the project.
 Internal rate of return (IRR): the interest rate at which the net present value
of the project is zero (0). It is worthwhile to invest in a project if its internal
rate of return is greater than the rate of interest.
 Benefit-cost ratio (BCR): the BCR for a project is the ratio between the sum
of expected benefits and its costs.

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2. The rationale behind a cost-benefit analysis

Allows for a measurement and comparison of all the costs and benefits of an economic activity. This
determines the rate of return on a project and allows informed decisions to be made that are in the
best interests of society.

3. Price mechanisms

An estimate must be made of the benefits of the project in monetary terms. Thereafter, the benefits
are compared to the costs of providing the good or service. The private costs and benefits of the
project will be reflected in the price of the project.

4. Application

In order to determine the cost-benefit ratio the following equation is used:

Cost-benefit ratio (CBR) = (Present value of economic benefits) ÷ (present value of economic costs).

5. Uses of cost-benefit analysis in practice

In South Africa, cost-benefit analyses are used often by government, government agencies and Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to determine the costs and benefits of a variety of projects.
Each department or organisation has developed a cost-benefit analysis document that serves as a
guide for all of their future projects.

Questions

1. What do you understand by the phrase cost-benefit analysis? (4)

2. What do you understand by the phrase market failure? (2)

3. Give two examples of collective goods and two examples of community goods. (8)

4. Explain the difference between private costs and social costs. (4)

5. Before allowing a new shopping centre to be built outside a town, the government will do a CBA.
Answer the questions that follow, related to this project.
5.1 Describe the process that economists use to conduct a cost-benefit analysis. (10)
5.2 Give three items under social costs that will need to be measured. (6)
5.3 Give three items under social benefits that will need to be measured. (6)
5.4 Show the calculation used to calculate CBA. (4) (26)

6. Explain briefly the difference between merit and de-merit goods. (8)

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7. List four ways that the government can deal with an unequal distribution of income. (8)

8. Write an essay explaining in detail the reasons for market failures. (40)

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Term 3
Topic 1 Economic growth and development
Overview

In this topic, you will learn about:

 The demand-side approach to economic growth
 The supply-side approach to economic growth
 Evaluation of the approaches used in South Africa
 The North/South divide.

Demand -side approach Approaches used in South Africa

 Increased government expenditure  Reconstruction and Development

 Redistribution of income to encourage Programme (RDP)
consumption  Growth, Employment and Redistribution
 Import substitution  Accelerated and Shared Growth
 Export promotion initiative of South Africa (Asgi-SA)
 New Growth Path (NGP)

Supply-side approach

 Improved quality of the labour force.

 Managing and using natural resources.
 Accumulating capital goods
The North/South Divide
 Advancements in technology
 Entrepreneurs identify opportunities  The economic divide
and combine with the other factors of
 The human divide
production

Introduction
This unit studies the methods used by governments to encourage economic growth and
development . You will also look at the approaches used in South Africa and discuss the problems of
the North/South divide and income inequality. BY the end of the unit you should be able to discuss
critically the difference between economic growth and development and also be aware the difficulty
in creating sustainable ways of income redistribution.

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Unit 1 The demand-side approach

1. The meaning of demand-side approach

 The demand-side approach emphasises the fact that for a country to have economic growth,
there is a need to increase aggregate demand.
 Aggregate demand consists of the total spending on domestic goods and services.
 By making discretionary changes to monetary and fiscal policies the government can
encourage an increase in total spending,

Aggregate demand (GDP) in the economy consists of consumption demand (C), investment demand
(I), government demand (G) and net exports (X – M).

Changes in GDP (total spending) can be expressed as the following formula:

Change in GDP = (change C) + (change I) + (change G) + (change (X – M))

ΔGDP = ΔC + ΔI + ΔG + Δ(X – M)

Policies which encourage economic growth by stimulating aggregate demand are often called
Keynesian policies.

According to the demand side approach, the economy can be stimulated by:
 Increased government expenditure
 Redistribution of income to encourage consumption
 Import substitution
 Export promotion

2. Factors that influence development strategies

The main aim of development strategies is to reduce poverty, inequality and unemployment which
will lead to a rise in standards of living. An increase in demand for domestic goods and services will
cause an increase in production levels and output provided that there are sufficient factors of
production to manufacture the goods and services.

The following factors can influence development strategies:

 Consumer spending will increase if there is an increase in disposable income. Disposable

income will increase if there is an increase in production.
 Investment spending involves spending on capital goods such as machinery, tools and
factory buildings with the aim of producing more goods and services. The provision of more
capital goods leads to the employment of more workers who in turn earn income which
leads to an increase in the demand for goods and services.
 Government spending creates employment and provides important infrastructure and
amenities.
 An increase in exports increases the growth rate because they create a bigger demand for
domestic products and services.

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 South Africa imports capital and intermediate goods to use in the production of goods and
services.

Unit 2 The supply-side approach

2.1. Meaning of the supply-side approach

The supply-side approach is an economic theory that encouraging the economy's ability to supply
more goods is the most effective way to stimulate economic growth. This can only be
achieved if there are quality factors of production (natural resources, labour, capital and
entrepreneurial skills).

Approaches

The following strategies will help increase the following production factors:
 Improving the quality of the labour force by training and education, developing work ethic
and work attitudes.
 Managing and using natural resources in a responsible manner.
 Accumulating and building up capital goods
 Advancement in technology stimulates economic growth and development and is important
because amongst other things it helps the country to produce a wider variety of goods and
improve the quality of goods and services produced.
 Entrepreneurs are very important to the development of a country. They identify
opportunities and combine them with other factors of production to produce goods and
services.

Unit 3 Evaluation of the approaches used in South Africa

The South African approach to economic development and growth includes both transformation of
the economy for reconstruction and development as well as growth, employment and
redistribution.

3.1 Approaches used in South Africa

The following policies outline South Africa's plans for economic growth:

Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)

This policy was introduced in 1994 as the main development strategy. It has five major policy
programmes:

 To meet basic needs

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 To develop the country’s human resources

 To build the economy
 To democratise the state and society
 To implement the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP).

Growth, Employment and Redistribution

This policy was launched in June 1996 as a macro-economic strategy for South Africa. It incorporated
the priority for economic growth, employment and redistribution of income and emphasised the
need for market led growth, fiscal and monetary discipline and increasing investor confidence.

Accelerated and Shared Growth initiative of South Africa (Asgi-SA)

Asgi-SA was introduced in February 2006 with the objective of halving unemployment and poverty
by 2014. To achieve this, it aimed to increase average economic growth.

New Growth Path (NGP)

The New Growth Path was introduced in 2010 to accelerate growth and employment. It focused on
job-creation and sector-based actions that would help to achieve this. The NGP identified the
following job drivers:

 Public investment in infrastructure to create direct employment in the

construction, operation, maintenance and production of projects. This will
also indirectly improve efficiency across the economy.
 Development of more labour-absorbing activities in the agricultural and
mining value chains, especially in manufacturing, construction and
services.
 Investment in innovation and research for the development of a ‘green
economy’.
 Support for rural development and regional integration.

3.2. Evaluation of SA’s development policies

Social policies
South Africans want a faster pace of development and whilst much has been achieved since 1994 to
provide public services, the challenges of poverty and inequality remain. The government has
developed a number of interventions to address continuing social issues. These include:

● Social grants paid to various groups in society

● Providing toilets and improved waste management
● Increasing the number of home-owners
● Providing greater access to education.

Macro-economic policies
A well-structured macro-economic policy helps society to develop and have growth for a number of
years. It should address broad issues such as ownership, competition, foreign investment, interest
rates and exchange controls. The macro-economic policy should be stable and offer investors
security and predictability.

Micro-economic policies
Unemployment remains the greatest economic and social challenge in South Africa. The government
can address this issue through focused microeconomic policies that target industries that have the
most potential to create jobs.

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Black Economic Empowerment

As part of economic and social development, the government aims to create economic opportunities
for black South Africans who were previously excluded from economic activity.

Land redistribution and restitution

The government is addressing the question of land ownership in South Africa. The government uses
such mechanisms as the Land Bank and the Land Redistribution Act to return land to historical
owners.

Affirmative action
The South African labour market still contains disparity in access to and quality of employment due
to previous Apartheid education and labour policies. The ANC government has been addressing
through job creation programmes, progressive legislation and legal reform. The Employment Equity
Act (1998) obliges employers to implement affirmative action measures to ensure equal
representation of designated groups (black people, women and people with disabilities).

3.3 Evaluation of SA’s growth

 In April 2010, the World Bank classified South Africa as: upper middle income at rating 3
with GDP per capita ranging from $3 856 to $11 905.
 In the period 2006 to 2011, the labour participation ratio averaged 52% and the
unemployment rate averaged 22%.
 Between 2007 and 2009, South Africa’s level of inflation was too high for strong growth. In
2010 and 2011, however, it decreased to within the SARB’s target range of 3–6%.

Unit 4 The North/South divide

4.1. Description of the North/South divide

The North/South divide is a socio-economic and political division that exists between the wealthy
developed countries, known collectively as "the North" and the poorer developing countries, known
as "the South". Although most nations comprising the "North" are in fact located in the Northern
Hemisphere (with the notable exceptions of Australia and New Zealand), the divide is not wholly
defined by geography. The North is home to four of the five permanent members of the United
Nations Security Council and all members of the G8. "The North" mostly covers the West and the
First World, along with much of the Second World. The expression "north–south divide" is still in
common use, but the terms "North" and "South" are already somewhat outdated. As nations
become economically developed, they may become part of the "North", regardless of geographical
location, while any other nations which do not qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to
be part of the "South.

4.2. Economic divide

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Income levels are higher in the North which suggests that they add greater value to earn higher
income. Higher incomes mean more money to spend which in turn leads to more development. The
government can also raise more taxes and provide better services and public goods to improve the
general standard of living.

4.3. Human divide

The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) helps to classify human development and living
conditions. It emphasises the unequal standard of living throughout the world. It measures three
basic dimensions of human development: health, education and income.

Questions

1. Explain what is meant by the term demand-side approach . (8)

2. List five strategies that will help to increase production factors. (10)

3. Explain what is meant by the term the North/South divide. (8)

4. What does the abbreviation HDI stand for? (2)

5. Provide an brief overview of growth and development strategies that had been
implemented in South Africa since democratisation. (40)

6. Critically discuss the New Growth Plan. (8)

7. Discuss the issues that AsgiSA failed to address and explain why these are important. (8)

8. Explain each of the following indicators: (15)

(a) percentage annual change in gross domestic product at market prices
(b) percentage annual change in gross domestic product at constant 2005 prices
(c) gross domestic product per capita at constant 2005 prices
(d) income distribution
(e) human development index

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Topic 2 Economic growth and development: industrial

development policies
Overview

In this topic, you will learn about:

 Industrial development
 Regional development
 South Africa’s endeavours
 The appropriateness of South African strategies.

Industrial development
South African strategies -areas to strengthen
 The pre-1994 industrial policy
 Industrial financing policy
 Industrial development policy after 1994  Sectors need to be expanded and policies
 The National Industrial Policy Framework developed
(NIPF)
 Competition policy must be reviewed and
 The Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP) strengthened
 The role of big and larger medium-sized
firms
Regional development  Import substitution and export promotion
 Spatial development initiatives (SDI) strategies
 Industrial Development Zones (IDZ)  Government intervention.

 The Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

South African strategies -successes

The conditions for industrialisation  Motor Industrial Development

 A stable and supportive macroeconomic Programme
and regulatory environment  Industrial Development Corporation
 Skills and education for industrialisation (IDC)
 Traditional and modern infrastructure  Technology programmes
 Innovation and technology.

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Unit 1 Industrial development

1. South Africa's industrial development policies

South Africa has experienced a major shift in industrial policy since 1994 away from an inward-
looking industrial policy towards an outward-looking industrial policy.

1.1 The pre-1994 industrial policy

In the early 1990s South Africa faced an economic crisis. Gross Domestic Product and investment
rates were falling. The export growth of goods and services was unpredictable and focused on
mining and mineral products. During this period, the government imposed inward looking economic
policies including protectionist policies aimed at limiting the impact and damage caused by
sanctions. The economy was characterised by vast inequality and many groups of people were
excluded from the economy.

1.2 Industrial development policy after 1994

After the first democratic elections in 1994, the government abandoned the inward looking policies
of the past and adopted more outward-looking economic policies. Tariffs were cut substantially, and
local businesses faced increasing exposure to foreign competition and the forces of globalisation.

The South African economy has achieved steady growth since 1994. It has also experienced
important diversification away from the apartheid-era minerals-linked growth path. A range of
sectors have experienced good growth, for example the tourism, automotive and wine industries.

1.3 The National Industrial Policy Framework (NIPF)

The primary objective of the NIPF is to set out government's approach to the industrial development
of the South African economy. Consequently the NIPF sets out a vision for the industrial economy for
both the short-medium and medium-long term.

The NIPF has had an important role to play in achieving the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative
of South Africa's (ASGI-SA) goals of accelerating GDP growth and halving unemployment and poverty
by 2014. This includes the further intensification of industrialisation towards a knowledge economy
beyond 2014.

1.4 The Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP)

The Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP) sets out in detail key actions and time frames for the
implementation of industrial policy. It has three main components:

 A range of sectoral actions

 A set of cross-cutting actions of particular importance for industrial policy
 Measures to improve government’s organisation and capacity to implement industrial
policy.

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The action plan aims to promote long-term industrialisation and diversification beyond traditional
commodities and non-tradable services, by expanding production in value-added sectors with high
employment and growth opportunities.

Emphasis is placed on labour absorbing production and services sectors, increasing access to the
economy of historically disadvantaged people and regions, and building South Africa’s contribution
to industrial development beyond our borders.

2. Necessary conditions for industrialisation

For an industrial economy to function properly and for industrial policy to be successful, a range of
policies and institutions must be aligned and coordinate their activities. These include the following:

 A stable and supportive macroeconomic and regulatory environment

 Skills and education for industrialisation
 Traditional and modern infrastructure
 Innovation and technology.

Unit 2 Regional development

2.1. Rationale for regional development

Regional development is a multidisciplinary process that includes all aspects of human development,
economic development and physical development in specific geographical areas, called regions. The
aim of regional development is to achieve the best possible distribution of economic activities. In
order for regional development to be successful South Africa needs to have strong partnerships
with other countries. To this end South Africa has entered into several agreements with other
countries.

2.2. Best practice principles

The following best practice guidelines should be used for successful regional development:

 Total development as a multidimensional process

 Development of people, for people, by people
 Developments should start from within the region
 It must concentrate on basic issues where the most urgent human needs exist
 Cooperation between the private and public sectors and the local community.

2.3 South Africa’s regional development policy

South Africa’s regional development policy includes the following initiatives: Spatial Development
Initiatives (SDIs), Industrial Development Zones (IDZs),Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and Financial
Incentives.

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Unit 3 South Africa's endeavours

3.1. Spatial development initiatives (SDI)

Meaning

The Spatial Development Initiative (SDI) methodology was developed in South Africa in 1996 as an
integrated planning tool aimed at promoting investment in regions of the country that were
underdeveloped but had potential for growth. The methodology involves a process in which the
public sector develops or facilitates conditions conducive to private sector investment and Public-
Private-Community Partnerships.

SDI’s will extend beyond the borders of South Africa when the economic objectives can only be
achieved if parts of a neighbouring country are included. Examples are the Maputo Development
Corridor between South Africa and Mozambique (also including Swaziland, Zimbabwe and
Botswana), and the Lubombo Initiative between South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland.
Economic integration in Southern Africa allows the region to use economic policies collectively,
which has the potential to achieve greater developmental benefits for all.

Industrial Development Zones (IDZ)

Industrial Development Zones are designed to boost exports and jobs. Each zone is regulated and
administered by a National Development Zone Authority (NDZA). The plan is that every IDZ will
eventually have its own local NDZA to carry out the regulatory and approval process. The private
sector develops and manages industrial zones. Examples of IDZs are explained below:

The Coega IDZ

The Coega Industrial Development Zone (IDZ) covering 110 km² of land is situated near Port
Elizabeth, in the Eastern Cape. The initiative is a multibillion-dollar industrial development complex
customized for heavy, medium and light industries, adjacent to a deepwater port, Port of Ngqura.
The Coega Development Corporation (CDC) is the developer and operator of the Coega IDZ and is
responsible for the land side infrastructure, while the deep-water port facility, Port of Ngqura, is
developed by the Transnet National Ports Authority.

The East London IDZ

This IDZ was designated in 2002 and is located in the Buffalo City Municipality in East London. The
Eastern Cape Development Corporation owns 76% of the zone and the Buffalo municipality owns the
remaining 24%. The key sectors within the zone are automotive, marine aquaculture, agro-
processing of bio fuels, food, timber processing, pharmaceuticals, ICT, electronics and business
process outsourcing.

The Richards Bay IDZ

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This IDZ was designated in 2002 and is located in Richards Bay. It is an agency of the Provincial
Department of Economic Development and Tourism. It was established to attract investment in
export-oriented manufacturing, to improve productivity, to manufacture import replacements and
to develop exports.

The Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a geographical area of the country set aside for specifically
targeted economic activities. These activities are supported through special arrangements that may
include laws and support systems that promote industrial development.

Unit 4 The appropriateness of South African strategies

4.1. Reflections on South Africa’s industrial development policies

South Africa's industrial and trade policies have enjoyed many successes. Examples include:

Motor Industrial Development Programme

This programme contains a requirement that locally assembled vehicles must contain a minimum
quantity of locally manufactured content. This measure helped preserve employment and ensured
the survival of our automotive industry.

Industrial Development Corporation (IDC)

The IDC has contributed to the restructuring of those sectors which experienced difficulties in the
early 1990s. The IDC’s investment patterns have shifted to support more labour intensive sectors
and BEE objectives. IDC investments in BEE expansion projects have been the biggest creators of
employment. This demonstrates the importance of broad-based activity in the economy for
industrial development.

Technology programmes

The South African government has introduced programmes that help businesses develop and
implement new technologies. These programmes have been highly successful . Examples include:
Support Programmes for Industrial Innovation (SPI) and the Technology and Human Resources for
Industrial Programme (THRIP).

4. 2. Areas that need to be strengthened

Despite South Africa’s successes in industrial development the economic

environment continues to change and the following areas need to be
strengthened:

 Industrial financing policy

 Sectors need to be expanded and policies developed to encourage closer sectoral
collaborations
 Competition policy must be constantly reviewed and strengthened

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 The role of big and larger medium-sized firms

 Import substitution and export promotion strategies
 Government intervention.

Questions

1. List three components of the Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP). (6)

2. List the best practice guidelines should be used for successful regional development? (10)

3. Give two examples of IDZs in South Africa? (4)

4. Describe the function of the IDC? (4)

5. Define the following concepts:

 The Industrial Development Corporation (IDC)
 Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs)
 Industrial Development Zones (IDZ)
 Development corridor
 Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Programme (ISRDP) (20)

6. Explain why a spatial development initiative that involves more than one country
may be beneficial to all countries involved. (5)

7. Briefly discuss the following aspects that should be addressed in an Industrial

development policy:
 Identification of sectors earmarked for development
 Small business development
 Black Economic Empowerment
 Involvement with larger region
 Labour practices (15)

8. Why is it important that the private sector should be involved in an industrial or

regional development policy plan? (6)

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Topic 3 Economics: basic concepts and quantitative elements

(economic and social performance indicators)
Overview

This topic describes the most important concepts and indicators that are used to measure economic
growth and development. It is important that you understand them and can interpret them.

In this topic, you will learn about:

 The performance of an economy
 Economic indicators
 Social indicators
 International comparisons.

Social Indicators
Economic Indicators
 Human Development Index
 Consumer Price Index
 Health and nutrition
 Production Price Index
 Education
 Balance of Payments
 Services
 Employment rate
 Interest rates
 Money supply

International comparisons

 Globalisation
 International organisations

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Unit 1 The performance of an economy

1. Assessing the performance of the economy

The South African Reserve Bank and Statistics South Africa provide the data that government uses to
assess economic performance. This information is important as it helps the government, private
sector and international investors must know how the economy of a country is performing.

Unit 2 Economic indicators

1. Meaning

An economic indicator is a statistic (data) that shows the behaviour of an economic variable over a
specific period of time and are used to measure the performance of the economy.

2. Inflation rate

 Inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a
period of time.
 The inflation rate is monitored at both producer and consumer levels.
 The indicator at producer level is called the Production Price Index PPPI) and at consumer
level it is called the Consumer Price Index (CPI).

Calculating the inflation rate:

CPI year 2 – CPI year 1/CPI Year 1 100/1

= CPI year 2 – CPI year 1
CPI year 1 × 100

The South African Reserve Bank introduced inflation targeting which is a new approach to monetary
policy and price stabilisation. The target range for inflation is 3–6%, and if it moves outside this
range the SARB uses monetary policy to try to bring the rate back within the target range.

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3. Foreign trade

It is important for South Africa to keep a favourable ratio between exports and imports to avoid a
deficit in the balance of payments. It is also important to monitor the volatility of exchange rates.

4. Employment

The labour force comprises all people between the ages of 15 and 65 years. It is important to
calculate the employment rate which reflects the percentage of this group that have decent
employment. A low employment rate results in low productivity and a low growth rate as well as
economic hardship for those who are unemployed.

5. Productivity

Productivity is the ratio between goods and services produced in the economy and the input of
resources used to produce them.

Productivity = output/factor input = output per unit of factor input

Three forms of productivity can be calculated: labour, capital and multi-factor productivity.

6. Interest rates

An interest rate is the rate at which interest is paid by borrowers for the use of money that they
borrow, usually from a financial institution such as a bank. In South Africa, interest rate decisions are
taken by the South African Reserve Bank’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC). The official interest
rate is the repo rate, which is the rate at which the central bank lends or discounts money to
commercial banks.

7. Money supply

The level of money supply in the economy is very important because any change in its quantity will
have a direct effect on interest rates. A decline in money supply will lead to a shortage of money and
cause an increase in the interest rate. An increase in the supply of money without an increase in
supply of goods and services will lead to increase in prices which will lead to inflation in the long-run.

Unit 3 Social indicators

1. Meaning

Social indicators are sometimes called human development indicators or development indicators
because they indicate changes the standard of living.

2. Demographics

Demographics provide information about where people are located, what their needs are and how
investment can be best spent.

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2.1 The Human Development Index

The HDI attempts to define human well-being more broadly. It provides a combined measure of
three basic dimensions of human development: health, education and income.

3. Health and nutrition

The government spends about 8,3% of GDP on health services. The infant mortality rate for 2011
was estimated at 37,9. This is a high rate and improvements must be made in this area of healthcare.
The estimated overall HIV prevalence rate is approximately 10,6%. Although this rate is declining it is
still unacceptably high and more work and investment needs to be made to lower it.

4. Education

A high ratio of literacy, knowledge and skills can be achieved through effective and appropriate
education and training. The South African government spends 20% of total state expenditure on
education. When a large percentage of the population is well-educated, the economy will be more
productive and competitive which then creates national wealth and a higher standard of living per
capita.

5. Services

It is the responsibility of the government to provide certain services. It is the responsibility of Stats
SA to collect information to measure the level of development and performance of various
government programmes and projects. These services are:

 Energy
 Sanitation, refuse removal and water access and use
 Access to food
 Housing and urbanisation.

Unit 4 International comparisons

4.1. Introduction

Since 1994 South Africa has undergone vast social and economic changes. The government has
introduced important reforms throughout the whole economy. The international comparisons for
South Africa can be traced through the following identified below.

4.2. Globalisation
Globalisation is the process of international integration through the interchange of world views,
products, ideas, and other aspects of culture.
Since 1994 South Africa has become increasingly more involved in world markets through exports
and imports.

4.3. International comparisons

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South Africa is able to monitor the progress of its economic and social development by comparing its
performance with that of other countries through data collected by international organisations
These organisations include:

 The United Nations

 The World Bank
 The International Monetary Fund.

Questions

1. Why are international comparisons of economic and social indicators important? (4)
2. Explain the importance of the human development index as an economic indicator. (6)

3. Explain how each of the following indicators is measured and why they are
important:
(i) inflation rate (14)
(ii) unemployment rate (10)
(iii) interest rates (27)
(iv) money supply (15)

4. Name three uses of economic indicators. (6)

5. Name and briefly describe the different methods and tools that economists can use to make
forecasts of the economy. (16)
6. Explain why each of the following indicators are important in a developing economy:
(i) net merchandise exports (2)
(ii) balance on the current account of the balance of payments (4)
(iii) balance on the financial account of the balance of payments (4)

7. Explain why the unemployment rate is a lagging indicator. (2)

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Topic 4 Economic issues of the day: inflation

Overview

This topic discusses the meaning and significance of inflation, types of inflations, its causes and
measures used to control and combat the problems caused by inflation.

In this topic, you will learn about:

 Inflation
 Types and characteristics of inflation
 Causes and consequences of inflation
 The inflation problem in South Africa
 Measures to combat inflation.

Types and characteristics of

Inflation Causes and consequences of inflation

 Demand-pull inflation  Causes of demand-pull inflation

 Cost-push inflation  Causes of cost-push inflation
 Consumer inflation  Increase in money supply
 Producer inflation Consequences of inflation
 All-inclusive inflation
 Hyperinflation
 Stagflation
 Deflation

Inflation in South Africa Measures to combat inflation

 Historical perspective  Fiscal measures

 Measurement of inflation in South Africa • Monetary measures
• Consumer inflation  Other measures

Unit 1 Inflation
1. 1. Definition of inflation

inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of
time. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services.

It is important to remember the following points about inflation:

 Inflation refers to a rise in prices in general

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 It reduces the purchasing power of money

 It is a process that takes place over a period of time
 It refers to a significant increase in price.

Make sure that you refer to the charts and tables in your learner book when studying this section.

Unit 2 Types and characteristics of inflation

2. 1. Demand pull-inflation

A rise in the price of a product or service is normally caused by a shortage of supply and an increase
in demand. Demand-pull inflation usually occurs when the aggregate demand for goods and services
increases, without an increase in aggregate supply.

Demand-pull inflation has the following characteristics:

 A relative increase in total demand.
 Foreigners contribute to demand-pull inflation because they demand
imported goods and this demand puts greater strain on limited supply and
increases prices further.
 All participants in the economy contribute to demand-pull inflation
because they all buy goods that increase the demand-side of the market.
 If the demand for goods and services rises more rapidly than supply, a
shortage will arise and prices will rise to match demand causing inflation.

2. 2. Cost-push inflation

Cost-push inflation happens when there is an increase in the costs of production which results in a
general increase in price.

Cost-push inflation has the following characteristics:

 An increase in total costs on the supply-side of the market.

 An increase in labour costs is added to the cost of production and therefore
causes cost-push inflation.
 When producers increase their profit margins, they increase the purchase
price of their products and this leads to cost-push inflation.
 An increase in taxes such as value-added tax (VAT), would lead
to cost-push inflation.
 More expensive imported products, especially intermediate goods, add to
the price of finished products on the supply-side and this adds to cost push
inflation.
 Natural disasters can increase the costs of production.
 Lower productivity can also increase the costs of production.

2. 3. Consumer inflation

In South Africa the following types of consumer inflation are identified:

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 Headline inflation
 CPIX inflation
 Core inflation
 Administered prices inflation.

2.4. Producer inflation

We use the Production Price Index (PPI) to measure producer inflation. The PPI measures prices at
the level of first significant commercial transaction. For instance the moment imported goods enter
the country or the moment goods leave the factory where they were made.

5. All-inclusive inflation

The GDP deflator is used to calculate all-inclusive inflation ( all goods and sevrices)and to give an
inflation rate for the economy as a whole.

6. Hyperinflation

Hyperinflation is a very rapid increase in price levels at a really high inflation rate which causes
money to become worthless.

7. Stagflation

Stagflation is a condition where there is low economic growth, a high unemployment rate and high
rates of inflation.

8. Deflation

Deflation is a decrease in the general level of prices in the economy.

Unit 3 Causes and consequences of inflation

3. 1. Introduction

There are many different theories about what causes inflation and how best to deal with it.

3.2. Causes of demand-pull inflation

As discussed in the previous unit demand-pull inflation can be caused by an increase in any of the
components of aggregate demand: consumption spending, investment spending, government
spending or exports.

The following factors can lead to demand-pull inflation:

Increase in consumption (C)

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The increase in consumption may be caused by any of the following:

 Easy access to credit

 Lack of savings
 Reduction in taxes.

Investment spending

A reduction in interest rates will encourage firms to expanding their operations. When they do this,
they increase the supply of goods and this may lead to an increase in the demand for goods and
services. If aggregate demand increase at a faster rate than aggregate supply, prices will increase
further.

Government spending (G)

An increase in government spending without an increase in productivity will lead to inflation. The
government can increase its spending through the following ways:

 Social grants
 Infrastructure
 Consumption spending.

Export earnings

An increase in exports without an increase in local production will cause inflation because goods and
services leave the country and reduce the volume of goods available locally.

3.3. Causes of cost-push inflation

The following factors may cause cost-push inflation:

 Workers demanding higher wages with no increase in their productivity.

 A drop in productivity while employment and wages remain constant.
 Strikes and other labour actions that reduce production output and cause a drop in
the supply.
 An increase indirect and indirect taxes.
 An increase in import prices.
 An increase in administered prices may result higher wages.
 An increase in a producer’s profit margin may be added to the selling price
and contribute to inflation.
 An increase in interest rates.

3.4. An increase in money supply

An increase in the quantity of money in circulation without an increase in the supply of goods and
services can also lead to inflation.

3.5. Consequences of inflation

Inflation can have very harmful effects on the economy:

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 Inflation affects the distribution of income and wealth

 Inflation leads to a decline in the real value of saving
 Inflation decreases the buying power of money
 Inflation affects certain groups at the expense of others
 Inflation has an adverse effect on a country’s balance of payments
 Inflation impacts negatively on economic growth
 A high rate of inflation is harmful to the workings of a system of free enterprise.

Unit 4 The inflation problem in South Africa

4.1. Historical perspective

The 1980s in South Africa were characterised by political unrest, economic turmoil and international
sanctions. Many companies were forced to leave and there was very little international investment
in South Africa. This resulted in a sharp increase in inflation because demand exceeded supply and
import substitution was prevalent. During this period inflation rose 18,6%, peaking in 1986.

The periods between 1994 and 2005 were characterised by a return to a relatively low inflation rate.
In 2000, the Minister of Finance announced that the South African government was introducing
inflation targeting and had set a target of 3–6%.

The period 2007 to 2009, the inflation rate increased remarkably and exceeded the target. From
2010, the inflation rate has seen gradual and moderate increases and decreases.

4. 2. Measurement of inflation in South Africa

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

CPI is the most commonly used measure of inflation in South Africa and is compiled by Statistics
South Africa.

Relative method (Weightings basis)

This method assigns weightings to each item selected in order to reflect its relative importance in
the index.

Month-on-month comparison

The most common practice in South Africa is to compare the index for a particular month with the
index of a corresponding month during the previous year.

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Annual average on annual average

When inflation has to be calculated for a calendar year, the procedure is to compare the average of
all indices in a particular year with the corresponding average for the previous year.

Consumer inflation

Consumer inflation means a rise in the prices of goods and services bought by consumers rather
than producers, for example foodstuffs and clothing.

Unit 5 Measures to combat inflation 5.1. Fiscal measures

The following steps can be taken to control inflation:

Raising taxation

Increasing taxation can help curb excess demand in the economy.

 Direct taxation will leave consumers and businesses with less money to spend.
 Indirect taxation will lead to an increase in the cost of living and will reduce demand
because consumers will buy fewer goods and services.
 Levies on loans can be introduced or increased.
 A surcharge on imports can be levied increasing the cost of imports and decrease demand.

Reducing government spending

If the level of inflation is high, the government can reduce its own spending on public goods and
services.

Implementing supply-side economic policies

The government can implement policies that will increase productivity, competition and innovation.
Such policies will maintain lower prices. These policies are aimed at stimulating supply and may
include:

 Lower taxes on personal income to encourage people to work harder.

 Lower taxes for companies to encourage investment and capital formation.
 Lower taxes on interest and dividends to encourage greater savings.
 A reduction in government savings.

5.2. Monetary measures

The South African Reserve Bank can take the following steps to combat inflation:

 Increase repo rate

 Adjust the quantity of money to the needs of the economy
 Decrease money supply

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 Restrict the granting of credit by banks

 Reduce currency control.

5.3. Other measures

Other measures may need to be implemented in combination with fiscal and monetary measures to
successfully combat inflation such as:

 Increasing productivity
 Price control
 Stricter conditions for consumer credit
 Relaxation of import controls
 A floating exchange rate for the country’s monetary unit
 Applying the principle of indexation
 Introduce a wage policy that only allows for an increase if there is an increase in
productivity.

Inflation targeting policy

South Africa formally introduced inflation targeting in February [Link] targeting is a

monetary policy that works as follows: the central bank announces a clear inflation target and then
implements appropriate policy to achieve this target. Inflation-targeting creates a more transparent
monetary policy because policies can be understood in relation to the target. This also allows for
greater transparency encouraging investment.

Questions

1. Describe the relationship between inflation and purchasing power. (4)

2. Name three causes of demand-pull inflation? (6)
3. Name three causes of cost-push inflation. (6)
4. Name three possible measures that can be used to fight demand-pull inflation. (6)
5. Name three measure that can be used to fight cost-push inflation. (6)
6. Describe the economic effects of inflation. (12)
7. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false. Give a reason for your answer.
a. Inflation benefits those who receive fixed money incomes. (2)
b. The purchasing power decreases if inflation increases. (2)
c. An increase in input cost can cause demand-pull inflation. (2)
d. If the rand depreciates, the rate of inflation will decrease. (2)
e. Higher income taxes will reduce excessive demand in the economy. (2)
f. Reducing government spending is a monetary measure to curb inflation. (2)
(12 marks)

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Topic 5 Tourism and economic redress: environmental

sustainability
Overview

This topic discusses tourism as an important part of the South African economy, the reasons for its
growth and the benefits of this increased growth.

In this topic, you will learn about:

 Reasons for the growth of tourism

 The effects of tourism
 The benefits of tourism
 South Africa’s profile (indigenous knowledge systems)
 Policy suggestions.

The effects of tourism

Reasons for the growth of tourism
 Employment
 Increased access to airspace in SA  Poverty alleviation
 Targeted as an industry by government  Externalities
 Increased disposable income  Infrastructure
 Importance of leisure
 Human and environmental costs
 More efficient transport and communication

Benefits of tourism South Africa’s profile

 To households  Indigenous Knowledge systems

 To businesses
 To the Government

Policy suggestions

 The National Tourism Sector Strategy (NTSS)

 The marketing strategy
 Directing the spatial distribution of tourism
 The role of infrastructure

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Unit 1 Reasons for the growth of tourism

1. 1. The important role of tourism

Tourism has been identified as a key economic sector with excellent potential for growth. The
National Department of Tourism (NDT) is responsible for creating the conditions for the growth and
development of tourism, and for marketing South African tourism internationally.

The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) defines tourists as people "travelling to
and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for
leisure, business and other purposes".

When activities take place in a certain area which attracts visitors to that area who might otherwise
not visit it, it creates income for that area.

South Africa's growth in tourism was double that of the world average in 2010. This growth
has been rapid and sustained over a period of years. Tourism brings with it foreign currency and this
provides the country with foreign exchange. Tourists also demand local goods which increase
demand and productivity.

Reasons for the growth of tourism

 The South African government has approved more access to airspace for commercial
airlines. This has resulted in an increasing number of international airlines flying to South
Africa.
 Governments of all developing countries have targeted the tourism sector
as an industry with huge potential..
 An increase in disposable income provides more households with the
means to travel boosting domestic tourism.
 An increase of the importance of leisure means that people are spending more
time travelling.
 More efficient transport and communication systems makes travelling more convenient.

Domestic tourism growth

Domestic tourism is the movement of people within their own country. Domestic tourism is
extremely important to the growth of the tourism industry. It makes the industry sustainable and
drives its growth and development. Domestic tourism can also withstand global uncertainty and
sustain the industry during periods of international recession.

In order to ensure the continued growth of the domestic tourism industry, the South
African government:

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 Promotes domestic-tourism.
 Promotes a set of South African experiences to which South African
consumers can relate.
 Distributes appropriate information about destinations and opportunities
in specific and relevant places.
 Facilitates the development of cooperative travel product packages that
make travel cheaper and more accessible.
 Develops marketing and distribution channels for SA tourism.
 Promotes repeat visitation.

Foreign tourism

Foreign tourism is the movement of people between countries; these people are referred to as
international tourists. Foreign tourists can be classified as being either Inbound international tourists
or Outbound international tourists.
The increase in foreign tourists are important for South Africa because they:
 Increase employment opportunities in the tourism sector
 Bring in foreign exchange into the country
 Improve international perceptions of South Africa.

Unit 2 The effects of tourism

Tourism generates income. If the tourists enjoyed the area and come back and through word of
mouth encourage other people to visit the area this has a long term effect of attracting more
tourists and generating more income.

Employment

Tourism not only generates revenue to support conservation and management of natural
environments, but it also generates jobs because it is labour intensive and has few barriers to entry.
Directly and indirectly, tourism provides approximately 7% of the employment in South Africa.

Poverty

Employment provides income for households and reduces the level of poverty. The Department of
Tourism is involved in poverty-relief projects that promote the development of community-owned
tourism products and services.

Externalities

Externalities are defined as costs or benefits that arise from production or consumption and affect
someone else other than the producer or consumer. Tourism policy should ensure that tourism has
the maximum positive impacts while minimising its possible negative effects.

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Human and environmental costs

Tourism can have a negative impact on the environment. Tourism involves transport and transport
can be a major source of pollution. Tourism policy needs amongst other things to ensure that
tourists are transported in an environment friendly way. An example is the Gautrain which is an
environmentally friendly way to travel.

Human costs might include communities that are displaced from their land to make way for tourism
development. This undermines the community’s rights and livelihoods.

The following strategies can reduce the negative effects of tourism:

 Promote community conservation areas.

 Promote collaborative tourism initiatives in order to ensure greater benefits
to everyone involved.
 Promote community participation at different levels.
 Ensure that the benefits associated with tourism are spread evenly across society.
 Rewarding those who are directly involved in conservation.

Infrastructure

A high number of tourists can put pressure on existing infrastructure. This infrastructure can be
upgraded if it will help promote increased tourism. The additional income can help to finance these
upgrades.

Unit 3 The benefits of tourism

3. 1. Introduction

The tourism sector’s goal is to develop responsible tourism and deliver a memorable experience to
all visitors and sustainable benefits for all South Africans.

The following types of income result from tourism:

 Direct expenditure - tourist expenditure on goods and services

 Indirect expenditure - expenditure by people supplying goods and services to tourists
 Induced expenditure - increased consumer spending as a result of additional personal
income generated by the direct expenditure.

Households

The tourism sector creates many direct and indirect jobs. When infrastructure is improved to
promote tourism, households benefit because they get to use it. Households therefore use the
infrastructure to satisfy their own needs and to improve their standard of living. An example of this
is the Gautrain.

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Businesses

The barriers to entry are low in tourism and this gives entrepreneurs the opportunity to start new
businesses. The government uses incentives to try and promote new businesses.

Businesses that are not involved directly in tourism also benefit from the industry. For example, the
construction industry benefits when new hotels are built.

The government

The government benefits through an increase in tax revenue. The government may levy a small tax
to cover the cost of providing services such as showers and public toilets at a beach. The government
also charges tax in the form of airport departure taxes and hotel room occupancy and tickets taxes.
An increase in employment also helps the government alleviate poverty.

Unit 4 South Africa’s profile (indigenous knowledge systems)

4. 1. Countries contributing to South Africa's tourism

The largest number of overseas tourists in 2010 came from the UK, USA and Germany. There has
also an increase in the number of tourists from India and China in the last few years. Foreign
tourists visit South Africa for holiday, business and study purposes.

The most popular tourist destinations in South Africa as voted for by foreign tourists are:

 Victoria & Alfred Waterfront

 Table Mountain
 Cape Point
 Western Cape Wine routes
 The Garden route
 Kirstenbosch National Botanic Gardens.

4. 2. Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS)

Indigenous knowledge (also called traditional knowledge) refers to the large body of knowledge and
skills that has been developed outside the formal educational system. It is dependent on culture and
heritage. The Department of Health has developed the Traditional Health Practitioners Act and
Cabinet adopted an Indigenous Knowledge System Policy to stimulate and strengthen the
contribution of indigenous knowledge to social and economic development in South Africa. Cultural
tourism exposes tourists to South African indigenous culture, history, and local people so that they
can have a better understanding of how local people live and work.

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Unit 5 Policy suggestions

5. 1. Policy suggestions

The Department of Tourism (DT) is responsible for formulating and implementing tourism policy in
South Africa. Some factors that may contribute to successful policy aimed at increasing tourism are:

 A complete tourism package - tourists need access to a complete range of facilities and
services. Policy needs to ensure all facilities are available.
 Strategic planning - resources should be utilised in a way that both the tourists and the local
community get the maximum benefits.
 Encourage strong coherent leadership - policies should aim to ensure that all leaders and
stakeholders work together.
 Support of local government - local government must get involved to encourage tourism.
 Encouraging local entrepreneurs - entrepreneurs should be encouraged to work together.
 Encouraging the private and public sector - these two sectors need to work together to
ensure the promotion of tourism.
 Travel agencies and travel conventions - local entrepreneurs cannot market their businesses
without the right platforms.
 Multilateral cooperation - successful collaboration between countries helps to encourage
tourism.

The National Tourism Sector Strategy (NTSS)

In July 2010, the Department of Tourism launched the draft National Tourism Strategy (NTSS). The
NTSS describes the strategies and policies necessary to create the conditions for future growth
in the tourism sector.
.
The main objectives of the strategy include:

 To increase the tourism sector’s contribution to gross domestic product (GDP).

 To achieve transformation in the sector.
 To provide excellent people development and decent jobs within the sector.
 To develop and entrench a culture of travel among South Africans.

The marketing strategy

South African Tourism (SAT) spends a great deal of money marketing and advertising South Africa to
both global and local travellers.

Through its marketing strategy, SAT promotes the following initiatives:

 The Welcome campaign

 The Welcome Awards
 The Sho’t Left Campaign
 Tourism Indaba
 Tourism Enterprise Partnership.

Directing the spatial distribution of tourism

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It is important that the benefits of tourism be spread as evenly as possible across South Africa. A
major challenge in achieving this equal spread is a lack of infrastructure that supports tourism. The
Spatial Development Initiative was introduced to address this issue. This initiative supports
communities that wish to develop tourism by:

 offering professional and appropriate advice and training

 providing relevant infrastructure to communities.

The critical role of infrastructure

Well established infrastructure is needed for tourism to be successful and sustainable.

The following policy guidelines apply to the provision of infrastructure:

 The continuous maintenance and upgrading of existing infrastructure

 Improve the accessibility and infrastructure in rural areas.
 Use modern computer and communications technologies
 Facilitate the funding of major tourism infrastructure projects
 Consider Southern African tourism potential when developing major
tourism-related infrastructure projects.
 Work closely with the Department of Transport to improve transport
 Continually review current road signage to ensure maximum customer satisfaction.
 Expand tourism infrastructure as long-term strategy
 Pay attention to the negative environmental impact caused by the
building of infrastructure for tourism.

Questions

1 List and briefly describe the objectives of tourism policy. (4)

2 Provide an overview of the potentially negative impact of tourism on a country. (10)

3. Explain how an increase in tourism will affect capital formation, unemployment and growth in
South Africa. (10)
3 Define a tourist . (4)
4 Write a short essay on the factors that affect growth of the tourism industry in particular country.
(40)
5 Discuss the potential negative and positive impact of tourism on a country. (40)

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Topic 6 Basic economic problem: environmental

sustainability
Overview

In this topic, you will learn about:

 The state of the environment

 Measures to ensure sustainability
 Major international agreements (Rio de Janeiro and Johannesburg summits).

Measures to ensure sustainability

The state of the environment  Market based policies
 Public sector intervention
 Air pollution
-taxes
 Land pollution -subsidies
 Water pollution -charges

Major international agreements

 The Rio de Janeiro Summit

 World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD)

Unit 1 The state of the environment

1. 1. The South African environmental outlook

The word environment refers to everything around us: land, water, air, plant and animal life.
Environmental degradation and the effects of climate change are major development issues. South
Africa’s main environmental concerns are:

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 high levels of carbon dioxide emissions

 overexploitation of fish stocks
 access to basic sanitation
 large population that continue to live in informal dwellings.

South Africa’s most significant environmental challenge is its reliance on coal-based energy that
produces high levels of carbon dioxide emissions.

A loss of biodiversity can have a devastating effect on the environment because a sustainable
environment relies on the balanced interactions between the various life forms that live within the
ecosystem. All major ecosystems in South Africa are threatened in one way or another.

Pollution

Pollution occurs when the environment is contaminated by a chemical or other agent that renders
part of the environment unfit for its intended use. Pollution damages the environment and
interferes with human health and the natural functioning of ecosystems.
Examples include:

 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Land pollution.

Conservation

Conservation deals with the sustainable use and management of natural (renewable and non-
renewable) resources to ensure that they are available for use by future generations.

Preservation

Preservation deals with those aspects of the environment that are threatened with extinction.
Environmental preservation is an essential basis for sustainable development and poverty
alleviation. The Department of Environmental Affairs has developed a number of programmes to
preserve resources.

Unit 2 Measures to ensure sustainability

The loss of biodiversity and ensuring sustainability has to be addressed at both local and
international le There must be an awareness that this is a serious problem that needs to be
addressed. There are a number of approaches that can be used to ensure environmental
sustainability.

2.1 Market-based approaches

The aim is to ensure that the price of goods and services reflect both social and private costs.

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Market failure

Production often generates pollution that destroys the environment. Producers should therefore be
responsible for the social cost of the environmental damage they cause.

2.2 Public sector interventions

Government can control the levels of pollution and environmental degradation though legislation.
They can pass laws that prohibit any activity that poses an immediate or potential future threat to
the environment.

Taxes

The government can levy various types of taxes to correct negative effects on the environment.

Emission charges

The government sets a price per unit of pollution. The pollution fee is a charge based on the quantity
and or content of pollutants released into the environment.

Marketable permits

Instead of imposing taxes or emission charges on polluters, the government can assign each
potential polluter with a permitted pollution limit. Each firm is issued with a permit to emit a certain
amount of pollution. Firms can buy and sell these permits and prices determined by the market.

Environmental subsidies

The government can provide subsidies to firms to encourage them to make their production
processes more environmentally friendly.

Unit 3 Major international agreements (Rio de Janeiro and

Johannesburg summits)
3.1. International agreements

South Africa is a signatory to a variety of international agreements that deal with environmental
issues and environmental sustainability. The United Nations (UN), International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World Bank and World Trade Organisation (WTO) strive to achieve the support and
cooperation of all countries for the fight against environmental deterioration. Examples
of international agreements include the Rio summit 1992 and the Johannesburg Summit 2002.

The Rio de Janeiro Summit

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The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) is an Earth Summit that
took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The UNCED had the aim of building on the declaration adopted
at Stockholm on 16 June 1972. The purpose of the Earth Summit was to establish objectives and sign
a number of conventions and treaties to address the deterioration of the global environment.

World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

The World Summit on Sustainable Development took place in Johannesburg in 2002.. The
agreements reached in Johannesburg are guidelines for the action required to halve poverty by
2015. The agreement also incorporated decisions taken by world bodies since the Rio Earth Summit
in 1992. The greatest success of the World Summit on Sustainable Development was turning the UN
Millennium Declaration into concrete programmes. These programmes are aimed at the following
goals:

 To halve the number of people without basic sanitation and access to safe
drinking water.
 To restore collapsed fish stocks by 2015.
 To phase out, by 2020, the use of chemicals detrimental to the health of the
population.
 To extend energy services to households over the next 10 years.

Questions

1. Discuss what can be done to ensure that biodiversity is taken into account when
deciding on the viability of a new project. (4)
2. Discuss the outcomes of the Rio summit held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. (16)
3. Explain why climate change requires a global effort. (6)
4. Distinguish between adaptation and mitigation. (6)
5. Explain why carbon emissions may be regarded as an externality. (6)
6. Write an essay in which you argue that economic policy that addresses the
problem of climate change is necessary. (50)

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Term 1

Topic 1

1. Households (consumers), firms (business enterprises), government (public sector) and the foreign
sector. (8)

2. In economics a household is any number of people that live together and make joint economic
decisions. A household can consist of one person or a number of people. They sell their factors of
production (productive resources) to the factor market. (4)

3. A leakage happens when money leaves the circular flow and decreases the amount of money in
circulation in the economy. (4)

4. An injection happens when money enters the circular flow and increases the amount of money in
circulation in the economy. (4)

5. Final consumption expenditure by households (C) + Gross capital formation

(I) + Final consumption expenditure by general government (G). (4)

6. Although there are many different markets in macroeconomics we group all these markets
together and consider the goods market as a single market. (4)

7. Money market and capital market (4)

8. Foreign trade requires foreign currencies and these currencies can only be exchanged in the
foreign exchange market. If you import goods from the United Kingdom you will have to pay for
them in pounds and if you export goods to the USA you will be paid for them in dollars. (8)

9.

a. Gross domestic expenditure represents the spending by households, firm and government
between the borders of South Africa. Included in this figure is spending on imports. 
Expenditure on gross domestic product is the spending by households, firms government
and the foreign sectors on domestically produced goods and services.

b. Spending on capital goods used in the production of goods and services. 

c. R1 077 833 million 
d. R2 141 621 million 
e. R9210 million 
f. R238 567 million 
g. R1 460 911 million 
h. Less 
i. Because we have spend more on imports than the rest of the world has spend on our
exports. 
(14)

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10.

Variable Leakage or Reason

Injection
Savings Leakage  The item savings is a leakage since it is part
of the income of households that is not
spent. An increase in savings by households
will decrease the flow of spending,
production and income since households
spend less on consumption.

Investment Injection Investment is an injection when domestic

firms buy more capital goods from other
domestic firms and the flow of spending,
production and income increases.

Taxation Leakage Taxation is a leakage since it decreases the

disposable income of households. As the

disposable income of households decreases,
households spend less and the flow of
spending, production and income
decreases.

Government spending Injection Government spending is an injection. An

increase in government spending increases
the spending on goods and services and the
flow of spending, production and income
increases.

Imports Leakage Imports are spending on foreign goods and

services. If spending on foreign goods and
services increases, less is spent on domestic
goods and the flow of spending, production
and income decreases.

Exports Injection Exports are an injection. If we sell more

goods and services to the rest of the world,
the flow of spending, production and
income increases.

Topic 2

1. Expansion is characterised by growth in real GDP and income. It consists of

two phases – recovery and prosperity (also called the boom).(4)

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2. Contraction is a period of gradual decline in economic activity. There is a decrease

in aggregate demand that forces a decrease in output. (4)

3.
 JSE all share index
 Money supply (M1)
 Consumer price index
 Factory hours worked opinion survey
 Business cycle indicators of our major
 trading partners
 Manufacturing orders opinion survey
 Inventory versus demand opinion survey (any 3)(6)

4.

Contraction phase  is the downward phase of the business cycle. During this phase spending
declines, gross domestic product falls, employment decreases, business confidence declines and
income falls.

Trough  is the point where the economic contraction is at its lowest. It is followed by an
expansion.

Expansion phase occurs when economic activity rises. This is reflected in an increase in spending,
gross domestic product and employment.

Peak is the point where the economic expansion is at its highest, after which it is followed by a
contraction.

( 4 for diagram and 12 for note) (16)

5.

Variable Contraction phase

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a) Gross domestic product Decrease

b) Level of economic activity Decrease

c) Total spending Decrease

d) Level of production Decrease

e) Consumer spending Decrease

f) Investment confidence Decrease

g) Investment spending Decrease

h) Imports Decrease

i) Inflation Decrease

(9)

6. During the upswing imports increase which negatively affects the balance of payments and
leads to a depreciation of the exchange rate and an increase in the interest rate. These factors
then impact negatively on the economy and a slow-down occurs. Or it might be that the increase
in total spending leads to an increase in inflation, which negatively impacts on the level of
economic activity. (6)

7. Exogenous factors are factors that have nothing to do with the business cycle such as natural
disasters or droughts. It is not possible to control these factors. Endogenous factors are factors
within the business cycle such as changes in interest rates or changes in aggregate demand. These
factors can be controlled to a certain degree. (6)

Topic 3

1. Fiscal policy is used by a government to adjust its levels of spending in order

to monitor and influence a nation’s economy.(4)

2. Economic growth
Full employment
Price stability
Exchange rate stability.
Economic equity.(10)

3. The slow delivery of housing, the long queues at various government departments such as home
affairs and clinics and the lack of response from government officials to complaints.
(2X2)(4)

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4. To provide public goods and services

There are some goods and services which would be under-provided if left to the market mechanism
because some people would be unwilling to share in paying for them pay for them even though in
the public interest. 

To provide merit goods.

Merit goods are goods that provide more public benefit than private benefit and include services
such as education and health care. 

To protect natural resources.

If people are allowed to use resources such as oceans and rivers insensitively and carelessly it can
cause damage. 

The redistribution of wealth and income.

One aim of the public sector may be to obtain a more equitable distribution of income and wealth.


To manage the economy.

The market system does not necessarily bring about higher employment, price stability and an
acceptable economic growth rate. The government can apply suitable government policies in order
to achieve these objectives.

To encourage competition.

Over time an unrestrained market economy could lead to the creation of monopolies which operate
against public interest. The government acts to prevent monopolies and encourage
competition.

To regulate the level of economic activity.

The public sector can influence levels of economic activity through government spending and
taxation. (14)

5. Management and accountability - there is often a lack of leadership and because state owned
businesses are not directly accountable to tax payers, personal objectives are often put before the
welfare of the people.

Pricing and market forces - demand and supply are not the controlling factors in state owned
enterprises which makes it difficult to determine the needs of the consumers and the market
price.

Long term motivation - Business success is often determined by long term effectiveness, productivity
and strategies. 

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Corruption, change in leadership, lack of competence and motivation often leads to the failure of
state owned businesses.(8)

6.

A Laffer curve shows the relationship between tax rates and government revenue. The curve
suggests that at a zero tax rate the government would earn no revenue. it also shows that as it
moves away from a zero rate, government revenue increases until a certain point where people
prefer not to work or not to work so hard ( no overtime) thus reducing tax revenue. This can
reach the extreme where the tax rate is 100% and nobody will be willing to work as all their money
would go to the government. If this happens tax revenue will be zero as nobody is earning an
income. ( 8 for diagram and 8 for explanation)

7 a. Accountability √√Public servants do not always act in the best interests of the public as they are
often driven by self-interest. √√ Also the public sector is not driven by a profit motive and the public
cannot choose to go to other providers. √√This can lead to low productivity, laziness and a lack of
accountability ( taking responsibility for your actions) amongst civil servants. √√Another problem is
that public corporations are accountable to parliament rather than to the taxpayers that they serve.
√√(5 x 2=10)
b. Efficiency√√ Anywhere in the world the public sector is notoriously inefficient. √√There are three
major reasons for this:

 Bureaucracy and red tape - some officials are so focussed on complying with procedures and
rules that they become insensitive to the needs of the people they serve. √√

 Incompetence - for various reasons civil servants often lack the skills or ability to do their
tasks successfully. √√

 Corruption - civil servants often exploit their positions for personal gain. √√( 5 x 2 = 10)

c. The problem of assessing needs and correct planning. √√ In the private sector goods and services
are supplied in response to effective demand. √√ In the public sector goods and services are
provided according to the needs of citizens. √√. Public enterprises do not operate under market
conditions and therefore do not have a mechanism to communicate the needs of the consumers to

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civil servants. √√This creates a problem which can lead to an undersupply of public goods or
inefficient forecasting of future needs. √√ An example of this is the current electricity crisis. √√ In the
private sector the laws of demand and supply would result in market equilibrium being reached and
the correct quantity of a good being supplied at the correct price. √√ ( 5 x 2 = 10)

d. The problem of correct pricing√√ It is not always possible to charge the correct market related
price for public goods and services because many people would be unable to afford these but should
not be excluded from their benefits. √√ Providing goods for less than they cost or free of charge
means some users have to cover the shortfall. √√ A further difficulty is that free services and goods
are frequently abused, encouraging waste, for example people applying for unemployment benefits
when they are in fact employed in the informal sector. √√This makes the pricing option for the public
sector very complicated. √√ The government has several options when it comes to pricing: It can
charge low income earners less than high income earners or it can provide goods that people pay
extra to use for such as a toll road. √√ It can give subsidies to low level income earners or it can
provide goods free of charge to the very poor or certain quantities of selected goods can be
provided free of charge. For example water . √√ ( 5 x 2 = 10) MAX 40. Include an introduction and
conclusion.

8. Income distribution √√- the government can redistribute income by using a progressive tax
system and by spending on social goods, security and welfare. √√ This spending supplements the
income of the poor as it provides them with free services and cash grants. √√ ( 2 x 2 = 4)

Consumption√√ - Direct and indirect taxes will affect both the total amount and pattern of consumer
spending. Direct taxes reduce disposable income but the effect on consumption will depend on the
propensity to consume and level of saving. ( 2 x 2 = 4)

Price level - taxes affect consumer spending patterns and the amount spent. √√ Increases in direct
taxes reduce disposable income, which may lead to reduced aggregated demand. √√This in turn
could reduce inflationary pressure. √√ ( 2 x 2 = 4)

Sector growth - taxation -√√ through increasing or decreasing taxes the government can encourage
or discourage growth in a specific sector. √√ For example, if clothing companies pay less tax when
they export, the creation of a clothing company industry will be encouraged. √√Increasing taxes on
certain product can discourage consumers from using them e.g. cigarettes and alcohol. √√ ( 2 x 2 = 4)
[16]

Topic 4

1.
a) The factors of production (natural resources, labour, capital and entrepreneurship) are
unevenly distributed. √√
b) Climates vary from country to country. √√
c) Not all countries enjoy the same availability of technology. √√
d) Not all countries have an educated, skilled and productive labour force. √√

e) The principle of absolute advantage apply. √√ (6 x2)(12)

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2. The Law of absolute advantage states that a country should specialize in the production of that
which it is best at making. √√ The law of comparative advantage states that under certain conditions
two countries can gain from trade even if one of them is more efficient than the other in producing
everything. √√ (4)

3. In a floating or flexible exchange rate system the exchange rate is determined market forces of
demand and supply without any intervention by the government or central bank The external value
of the currency is allowed to find its own value against other currencies through the forces of
demand and supply in the foreign exchange market. The value will then rise or fall according to
changes in supply and demand. √√√√√√(6)

4.

Event Shift Depreciation or appreciation

of the rand/dollar exchange
rate

a) An increase in the number Supply curve shifts right  Rand appreciates 

of tourists visiting South
Africa

b) An increase in the Supply curve shifts right  Rand appreciates 

international demand for gold

c) An increase in the amount Demand curve shifts right  Rand depreciates 

of capital goods that South
African firms buy from the
rest of the world

d) An increase in the amount Demand curve shifts right  Rand depreciates 

of imports households buy

e) A decrease in the amount Demand curve shifts left  Rand appreciates 

of foreign bonds bought by

South Africans

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f) A decrease in fixed Supply curve shifts left  Rand depreciates 

investment by foreigners in
South Africa

g) An increase in the amount Supply curve shifts right  Rand appreciates 

of South African bonds
bought by foreigners

(14)

5.

a. increase

b. more

c. increase

d. decrease

e. decrease (10)

Term 2

Topic 1

1. Free trade is a situation in which imports and exports flow freely between different countries of
the world. (2)

2. Export promotion means that the government assists and encourages local firms to sell goods and
services in international markets. (2)

3. Import substitution occurs when the government of a country encourages the use of locally made
goods and services rather than imported ones. (2)

4.

 Improves global efficiency: Resources are allocated more efficiently as markets expand.
 Specialisation: Free trade allows countries to specialise in industries where they have a
competitive advantage.
 Economies of scale: Costs can be significantly reduced if businesses take advantage of the
economies of scale a global market offers.
 Innovation: Increased competition encourages innovation.
 Spreads democratic values: Businesses that trade on an international basis have to comply
with international law.
 Choice: Consumers are free to buy goods and services from anywhere in the world.

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 Lower prices: Specialised production and an efficient allocation of resources leads to lower
prices. (14)

5 The Southern African Customs Union (SACU.) √√ The SACU consists of South Africa, Botswana,
Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland. These countries jointly negotiate free trade areas with other
countries. √√

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) √√The SADC is a free trade area and its
member countries are interested in forming an economic and monetary union. √√

The African Union (AU) √√ The AU exists to promote cooperation between the countries of Africa. Its
economic development programme, called the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)
encourages regional cooperation and integration. The AU would like all African countries to join
together to form an economic and monetary union. √√

The European Union (EU) √√The EU-SA free trade agreement encourages increased trade between
the two signatories. SA has agreed to certain targets concerning reduced tariffs on goods traded
between itself and the EU. √√

Mercusor. Mercusor is a regional trade area (RTA) √√consisting of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and
Uruguay. In 2000 SA agreed to work towards a free trade agreement between SACU and Mercusor.
√√

(4 x 4 = 16)

6 Increased employment more local workers√√ needed to produce goods previously imported. √√

More choice√√ because more variety in the country. √√

Diversification in the local economy√√ as more types of goods are produced. √√

Less vulnerable to fluctuations in foreign prices and actions √√as goods are produced locally. √√

( 4 x 4 =16)

7. Protecting infant industries√√ - new industries often cannot compete with established industries
of foreign competitors. √√

Stable wages and standards of living -√√ workers jobs are not threatened by imported goods
competing with locally produced goods. √√

Local businesses are protected √√and dumping is prevented. √√

Strategic industries are protected √√and economic self sufficiency is encouraged. √√

Balance of payments is corrected √√and exchange rates are stable. √√

Government earns revenue from import tariffs. √√

(4 x 4 = 16)

8. Other countries may retaliate√√

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Local industries do not need to be competitive√√

Consumers have less choice√√

Prices of goods tend to be higher √√ (3 x 2 = 6)

Topic 2

1 a) Many buyers and sellers For a perfectly competitive market to exist there must be many buyers
and sellers (producers) of a specific product. √√
b) Homogeneous product Examples of homogeneous products are agricultural products, metals,
electricity and water. √√
c) Perfect information All market participants (buyers and sellers) have complete and
correct information about market conditions. √√
d) No collusion In a perfectly competitive market, each buyer and seller acts independently from one
another and no collusion occurs. √√
e) Freedom of entry and exit Buyers and sellers are completely free to enter or leave a market. There
are no barriers to entry √√
f) Mobility of the factors of production The factors of production such as labour, capital and
entrepreneurship can easily move from one geographical area to the next and from one industry to
the next. √√
f) Unregulated market The government does not interfere in the markets. Decisions are left to
individual sellers or producers and buyers. √√ (14)

2. Normal profit is equal to the best return that the firm’s self-owned, self-employed resources could
earn elsewhere. 
Economic profit is the extra profit that owners receive above the minimum payment required (the
normal profit) by the owners of the firm to stay in the particular business.  (4)
3.

a)

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  (4)

3b The entire demand line for the individual supplier will shift upwards as a horizontal line because
he can now supply an amount more that the new equilibrium price.  (2)

Structure Number of firms Characteristics Market power Entry and exit

of product

Perfect Many firms Homogenous Price taker Free

competition product

Monopolistic Many firms, but Heterogeneous Price maker Free

competition less than perfect product
competition

Oligopoly Few firms Heterogeneous Price maker Restricted

Monopoly One firm Unique product Price maker Completely

blocked

(4x4) (16)

5.

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Quantity (Q) Price (P) Marginal Marginal Cost Contribution to

Revenue (MR) (MC) profits

1 6 6 2 4

2 6 6 3 3

3 6 6 4 2

4 6 6 5 1

5 6 6 6 0

6 6 6 7 -1

(12)

6 a) R15 
b) R15 
c) 120 
d) R15 
e) R12
f) 120 x R15 = R1 800 
g) 120 x R12 = R1 440 
h) It is making an economic profit of R1 800 – R1 440 = R360. 

8 In perfect competition there is freedom of entry . If individual producers earn an economic

profit, this will attract new producers . The increased competition will force the market price down
and economic profits will start to disappear. 

9. a) to increase efficiencies in markets 

b) to improve equity in markets
c)to ensure access to the markets to those people who were previously denied an equal
opportunity to participate in the economy 
d) to assist in economic development. (4)

Topic 3

1. Technical efficiency occurs when the market produces the maximum quantity goods and services
from a given set of resources. Allocative efficiency occurs when the market is producing the optimal
mix of goods and services desired by consumers. (4)

2.
 Extended shopping and business hours (the decision to trade on Sunday is part of non-price
 competition) √√
 Doing business over the internet (banking and shopping) √√

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 After-sales services √√
 Offering additional services (e.g. free travel insurance by banks) √√
 Loyalty rewards for customers √√
 Door-to-door deliveries √√ (any 4)(8)

3. There is only one seller of the product √

The good or service is unique and there is no close substitutes √
There are barriers to entry √
The monopolist is a price maker √
Lack of information on the part of sellers and buyers√
Control over factors over production, usually a natural resource√
Laws and restrictions may exist to prevent entry by other firms √ (8)

4.

Criteria Monopoly Oligopoly Monopolistic

competition

Number of sellers Only one  Few large sellers Many sellers


Nature of product Unique – no close Homogenous or Differentiated
substitutes  differentiated product
product
Collusion None since there Possible  Not possible 
between sellers are only one firm

Restriction on Completely Restricted Unrestricted
entry
(12)

5. A monopolist since they are the only supplier of a product with no substitutes and entry into the
market is restricted. . 
Depending on how firms in an oligopoly behave it possible to earn an economic profit. If oligopoly
firms behave like monopolists they will be able to earn an economic profit. .  (4)

Topic 4

1. Cost- benefit analysis (CBA) is an accounting tool investment whereby the total cost of the
particular project is weighted against its total benefits. The government can use CBA to decide
whether or not they should undertake a certain project. (4)

2. Market failure occurs when the market fails to achieve technical or allocative efficiency.
(2)

3. Community goods such as defense, police services, street lights etc. √√√√

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Collective goods such as parks, beaches, streets, public transport, etc. √√√√ [8]

4. Private costs (internal costs). These are the costs that producers incur when they manufacture
goods. √√ Social costs. These are the costs of goods or services to those who create them and to
society at large. √√
[4]

5
5. 1 Identify all the benefits and costs. √√ Compare the social costs with the social benefits. √√If the
social benefits exceed the social costs then the project should be considered. √√ If an investment
does not earn more than would be received by leaving the money in the bank, there is little reason
for the entrepreneur to undertake it. √√ The rate of return on a project and the idea that future
costs and benefits can be discounted in reverse to give its present value is used in CBA. √√ The term
"rate of return" means the income earned on an investment. √√
(10)
5.2 Traffic congestion, noise pollution, effect on existing nearby shops, any valid answer. √√ √√ √√ (6)
5.3 Extra shopping choice, economic growth and employment any valid answer. √√ √√ √√ (6)
5.4
Sum of annual benefits over the useful life of the programme discounted to the present value
Sum of all annual costs, including maintenance discounted to the present value

or

Present value of economic benefits √√ √√ (4)

[26]
Present value of economic costs

6. Merit goods are those where a higher consumption of the good is regarded as good for society,
√√the government makes use of subsidies, √√ for example on bread in order to make the good more
affordable for people. Demerit goods are those considered bad for either individuals or society as a
whole, such as cigarettes, the government imposes taxes√√ to discourage consumption by limiting or
making the goods more expensive. √√ (8)

7. Subsidising goods and services to the poor√√

Transferring income directly to poor households in the form of grants√√
Providing certain goods and services free of charge √√
Job creation programmes√√
Progressive taxation system√√ (4 X 2) (8)

8. The following should be explained in detail: externalities - private costs and benefits, social costs
and benefits, public goods - inability of the market to meet demand, merit and demerit goods,
imperfect competition, lack of information, immobility of factors of production, imperfect
distribution of income, free rider problem, plus explanation of each one (11 x 3 = 33 plus
introduction and conclusion. [40]

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Term 3

Topic 1

1. The demand-side approach emphasises the fact that for a country to have growth, there is a need
to increase aggregate demand by making discretionary changes to monetary and fiscal policies. To
ensure economic growth, there should be an adequate and growing demand for goods and services.
Aggregate demand in the economy comprises consumption demand (C), investment demand (I),
government demand (G) and net exports (X – M). (8)

2. Implementing strategies to increase your human resources such as training and education,
developing work ethic and work attitudes. Manage and use natural resources in a responsible
manner. Accumulate and build up capital goods. Advancement in technology stimulates economic
growth and development and is important because amongst other things it helps the country to
produce a wider variety of goods and improve the quality of goods and services produced.
Entrepreneurs are very important to the development of a country. They identify opportunities and
combine them with other factors of production to produce goods and services. (10)

3. The North/South divide is a socio-economic and political division that exists between the wealthy
developed countries, known collectively as "the North" and the poorer developing countries, known
as "the South". Although most nations comprising the "North" are in fact located in the Northern
Hemisphere (with the notable exceptions of Australia and New Zealand), the divide is not wholly
defined by geography. The North is home to four of the five permanent members of the United
Nations Security Council and all members of the G8. "The North" mostly covers the West and the
First World, along with much of the Second World. The expression "north–south divide" is still in
common use, but the terms "North" and "South" are already somewhat outdated. As nations
become economically developed, they may become part of the "North", regardless of geographical
location, while any other nations which do not qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to
be part of the "South. (8)

4. Human Development Index (2)

5 The following growth and development strategies had been implemented in South Africa since
1994:

 the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) ✔

 the Growth, Employment and Redistribution Programme (GEAR) ✔
 the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa Programme (AsgiSA) ✔
 The New Growth Plan (NGP) ✔

The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)

The RDP was an integrated, coherent socio-economic policy framework that was implemented
directly after our first democratic elections in 1994. ✔ It planned to mobilise people and
resources with the intention of eradicating apartheid and to build a democratic, non-racial
and non-sexist future. ✔The RDP was based on six principles:

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i. an integrated and sustainable programme ✔

ii. a people drive process focusing on the needs of the population✔
iii. peace and security for all aimed at a non-violent society that respects all human rights✔
iv. nation building focusing on the needs of all members of society✔
v. linking reconstruction and development✔
vi. democratisation of South Africa in all aspects, including decision making processes on all
levels✔

The RDP consisted of many proposals, strategies and policy programmes which could be
grouped into five main policy programmes. ✔The five key programmes were:

i. meeting basic needs✔

ii. developing our human resources✔
iii. building the economy✔
iv. democratising the state and society✔
v. implementing the RDP✔

The Growth, Employment and Redistribution Programme (GEAR)

The GEAR built upon the strategic vision set out in the RDP, ✔i.e. the importance of all the
objectives of the RDP was reaffirmed but it recognized the implementation and macro-
economic problems that the government had been experiencing in implementing the RDP. ✔

The RDP placed much more emphasis on disciplined economic policy, ✔while still recognising
that there were very serious needs that had to be addressed. ✔

The Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa Programme (AsgiSA)
AsgiSA resulted from Government's commitment to halve unemployment and poverty by
2014. ✔. The Joint Initiative on Priority Skills Acquisition (Jipsa) was established a month later
to address the scarce and critical skills needed to meet AsgiSA's objectives.✔

AsgiSA identified six important factors which prevented South Africa from achieving the
desired growth rate: ✔

i. The relative volatility of the currency ✔

ii. The cost, efficiency and capacity of the national logistics system ✔
iii. Shortages of suitably skilled labour, and the spatial distortions of apartheid affecting
low-skilled labour costs ✔
iv. Barriers to entry, limits to competition and limited new investment opportunities ✔
v. The regulatory environment and the burden on small and medium enterprises (SMEs) ✔
vi. Deficiencies in state organisation, capacity and leadership. ✔

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AsgiSA was not intended to be a government programme but a national initiative supported
by all the key groups in the economy, business, labour, entrepreneurs and government and
semi-government departments and institutions. ✔

The New Growth Path (NGP)

The New Growth Path (NGP) was released in November 2011. ✔This plan is
designed to serve as a framework for economic policy ✔and to be the driver of
the country’s job strategy. ✔


The New Growth Path therefore proposes certain strategies to ensure adequate demand: ✔

 Deepening✔ the domestic and regional market by growing employment, increasing

incomes and undertaking other measures to improve equity and income distribution✔
 Widening✔ the market for South African goods and services through a stronger focus on
exports to the region and other rapidly growing economies✔

 On a macro-economic level the NGP entails accommodating or looser monetary policy,
✔combined with stricter fiscal policy to limit inflationary pressures and enhance
competitiveness. ✔ Government spending will be prioritised with the objective of long term
sustainable employment opportunities in mind. ✔

The microeconomic measures to control inflationary pressures include the following:✔

(a) Competition policy to supervise monopoly pricing on products and services✔

(b) A review of administered prices to ensure that they do not increase above inflation
without compelling reasons✔
(c) Interventions in the case of rapidly rising prices of essential products and services, such
as private healthcare and basic food items✔

The microeconomic package involves ten programmes to control inflationary pressures ✔and
inefficiencies ✔combined with more proactive strategies to support an inclusive economy✔:

i. Active industrial policy✔

ii. Rural development policy✔
iii. Competition policy✔
iv. Stepping up education and skills development✔
v. Enterprise development: promoting small business and entrepreneurship; eliminating
unnecessary red-tape✔
vi. Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) ✔
vii. Labour policies✔
viii. Technology policy✔

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ix. Developmental trade policies✔

x. Policies for African development✔ (50)

6 The NGP is a partnership approach to tackle inequality and unemployment in our society and
this is the opposite of central planning. ✔✔ The section that proposes salary caps has
drawn the biggest resistance. Business leaders are unhappy about the proposed freeze on
bonuses and salaries for senior executives arguing that such a cap would be disastrous for
productivity and could demotivate hardworking employees. Cosatu, also disagrees with
wage caps don’t like the salary caps because they could lead to even greater levels of
income inequality. ✔✔ The plan is criticised for proposing an economic model that was too
interventionist while the rest of the world is moving towards freer market models and less
intervention. ✔✔

The NGP called for a loose monetary policy that also sought to avoid inflation. ✔✔ (8)

7. While most economists agreed with the AsgiSA initiative with its focus on identifying and
unblocking the constraints on higher growth, there were also areas of concern. Issues such as
crime✔, high tax rates✔, labour costs✔, corruption✔, and the costs of financing black

economic empowerment✔ were not addressed in the strategy while economists were of the

opinion that these should be addressed in a growth strategy✔. Some critics also felt that the
private sector’s opinions and needs✔ were not really addressed in the initiative ✔. (8)

8. Percentage annual change in gross domestic product at market prices

Indicates the change in GDP at market prices from one year to the next, as a
percentage of the GDP at market prices in the first year. ✔Because it is measured
at market prices , it also incorporates changes in the price level✔. A high
inflation rate will therefore imply a large increase in GDP at market prices, but it
does not mean that there was any increase in real production. ✔

Percentage annual change in gross domestic product at constant 2006 prices

indicates the change in GDP at constant prices from one year to the next, ✔ as a
percentage of the GDP at constant prices in the first year. ✔ Because it is
measured at constant prices, an increase in GDP at constant prices indicate an
increase in real production. ✔

 Gross domestic product per capita at constant 2006 prices
 Indicates the GDP per person in the country. ✔If GDP at constant prices increase but the
population also increase, this will mean that the standard of living will actually come down.
✔GDP per capita provides of total production per person, and if this increases, this will ensure
an increase in the standard of living of the population, i.e. it will indicate economic
development. ✔

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
 Income distribution
 Indicates the distribution of the income earned in a country among the different income
groups. ✔ If an increase in income is distributed equally among the population, this is a fair
income distribution. ✔ However, if an increase in income is received mainly by the rich in an
economy, while the poor a smaller part of an increase in income, this indicate a skew
distribution of income. ✔

 Human development index
 The Human Development Index compiled by the United Nations is the most widely accepted
indicator of life standard. ✔This index compares life expectancy, literacy, education and
standards of living for all countries. ✔✔ (15)

Topic 2

1. A range of sectoral actions; a set of cross-cutting actions of particular importance for industrial
policy; and measures to improve government’s organisation and capacity to implement industrial
policy. (6)

2. Total development as a multidimensional process, development of people, for people, by people,

developments should start from within the region, it must concentrate on basic issues where the
most urgent human needs exist, cooperation between the private and public sectors and the local
community. (10)

3. Coega IDZ, Richards Bay IDZ, East London IDZ. (4)

4. The IDC has contributed to the restructuring of those sectors which experienced difficulties in the
early 1990s. The IDC’s investment patterns have shifted to support more labour intensive sectors
and BEE objectives. IDC investments in BEE expansion projects have been the biggest creators of
employment. This demonstrates the importance of broad-based activity in the economy for
industrial development. (4)

5 The Industrial Development Corporation (IDC): a national development finance✔

institution set up to promote economic growth and industrial development✔. It is owned
by the South African government ✔under the supervision of the Economic Development
ministry✔. It provides finance for industrial development in South Africa and the Rest of
Africa. ✔
 Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs): a policy used in South Africa to foster
sustainable industrial development✔ in areas where poverty and unemployment are at
their highest✔. SDIs focus on providing high-level support in areas where government
assistance may contribute to economic growth✔ and subsequent economic
development✔.
 Industrial Development Zones (IDZ): a clearly delineated industrial estate or area✔
which constitutes a free trade enclave in the customs and trade regime of a country✔,

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and where foreign manufacturing firms produce mainly for export, ✔benefit from a
certain number of fiscal and financial incentives✔.
 Development corridor: a track of land that forms a passageway✔ allowing access
from one area to another✔. Due to the corridor providing access to larger markets it
enables high density✔ and thus more efficient production of agricultural, mining and
manufactured goods✔.
 Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Programme (ISRDP): a 10-year
programme geared to encourage sustainable development✔ in poor rural areas in
South Africa✔. The point of departure of the ISRDP was that local government
institutions should be developed to support development✔ while also emphasising
assistance from the private sector to sustain this initiative✔. (20)

6 Economic integration in southern Africa is based on the premise that economic

integration could yield greater developmental benefits ✔by the collective use of
economic policies✔.Working together can be much more effective and efficient
✔ and a project that may not be viable for one country or region to undertake
may become viable through cooperation✔. A strong union of African countries
also have more bargaining power in a global context✔. (5)


7 Industrial policy should be aimed at ensuring that support is provided for all
potentially viable sectors. Sectors should be evaluated in terms of opportunities✔
and shortcomings ✔to identify the most viable sectors in a region✔.

Small business has the potential to create lots of employment opportunities✔;

therefore the degree to which policies contribute to small business development
is very important. National, regional en industrial development policy should
keep this objective in mind and should ensure encouragement of small business
entrepreneurship✔. It should address factors that may inhibit small business
development✔.

Regional and industrial development policy should also be aimed at the larger
community. It should recognise that working together can be much more
effective and efficient✔ and that a project that may not be viable for one country
or region to undertake may become viable through cooperation✔. A strong union
of a few countries also have more bargaining power in a global context✔.

Development policies should also address labour practices and should encourage
labour-intensive growth ✔and a flexible labour market regime✔ that does not
inhibit employers to employ labourers but should still protects labour✔. (15)

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8 It is highly likely that the private sector is better equipped to identify the most
effective investment opportunities✔. If the private sector does not buy into the
development policy or plan, it will not be viable in the long run✔ as this will mean
that government will have to keep on financing the project, which is
unsustainable in the long run✔.

Well designed rural and industrial development policy will be done on an

integrated approach✔. All parties that will be affected should be part of the
design process✔. Partnerships should be initiated between the local community
and the other parties involved, namely central government, local authorities, civil
society, special interest groups, NGOs and the private sector. ✔ (6)

Topic 3

1 Economic indicators are used to evaluate the economic performance of an economic unit.
International comparisons help to give a measure of how a country is performing against other
countries. ✔✔(2)

2 Human Development Index gives a gives of the overall standard of living of people within a country
✔✔whereas GDP shows only increases in economic activity of a country and not whether the living

standards of the population have improved. ✔✔HDI measures life expectancy, rates of education
and literacy, population birth rate and other measures that indicate quality of life. ✔✔(6)

3 Inflation rate: There are different indices that can be used to calculate the inflation rate. The
mostly used price indices are

 the consumer price index✓

 the production price index✓
 the GDP deflator✓

The consumer price index (CPI) is compiled by Statistics South Africa and measures
the change in the price level of a basket of consumer goods and services. ✓The
goods and services included in the basket are chosen to represent the goods and
services purchased by an average household. ✓This basket is adjusted from time to
time as consumption patterns change. ✓ The inflation rate is the percentage
change in the CPI from the previous year and can be calculated as follows:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑃𝐼
× 100 ✓
𝐶𝑃𝐼

The production price index (PPI), which is also estimated and published on a monthly
basis by Statistics South Africa, is similar to the CPI, except that it also includes the
prices of raw materials and intermediary goods (i.e. goods that will be finished in the
production process), excludes VAT and excludes services. ✓Manufactured goods
included in the PPI are priced when they leave the factory, not when they are sold to
consumers. ✓Unlike the CPI, the PPI therefore cannot be related directly to

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consumers’ living standards. ✓The PPI is nevertheless very useful in the analysis of
inflation because it measures the cost of production. ✓A significant change in the
rate of increase in the PPI is usually an indication that the rate of increase in the CPI
will also change a few months later. ✓

The GDP deflator is a ratio that indicates the relationship of the GDP at nominal
prices to the GDP at real prices: ✓

Nominal GDP is the value of total gross domestic product measured at current
prices, while the real GDP is the value of total gross domestic product measured at
constant prices. ✓ Therefore the GDP deflator includes changes in the prices of
exports✓ but not of imports. ✓ In a small open economy, like that of South Africa
where both imports and exports are significant in relation to the total size of the
economy, the exclusion of import prices is an important shortcoming. ✓

(ii) Unemployment rate: In terms of economic development, employment is a very

important indicator. ✓ Employment is, however, not very easy to measure as so
many people are employed in the informal sector which is not recorded. ✓ The
concept of underemployment is also important. This is when someone is employed
in a position lower than their ability, for example when a qualified accountant works
as a delivery person because he/she cannot find employment as an accountant.
Someone may also be employed on a part-time basis but would prefer to work full
time. ✓

A labour force survey is published quarterly by Statistics South Africa. ✓This

publication contains information and statistics concerning a variety of issues related
to the labour market, including the official unemployment rate. ✓It is a very
complete survey and provides information on changes in employment in different
provinces and industries, employment in the informal sector, and even reasons for
changes in employment figures. ✓ The unemployment rate is a percentage of the
total labour force. ✓The total labour force includes all employed persons as well as
unemployed persons looking for work. ✓ The unemployment rate is a lagging
indicator, which means that it will only change a few periods after the trend in the
economy has changed. ✓For example, if the economy starts growing at a faster
pace, the unemployment rate will only react to this growth after two or three
quarters. ✓

(iii) Interest rates: Interest rates are important indicators of future economic activity, as
the interest rate level is usually an important determinant when economic decisions
are being taken. ✓ Both the general interest rate level ✓and the structure of
interest rates ✓are important indicators.

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There are many interest rates in the economy. Some are short term rates, such as
the repo rate which is the interest rate at which South African banks borrow from
the Reserve Bank to finance their liquidity deficit. We call this accommodation and
this loan from the SARB to a bank is for 7 days. ✓An overdraft on a current account
is also a short term loan by a bank to a customer to finance a temporary deficit and
therefore the interest rate on an overdraft account is also a short term interest rate.
✓When a household acquire a loan to buy a house, this loan called a home bond is
usually for a 20 to 30 year period, therefore the interest rate on such home bonds
will be long term interest rate. ✓ The difference between the short term interest
rates and the long term interest rates is called the interest rate spread ✓and the
term structure of interest rates provides an indication of the interest rate levels on
loans or investments of different maturities. ✓ The curve representing the different
interest rates on each date is called a yield curve. ✓ The yield curve shows the
relationship between the maturity of an instrument and the yield or interest rate on
it. ✓. A yield curve will usually have a positive slope because longer term loans and
investments and regarded to be riskier due to the uncertainty (we simply don’t know
what the future holds!). ✓ However, if the yield curve becomes steeper, the higher
long term interest rates indicate that interest rates are expected to increase in the
future. ✓For example, usually when the inflation rate is high and people expect that
the monetary authorities will put up the repo rate to bring the inflation rate down,
the yield curve will become steeper✓. If the yield curve is inverted (i.e. it has a
negative slope) this will indicate that interest rates are expected to decrease in the
future. ✓

The difference between the short term rates and long term rates is called the
interest rate spread or yield gap. ✓ This flatter the yield curve and thus the smaller
the yield gap, the smaller the expectation that interest rates will change in future. ✓

The different interest rates will usually move together, i.e. when the repo rate goes
up all other interest rates in the economy will also increase. ✓ This means that the
whole yield curve will move upwards. ✓

Usually we can expect the interest rate level in a developing country to be higher
than the interest rate in a developed economy. ✓This is due to the higher risk
attached to the developing economy. ✓ Factors such as political and economic
uncertainty cause this higher risk. ✓Developing economies also need to attract
foreign investment to their country to finance growth. Investors’ funds will move
towards the highest yield and therefore developing countries cannot allow interest
rates in their countries to become too low. ✓

In general a lower interest rate level will create an expectation that investment
should increase and this should enhance growth, employment and development.
✓A higher interest rate level may inhibit borrowing and thus investment and this
may be interpreted as an indication that the economy will grow slower. ✓
Economists have proved, however, that there lies more predictive power in the

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shape of the yield curve and the yield spread. ✓ When long term interest rates are
lower than short term interest rates and the yield curve therefore has a negative
slope (i.e. a negative yield spread), an economic downturn can be expected. ✓The
larger the yield spread (i.e. the larger the difference between the lower long term
interest rates and the higher short term rates) the more severe the recession of
depression can be expected to be. ✓

(iv) Money supply: The increase in the M3 money supply is an important

economic indicator. ✓

If M, the money supply increases, ✓ this means that either P (prices) or

Y (output) has to respond to the increase in M. ✓ Therefore an
increase in the money supply is an important indicator indicating that
nominal output (PY) will increase. ✓Whether this will translate to an
increase in real production or the price level, will depend on various
factor in the economy. ✓One such factor is production capacity. ✓ If
adequate capital equipment is available to increase production when
there is an increase in aggregate demand, real production can increase.
✓However, if no excess production capacity is available or if producers
are not willing or able to produce more goods and services, the result
will be an increase in prices. ✓

Many economists are of the opinion that the direction of causality in

the equation of exchange does not flow from money supply to nominal
income, but that an increase in the money supply is the result of an
increase in the price level and/or the real production level. ✓
Information on money supply growth and credit extension (one of the
important factors causing a change in money supply) become available
much quicker than information on production and price levels –
therefore growth in money supply and credit extension are still
important indicators, especially in the short run. ✓

Information on the growth in the M3 money supply is published

regularly the SARB in the SARB Quarterly Bulletin. ✓ The reason for the
growth in M3 as well as the implications thereof is also discussed in the
Bulletin. ✓Credit extension to the private sector is an important
determinant of M3 money supply. ✓When credit extension decreases,
money supply growth also decreases. ✓When banks provide a loan to a
customer, a deposit for the amount of the loan is created and therefore
the M3 money supply is increased. ✓

 4 Economic indicators provide:

 An indication of changes taking place in a country, e.g. an increase in real GDP per capita
indicates economic growth✓✓
 An indication of how a country compares to other countries, e.g. when you compare South
Africa’s human development index with that of Zimbabwe✓✓
 An indication of trends or changes in the economy such as a recession✓✓ (6)

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5 The naïve extrapolation technique✓: This method entails assuming that the
future path of an economic variable will be determined by its current and recent
path. ✓ For example: if the economy has been growing at a rate of 3 percent in
the most recent past, you assume that it will continue to grow at 3 percent in the
future. ✓

The barometric approach✓: Leading economic indicators are used to predict the
future path of the economy, i.e. the change in economic activity rather than the
level of economic activity✓. Examples of leading indicators may include the
change in the number of new cars sold, the change in the number of building
plans approved, the number of new companies registered and many more (Any
one example ✓).
Macroeconometric models ✓ are based on macroeconomic models. There will
be various economic indicators that will be used as inputs into the model✓.
These are called exogenous variables✓. The future values of these exogenous
variables may sometimes be based on extrapolation techniques, as discussed
above✓. Other inputs into the model will be various parameters ✓that
determine the relationship between economic variables✓. These parameters will
be based on historical evidence✓. Examples of such parameters can be the
marginal propensity to consume and the interest elasticity of investment (Any
one example✓). The outputs of the model are the economic variables that are
predicted using the model ✓and these are called the endogenous variables✓.
(16)

6 Net merchandise exports, which is the difference between exports and imports of
goods✓, is important in a developing economy, as a growing goods export sector
can be associated with the creation of employment opportunities✓.

The balance on the current account provides an indication of the difference

between exports and imports of goods and services✓. If the current account
shows a positive balance, this means that exports exceed imports✓. If the
current account shows a negative balance, this means that imports exceed
exports✓. If this is the case, the country will need an inflow of foreign capital to
pay for the excess of imports over exports✓. This flow of capital will be shown in
the financial account.

While a positive balance or a surplus on the current account may seem like the
healthiest option for an economy, as this will mean that adequate foreign
exchange is available to finance goods that needs to be imported, this will not
always be an attainable option in a developing economy✓. A developing
economy will need to increase its available infrastructure and production
capacity✓. To do so will often involve import of technology and capital
equipment and therefore a developing country will often have a negative balance
or a deficit on the current account✓. As long as such a negative balance can be
financed with an inflow of foreign capital, this is not a problem✓. (10)

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7 Because it occurs as a result of changes in the economy not as a cause. Firms lay off workers only
after a downturn or employ more people only after the economy has picked up. (2)

Topic 4

1 Between inflation and purchasing power a negative relationship exits . An

increase in the inflation rate decreases purchasing power . A decrease in
purchasing power implies that less goods and services can be bought by given
amount of money. (4)
2 Any three of the following:
Increased spending by households.
Increased investment spending by firms.
Increased spending by government.
Increased spending by the foreign sector. (6 marks)
3 Any three of the following:
An increase in wages and salaries.
A decline in productivity.
An increase in profit margins by firms.
Increase in the price of imported goods. (6 marks)

4 Any three of the following:

An increases in taxes to decrease the disposable income available to households.
A decrease in government spending.
A restrictive monetary policy entails the use of the interest rate to decrease total spending in
the economy.
Limit the amount of credit available. (6 marks)

5. To deal with increases in wages an incomes policy can be used.

To decrease the cost of production polices aimed at increasing productivity can be useful.

T o decrease profit margins more competitive market can make a valuable contributions.

(6)

6 Inflation has an impact on economic growth. Due to the distributional effect savings are
discouraged and the less savings in the economy the less funds are available for real
investment.

Inflation also impact on the investment decision. Why invest in productive assets if an
investment in speculative assets such as shares, properties, foreign currencies, works of art,
antiques, and so on which might bring a better return due to inflation. Instead of investing in
productive assets, market participants try to outwit each other by speculating. Businesses
become preoccupied with inflation and how they can beat it rather than worrying about
more productive issues. Time and resources are wasted to anticipate inflation and protect
oneself against it. 

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Inflation also has an impact on the balance of payments. If the inflation rate in South Africa
is higher than that of our trading partners it can have negative consequences for the balance
of payments in that it increases the cost of the export industries with a resultant loss of
international competitiveness. 
High inflation also impact on the functioning of the price mechanism. Changes in relative
prices are important signal to both consumers and producers. With high inflation these
price signal are more difficult to correctly interpret. It causes a noise in the system in the
same way as a radio message is harder to interpret the higher the static in the system. 

High inflation also causes further inflation. This is the so-called inflation spiral which is
caused by people’s expectations about inflation. Since people expect inflation to continue,
they do things that further fuel inflation and if this get out of hand the result might be
hyperinflation. 
(12 marks)

7. (a) False
(b) True
(c) False
(d) False
(e) True
(f) False

Topic 5

1 The first important negative impact that tourism may have is on the
environment✓. In the first place tourism involves transport, and transport in an
important source of pollution. ✓

Tourists can also harm the environment by placing more pressure on natural
resources such as water and beaches✓. If numbers of tourists are not controlled
a lack of adequate resources may lead to such source becoming depleted or
inadequate✓ Africa has many arid areas where lack of fresh water may become a
problem if there is a too large influx of tourists. ✓

Similarly too many tourists may also put pressure on existing infrastructure.
✓Sanitation, ✓electricity provision services✓, road and rails ✓may be
inadequate to provide in the additional need created by tourists.

When tourist visit natural and cultural heritage areas care should be taken to ensure that
such areas are not negatively affected by the tourists. ✓ (10)

2 For every rand spend by a tourist, there is a multiplier effect ✓so that the total effect
on income is much larger. ✓

Unemployment is the largest socio-economic problem in South Africa and because tourism is a
labour-intensive industry it has the potential to contribute to alleviate unemployment✓. In 2010 the
Pan African Research and Investment Services conducted a study on the role of tourism in South
African and the factors that affect it. They found that when foreign tourism expenditure rises by 1%,
fixed capital formation on average, increases by 0,04%✓ while employment increases by about

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0,07%✓. Domestic tourism expenditure elasticities are 0,17% and 0,15% for fixed capital formation
✓and employment✓ respectively, meaning that a 1% increase leads to an increase in fixed capital
formation of 0,17% and a 15% increase in employment. Tourism contribution to employment stood
at 5% in 1994 and rose to 7,4% in 2008✓. To this increase direct tourism contributed 3% in 2008,
whilst the rest resulted from the multiplier effects described above✓. With regard to tourism’s
contribution to GDP, the total effect increased from 8,5% in 1994 to 10,5% in 2008✓. In 2008, air
tourists spent about R16,8 billion (R7 666 per person per trip) ✓; those from land markets (i.e. who
entered using roads) spent R27,2 billion (R3 837 per person per trip✓) in the same period. From this
research we can conclude that tourism contributes a large percentage to total GDP✓ and that this
contribution is growing. ✓ Tourism is therefore an important industry in South Africa. It also
indicates that an increase in tourism affects both capital formation and employment, and therefore
it also contributes to economic development. ✓(10)

3 People travelling✓ to and staying in places outside their usual environment ✓for not more than
one consecutive year✓for leisure, business and other purpose ✓ (4)

4 The factors that affect domestic tourism is disposable income ✓but not by the
interest rate level✓. Foreign tourism will increase due to an increase in world
GDP (which is a proxy for income) ✓ and when the Rand/US$ exchange rate
weakens✓, which of course, makes traveling to South Africa cheaper for
foreigners. ✓

Factors that affect tourism worldwide are global exchange rate volatility✓, oil
prices ✓and fuel hedging costs✓. Oil prices have an impact on aviation fuel
prices✓, the cost structure of the global tourism market✓, and the affordability
of access to long-haul destinations, such as South Africa✓. Putting a price on
carbon emissions through carbon taxes or tradable carbon permits may also
affect the price of traveling, and therefore the extent of tourism✓. Despite all
these factors that may affect tourism negatively, it continues to grow✓. This is a
worldwide trend. What contributes to this growth?

In the first place technology such as the internet and even travel shows on
television that makes people more aware of the variety of traveling destinations
may be an important factor that contribute to an increase in tourism activity✓.
Technology also makes it easier for tourists to manage their own travel plans and
to do research on different destinations✓. Therefore a presence on the internet
is of the utmost importance for a country that wants to enhance tourism✓. The
internet is definitely the most effective marketing tool available to the tourism
industry – countries and regions should be aware of this and have a marketing
strategy to encourage tourism, and also provide the means for smaller
entrepreneurs to have access to this type of marketing✓.

Where travel was previously viewed as a luxury and mainly aimed at leisure
activities✓, the profile is starting to change. More and more travel is seen as a
necessity that enhances your knowledge and understanding of the world and the
way in which it works✓. The demand for mass-based leisure tourism is being
replaced by a desire to connect emotionally with destinations, local people and
local cultures✓. More people are interested in combining unique travel

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opportunities with meaningful volunteer work✓. This trend creates important

opportunities for developing countries and we should ensure that systems and
strategies are in place to harness this changing tourism need✓.

The recent global financial crisis has fundamentally changed the profile or
tourists✓. The working population in the European Union, which has traditionally
been the most important source of tourists, is declining, as is Japan’s✓. Tourism
from emerging markets such as China, India and Latin America is increasing and
expected to become very important in the near future✓. Tourism strategy and
planning should take this into account and do research on the needs of such
tourists✓.

As indicated in the previous section, the number of domestic tourists exceeds the
number of foreign tourists by far, but foreign tourist spends much more than
domestic tourists✓. This is contrast to Brazil where expenditure by domestic
tourists exceeds expenditure by foreign tourists by far. This shows that there is an
opportunity in South Africa to grow the domestic market, especially since a large
part of our population are not culturally inclined to travel to unknown
destinations due to our apartheid history✓.

An important reason for the increase in tourism is probably the increase in

government expenditure on promoting and encouraging tourism✓.

The World Economic Forum Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report indicates
the strong and weak areas of different tourist destinations. According to this
report South Africa’s strongest areas are natural sites✓, cultural resources✓,
attractive price competitiveness for hotel rooms✓, a favourable tax regime✓,
good air transport infrastructure✓ and favourable policy rules and regulations✓.
The weakest areas are safety and security✓, access to health services✓, ticket
taxes and airport charges ✓and lastly inadequate human resources✓. Policies
and strategies aimed at encouraging tourism should take into account the strong
points and capitalize on them, while ensuring that the weak points are addressed
so that even more tourists can experience our wonderful and diverse country✓. (40)

5. South Africa’s New Growth Plan identifies tourism as one of the six core pillars of
growth✓.Tourists spend and therefore an increase in tourism in a certain area
will contribute to an increase in income in that area. ✓

The following types of expenditure resulting from tourism can be identified:

 Direct expenditure✓: This will involve the expenditure on goods and services by the
tourists themselves in hotels, restaurants, shops, other tourist facilities, tourism
generated export, i.e. goods that are purchased by the tourists as well as investment in an
area specifically related to tourism, e.g. erection of accommodation facilities at a tourist
destination. ✓
 Indirect expenditure✓: This is expenditure by those supplying services and goods to
tourists, such as the goods purchased by the hotels and tourist shops. ✓
 Induced expenditure✓ This is the increase in consumer spending that results from the
additional personal income generated by the direct expenditure, e.g. the hotel workers
using their wages for the purchase of goods and services. ✓

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For every rand spend by a tourist, there is a multiplier effect so that the total
effect on income is much larger. ✓

Unemployment is the largest socio-economic problem in South Africa and

because tourism is a labour-intensive industry it has the potential to contribute to
alleviate unemployment. ✓ When foreign tourism expenditure rises, fixed
capital formation on average, also increases✓ Tourism contributes a large
percentage to total GDP and t this contribution is growing. Tourism is therefore
an important industry in South Africa. ✓It also indicates that an increase in
tourism affects both capital formation and employment, and therefore it also
contributes to economic development. ✓

An advantage of the tourism industry is that there are few entry barriers. ✓Entry
barriers refer to obstacles that may make it difficult to enter a particular market.
✓ The funding requirements can be low, it is not a technology intensive industry
and it does not involve skills that are particularly hard to master. ✓This makes
the tourism industry a relatively easy industry to enter, even for persons with
little educational background. ✓.

An added advantage of tourism is that, unlike all the other growth pillars, tourism
also contributes to preserving our unique culture and heritage. ✓All the other
growth pillars involve new ways of doing things and necessitate importing
technology to
ensure competitiveness. Tourism, and especially rural and cultural tourism,
contributes to preserving our indigenous knowledge systems. ✓

Tourism also plays an important role in establishing the character of our country
and society. ✓ If foreign visitors to our country have a pleasant experience, this
can contribute to strengthening international relations and building socio-
economic and political networks that may benefit us in future. ✓Therefore,
investment in tourism is also an investment into the image of our country. A
country with a positive image may find it easier to secure foreign investment. ✓

If the foreign sector perceives our country to have a positive image, this will also
contribute to national pride. ✓Enhancement of national pride can have a
multitude of positive spin-offs such as taking better care of our environment,
resources and our communities, including the elderly and the youth. ✓ National
pride contributes to creation of a hopeful community that works towards the
future. ✓

Although world tourism was affected by the global economic crisis that started
towards the end of 2007, it has also proved to be one of the most resilient sectors
of the economy ✓. Therefore tourism has the potential to contribute to bring an
economy out of an economic slump. ✓

Tourism mainly has a positive impact on a country, especially from an economic

perspective. However, there may be some important negative implications which
should not be overlooked and should, ideally, be addressed before the problems
become unbearable or unsolvable. ✓

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The first important negative impact that tourism may have is on the environment.
✓ In the first place tourism involves transport, and transport in an important
source of pollution. ✓ Policy should be in place to ensure that tourists are
transported in the most environmentally friendly way, while still preserving their
comfort. ✓In many instances tourists, especially those interested in a more
culturally authentic experience may prefer less comfortable, more
environmentally friendly means of transport such as the rikshaw used as a
travelling means in Durban. Travelling by horses and camels is also popular tourist
activities, as is cycling, hiking and canoeing. ✓

The Gautrain is another example of a means of travel that has been created that
is more environmentally friendly. Previously all tourists had to make use of road
vehicles to get to the O.R. Tambo Airport near Johannesburg but now they can
make use of the Gautrain and the bus services provided by the Gautrain
company. ✓

Tourists can also harm the environment by placing more pressure on natural
resources such as water and beaches✓. If numbers of tourists are not controlled
a lack of adequate resources may lead to such source becoming depleted or
inadequate. ✓ Africa has many arid areas where lack of fresh water may
become a problem if there is a too large influx of tourists. This should be kept in
mind when attracting visitors to certain areas. ✓

Similarly too many tourists may also put pressure on existing infrastructure.
✓Sanitation, electricity provision services, road and rails may be inadequate to
provide in the additional need created by tourists. ✓Such services can, however,
be updated and increased if it is expected that this will contribute to increasing
tourism and then financed from the additional income that is created by the
tourism industry. Such improvements in infrastructure will also benefit the local
community. ✓

When tourist visit natural and cultural heritage areas care should be taken to ensure that
such areas are not negatively affected by the tourists. ✓ Procedures should be in place to
ensure that such sites are preserved in pristine order, firstly because it is an issue of national
pride✓ and secondly because it will ensure that such sites remain attractive to tourists in
the future. ✓ (40)

Topic 6

1 Several measures need to be put in place:

 Firstly awareness should be created of the problems related to loss of biodiversity. ✓
 Secondly environmental protection policies should be in place to ensure that such
projects are not allowed to proceed. ✓
 Thirdly, research should be done about alternative projects that could be undertaken by
such communities that will not deplete natural resources. ✓
 Fourthly, finance and other support measures should be in place to ensure that such
alternative projects are encouraged and deemed to be viable. ✓ (4)

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2 The Summit’s message main message was that a total transformation of our
attitudes and behaviour are necessary to save our planet for future✓.
Governments agreed that it had become necessary to make eco-efficiency a
guiding principle in the design of national plans and policies✓ and that the cost
of any action on the environment also had to be taken into account when taking
decisions✓. Specific decisions that were taken were the following:
 Patterns of production based on processes that result in toxic waste and pollution had to
be reconsidered, e.g. reliance on gasoline for transport✓
 To find alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels ✓
 To emphasize more reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle
emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and
smog✓
 To create greater awareness of the growing scarcity of water ✓

Although Agenda 21, which was the United Nation’s action plan related to
sustainable development had been weakened by compromise and negotiation✓,
it was still the most comprehensive plan ever sanctioned by the international
community✓. If implemented in its entirety it would contribute greatly to
ensuring the health future of the planet✓. Two important documents were
opened for signature at the summit, namely the Convention on Biological
Diversity✓ and the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC✓). The
Convention on Biological Diversity is document that legally binds the participating
parties to conserve biological diversity✓. The objective of the UNFCC was to
stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent human induced climate change✓. While the UNFCCC was not in itself a
legally binding document it provided for updates (called "protocols") that would
set mandatory emission limits✓. The Kyoto protocol is such an update that does
bind those countries that had ratified it legally✓.

The Earth Summit influenced all UN conferences that followed in the sense that
sustainability of the environment always had to be considered in conjunction
with any other goals✓.(16)

3 The reason for this is that the place where emissions occur is not important ✓– it
still has the same effect on the atmosphere and therefore on climate change✓. If
climate policy is not a global effort measures to decrease emissions in one
country will mean that that project will merely be relocated ✓to a more
emission-friendly environment✓, thus not resulting in a decrease in global
carbon emissions.✓(6)

4 We have to distinguish between adaptation and mitigation:

 Adaptation refers to practical steps to protect countries and communities✓ from the
possible disturbance and damage that may result from effects of climate change✓. For
example, if climate change is expected to lead to floods in a certain area, flood walls may
be erected and measure should be in place to move human settlements out of flood plains
and other low-lying areas. ✓

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 Mitigation refers to human actions ✓to reduce the sources of greenhouse gasses ✓and/or
increase the sinks that absorb greenhouse gases. ✓ (6)

5 If we do not account for the cost of carbon emissions when we make economic
decisions✓, we shall not take the most economically effective decision✓. When
we have such a cost that is not accounted for in the economic decision process
we call it an externality✓. An externality can be both positive and negative ✓but
climate change is a negative externality✓. The way to make sure that the
externality is also taken into account in the economic decision process is to put a
price on it✓. This cost will be determined by the cost of climate change✓. (6)

6 Introduction✓
Climate change due to natural phenomena is not a new concept. Recently,
however, there is significant evidence that climate change is taking place at a
faster pace than it has over the centuries✓, and that it is induced by human
action✓. Due to the fast pace of this human induced climate change it becomes
very difficult to adapt to it✓.

Therefore when the when the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change they do it as follows:

a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that

alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable time periods (IPCC 2007:2). ✓✓

Two aspects are important here:

 they refer to changes that are the result of human activity✓
 they refer to changes that is in addition to the natural changes in climate✓

Reasons for climate change✓

One of the most important reasons for human induced climate change is the
increase in greenhouse gasses✓. The most important greenhouse gas induced by
human activity is carbon dioxide (CO2) ✓. Carbon dioxide emissions have been
increasing at a faster pace from the 1750s and at a much faster pace over the last
60 years✓.

The most important reasons for the increase in carbon emissions are the
following:
 burning of fossil fuels✓
 production of cement✓
 land clearing and forest combustion✓

Plants and trees and the ocean absorb a certain amount of carbon dioxide as part
of natural processes✓. However, due to increased human activity that leads to
emission of carbon dioxide and a depletion of natural forests, the amount of
carbon dioxide that are emitted exceeds the amount that natural processes can

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absorb✓, and this leads to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and
consequently, to climate change✓.

Results of climate change✓

Some of the results of climate change due to higher emissions of carbon dioxide
are the following:
 An increase in temperatures worldwide✓: Eleven of the last twelve years from1995–
2006 rank among the 12 warmest years since surface temperature has been recorded
(1850). The percentage by which temperatures have been increasing over the last 50
years is nearly double that for the last 100 years. ✓
 A rise in the level of the ocean✓. Global average sea level rose at an average rate of 1,8
mm per year from 1961 to 2003. It is highly likely that this is caused by earth warming.
This has important implications for low lying areas of the world – some islands may
disappear under the ocean. Due to the higher water level seawater also reaches farther
inland, and can cause destructive erosion and destroy or change natural habitats of
plants and animals. Higher sea levels also mean bigger, more powerful storm surges, as
we have seen in recent years✓✓
 A change in ocean salinity✓. They observed that surface waters in tropical and
subtropical Atlantic Ocean regions became markedly saltier. Simultaneously, much of
the water column in the high latitudes of the North and South Atlantic became fresher.
This has important implications for marine plants and animals, but also for weather
patterns which are affected by currents caused by the differences in salinity in the
ocean. ✓✓
 Higher temperature leads to more extreme weather✓: More devastating storms, and
more severe and prolonged droughts and floods are the result of higher earth
temperature. ✓
 Negative impact on agriculture✓: Agriculture depends on a predictable climate. If
weather patterns become more extreme and unpredictable, it becomes difficult to know
when to plant and when to harvest. It also becomes difficult to identify the correct type
of crop best suited to a specific area. More drought conditions affect agriculture
negatively and a too high temperature affects the growing and pollination of many
plants negatively. This effect on agriculture is especially important in developing
countries, as poorer communities depend on subsistence agriculture for food and
livelihood. ✓✓

Asymmetry between developing and developed countries✓

With regards to climate change, an important asymmetry is that the countries
that are mostly responsible for climate change✓ are not the countries that will
most severely be affected by it✓. The largest emitters of carbon dioxide are
developed countries. China, India and South Africa are the exceptions✓.
However, both China and India’s emissions per capita (i.e. emissions per person)
are much lower than that of the countries that lie very high on the human
development index✓: emissions per capita in India for 2008 was 1.5 tonnes per
person while that it was 17,3 tonnes for the United States and 16,4 for Canada.
The size of the population has to be taken into account when interpreting total
emissions✓.

South Africa is guilty of high carbon emissions, both in terms of total emissions
✓and in terms of emissions per capita✓. While our emissions per capita is not as
high as some of the developed countries, it is higher than that, e.g. of the United

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 ANSWERS TERM 1-3

Kingdom. This is due to our high reliance on coal to generate electricity✓. South
Africa’s emissions (in total and per capita) are much higher than that for the rest
of Africa and most other developing countries✓.

Summary and conclusions✓

The important conclusions from this discussion of climate change induced by high
emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses are thus the following:
 In general, emissions per person in countries that rank higher on the human
development index are high, while emissions per person for less developed countries
are lower. ✓
 Developing countries will be most severely affected by the results of climate change. ✓
 Developed countries have to decrease their emissions of carbon dioxide. ✓
 Developed countries have to develop in such a way that it does not result in an increase
in carbon emissions. ✓

It is therefore necessary to formulate economic policy that will encourage or force humanity to alter
their behaviour✓ to try to stop or reverse these climate change trend✓s, and also to ensure that
policies and aid is put in place to address the needs of those negatively affected by climate
change✓.

© Via Afrika Publishers >> Economics 142

END-OF-YEAR EXAM PAPER MICROECONOMICS

END-OF-YEAR EXAMINATION PAPER

MICROECONOMICS

Time: 1½ hours
Marks: 150

Instructions and information:

 Answer FOUR QUESTIONS AS FOLLOWS in your answer book:
o SECTION A: COMPULSORY (30 marks)
o SECTION B: Answer TWO questions (2 × 40 marks)
o SECTION C: Answer any ONE question (40 marks)
 Write the question number above each answer.
 Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this question paper.
 Read the questions carefully and start each question on a NEW page.
 Leave 2–3 lines between subsections of questions.
 Write neatly and legibly.
 Answer only the required number of questions.
 Non-programmable calculators may be used.

SECTION A (COMPULSORY; ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS)

QUESTION 1
1.1 Choose the correct answer and write only the letter on your answer sheet.
1.1.1. Microeconomics is concerned with the behaviour of:
A. B,C and D
B. industries
C. consumers
D. firms.
1.1.2 A person will decide to buy a product when the marginal benefit is greater
than the:
A. total cost
B. expected cost
C. marginal cost
D. average cost
1.1.3 The circular flow of goods and money depicts the relationship between:
A. income and money
B. goods and services
C. firms and households
D. wages and salaries
1.1.4 In a command economy, all the economic decisions are taken by:
A. consumers
B. government
C. voters
D. trade unions
1.1.5 Which of the following is a characteristic of oligopolies?
A. A standardised product
B. Many producers
C. Interdependence between a few firms
D. Downward-sloping demand curves faced by firms

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1.1.6 If a few companies in the same industry met to set prices and output levels, this is
would be an example of:
A. monopolistic behaviour
B. profit-sharing
C. collusion
D. perfect competition.
1.1.7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a perfectly competitive labour
market?.
A. Workers appear identical to firms.
B. Workers receive wages that are above their marginal revenue product
C. There are no barriers to entering the labour market.
D. There are no barriers to exiting from the labour market.
1.1.8 If a per-unit subsidy is provided to Jacks Electronics which of the following will
happen?
A. Jacks Electronics quantity will increase
B. Jacks Electronics quantity will decrease
C. Jacks Electronics quantity will not change
D. None of the above
(8 × 2 = 16)
1.2 Choose a description from COLUMN B that matches an item in COLUMN A.
Write only the letter (A–H) next to the question number (1.2.1–1.2.8) in the answer
book.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1.2.1 Niche market A Improves the efficiency of markets by ensuring
competition between producers.
1.2.2 Homogeneous product B Something that originates or exists naturally in
a certain cultural area
1.2.3 Indigenous C A change in total revenue caused by selling
one additional unit.
1.2.4 Carbon taxes D The buyer or seller has no market power
to influence the market price of the product.
1.2.5 Market power E Buyers or sellers are able to influence the
market price of a product.
1.2.6 Marginal revenue F Similar or identical products.
1.2.7 Price-taker G A specific market within another market.

1.2.8 Competition policy H A tax on the emission of carbon dioxide gas

into the atmosphere.
(8 × 1 = 8)

1.3 Answer only TRUE or FALSE to the statements below on you answer sheet.
1.3.1 Monopolistic competition exists in many markets.
1.3.2 The output of an industry is the sum of the output of all its individual firms.
1.3.3 Under perfect competition, the factors of production such as labour, capital and
entrepreneurship cannot easily move from one geographical area to the next and
from one industry to the next.
1.3.4 The variable costs of a firm are costs that can never be changed
1.3.5 Positive externalities are paid for by the person who benefits.
1.3.6 When a firm’s MC > MR, it is making normal profit.
(6 × 1 = 6)
[30]

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END-OF-YEAR EXAM PAPER MICROECONOMICS

SECTION B (ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS)

QUESTION 2 PERFECT COMPETITION

2.1.1 Which ONE of the above points on the graph is associated with an economic loss? (2)
2.1.2 Define normal profit. (4)
2.1.3 Identify the profit maximization point in the Graph (2)

2.2 List SIX characteristics of a perfectly competitive market. (12)

2.3 Use a table to show the differences between a perfect and imperfect market (5 x 2 =10)

2.4 using the diagram above answer the following questions.

2.4.1. What is the initial equilibrium price? (2)

2.4.2 What is the initial equilibrium quantity? (2)

2.4.3 As a result of the increased demand for cell phones, the demand for land lines has decreased.
Which curve represents the new demand for land lines? Substantiate your answer with reference to
the diagram. (6) (10) [40]

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QUESTION 3 IMPERFECT MARKETS

Using the above diagram which indicates both a perfectly competitive market and a monopoly
answer the questions that follow.
3.1.1 At what point is profit maximised?
(2)
3.1.2 Compared to perfect competition, is the price the firm charges higher, lower or the same?

(2)
3.1.3 Compared to perfect competition, is the quantity produced by the firm higher,
lower or the same?
(2)(6)
3.2. What is meant by the term ‘product differentiation’?
(2)

3.3 Give two examples of how a company can use product differentiation.
(2)
3.4 Briefly discuss the characteristics of a monopoly.
(10)
3.5 Discuss the long-run position of a monopolistically competitive firm.
(8)
3.5 Discuss any FOUR characteristics of a monopolistically competitive firm. (2 x
4) (8)

[40]

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END-OF-YEAR EXAM PAPER MICROECONOMICS

QUESTION 4 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

[[Link]

4.1 Choose the correct word from those given in brackets. Write only the word next to the
question number (4.1.1 – 4.1.4) in the ANSWER BOOK.
4.1.1 (Ecotourism/Externality) means the cost or benefit arising from any activity, which does
not affect the person or the organisation carrying on the activity.
4.1.2 When trees are removed on a large scale, (conservation/deforestation) takes place.
4.1.3 In an economy with full employment (the demand for exports/a higher rate of income
tax) will cause inflation.
4.1.4 Most employment in the tourism industry is in the (transport/hospitality) sectors.
(4 × 2 = 8)
4.2 Name any TWO indigenous forms of art in South Africa.
(2 × 2 = 4)
4.3 Explain FOUR ways in which tourism benefits the environment.
(4 × 2 = 8)
4.4 Answer these questions
4.4.1 In your opinion, what may stop tourists from choosing to visit an African destination?
(3)
4.4.2 Explain in your own words what the cartoon is saying about environmental awareness.
(2 × 2 = 4)
4.4.3 Do you agree that tourism will lead to a better life for all? Motivate your answer.
(3)
4.5 Discuss five negative effects of globalisation.
(5 × 2 = 10) [40]
SECTION C (ANSWER ANY ONE QUESTION)

QUESTION 5 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

‘Tourism is an important and rapidly growing sector of the South African economy but it has
negative as well as positive consequences.’

Discuss the potential negative and positive impact of tourism on a country.

Breakdown of marks:
Format 5 marks
Body 30 marks
Interpretation of question 5 marks

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER

MACROECONOMICS

Time: 1½ hours
Marks: 150

Instructions and information:

 Answer FOUR QUESTIONS AS FOLLOWS in your answer book:
o SECTION A: COMPULSORY (30 marks)
o SECTION B: Answer TWO questions (2 × 40 marks)
o SECTION C: Answer any ONE question (40 marks)
 Make sure your name is on all your answer sheets.
 Write the question number above each answer.
 Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this question paper.
 Read the questions carefully and start each question on a NEW page.
 Leave 2–3 lines between subsections of questions.
 Write neatly and legibly.
 Non-programmable calculators may be used.

SECTION A (COMPULSORY; ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS)

QUESTION 1

1.1 Choose the correct answer and write only the letter on your answer sheet.
1.1.1 A ... has a single monetary system
A. common market
B. customs union
C. economic union

1.1.2 Parastatals are part of the … business sector.

A. commercial
B. private
C. public
1.1.3 When calculating GDP at basic prices, taxes and subsidies on … are taken into account.
A. exports
B. commodities
C. production
1.1.4 Lowering the interest rate can be classified as a … approach to economic growth.
A. supply-side
B. fiscal
C. demand-side
1.1.5 . NEPAD stands for:
A. New partnership for Africa's development

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

B. New programme for Africa's development

C.. New partnership for Asia's development.
1.1.6. The number of new cars sold is a .... indicator

A. lagging
B. leading
C. coincident
1.1.7 The indicator used to measure gross domestic product, interest rates and
unemployment rates is called the …

A. economic cycle
B. economic indicator
C. leading indicator
1.1.8South Africa benefits directly from tourism because of the increase in tourist …

A. exports
B. expenditure
C. savings.

(8 × 2 = 16)
1.2 Choose a description from COLUMN B that matches an item in COLUMN A.

Write only the letter (A–H) next to the question number (1.2.1–1.2.8) in the answer book.

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1.2.1 M3 A The economic value of the labour force

1.2.2 World Bank B Cash in circulation outside the banking sector

plus demand and short, medium and long-term deposits
with the bank

1.2.3 Marginal propensity to consume C Evidence relating to or based on experience

or observation

1.2.4 Production price index D An international organisation that provides

financing, advice and research to developing nations to
aid their economic advancement

1.2.5 Consumer price index E The proportion of each additional unit of

household income that is used for
consumption

1.2.6 Empirical evidence F An inflation index showing the prices of a

representative basket of consumer goods and
services

1.2.7 Repo rate G The rate of interest that commercial banks

pay to borrow money from the Reserve Bank.

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

1.2.8 Human capital H Looks at the relative weighting of production

inputs and assesses the impact of respective
changes in these weightings

(8 × 1 = 8)

1.3 Read the following statements and answer only TRUE or FALSE on your answer sheet.

1.3.1 Keynesian economists believe that demand should be stimulated to

encourage growth.
1.3.2 An increase in gross domestic product (GDP) is an indication of economic
growth.
1.3.3 Income distribution in South Africa is fair and equitable.
1.3.4 A decrease in the exchange rate of the rand against the dollar means that the rand
is getting stronger.
1.3.5 Bracket creep refers to the situation whereby employees who receive salary
increases to keep up with inflation move into higher tax brackets.
1.3.6 Deflation refers to a continuous increase in the general price level over a prolonged
period.
(6 × 1 = 6)
[30]

SECTION B (ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS)

QUESTION 2 INTERNATIONAL TRADE

2 .1

2.1.1 Explain TW0 advantages of international trade. ( 2 x 2)

2.1.2 Explain the difference between fixed and managed floating exchange rates. ( 4 x 2 =8)(10)

2.2 List any TWO factors that will influence the demand for a foreign currency, for example the euro.

(2 × 2 = 4)

2.3 Study the information on the South African balance of payments and answer the questions that
follow.

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

BALANCE ON THE CURRENT ACCOUNT

YEAR 2006 2007

2008

R (billions) –112,3 –145,0 –169,2

(Source: Quarterly Bulletin, SARB, 2010)

2.3.1 Define the term ‘balance of payments’.

(2)
2.3.2 What effect has the closing down of textile factories in South Africa had on the balance on
the current account of the balance of payments during the three years 2006–2008? Motivate your
answer.
(4)
2.3.3 What is the trend of the balance on the current account from 2006 to 2008?
(2)
2.4 Explain why the government intervenes in the case of demerit goods. (4 × 2
= 8)

2.5 Name the trade protocols that South Africa is a part of to encourage international trade.

(5 × 2 = 10)

[40]

QUESTION 3 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Name any two reasons why a geographical area may be underdeveloped. (4)
3.2 Explain what is meant by the term ‘IDZ’ and its significance. (6)
3.3 Explain why spatial development initiatives that involves more than one country may be
beneficial to all countries involved. (4)
3.4 Discuss employment as part of the evaluation of South Africa's economic growth policies.
(5 x 2) (10)

3.5 Explain any TWO major differences between developed countries in the North and the
developing countries in the South (North-South divide).
( 2 x 4)(8)

3.6 List any FOUR examples of social benefits provided by government to alleviate poverty. (4 x 2)
(8)

[40]

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

QUESTION 4 INFLATION
4.1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘demand-pull inflation’?
(6)

4.2 Name the characteristics of stagflation?

(2)

4.3 List three measures that can be used to fight cost-push inflation.
(6)

4.4 Explain any four effects of inflation.

(8)

4.5 Give a definition of inflation.

(4)

4.6 Describe any two factors that contribute to demand-pull inflation. (4)

4.7 Look at the cartoon below and answer the questions that follow:

4.7.1 What does the cartoon indicate?

(2)
4.7.2 Name any two negative effects of inflation.
(4)
4.7.3 What is the relationship between inflation and economic growth?

(4)
[40

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

SECTION C (ANSWER ANY ONE QUESTION)

QUESTION 5

Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) and Industrial Development Zones (IDZs) are an integral part
as part of South Africa’s regional industrial development. Discuss this statement critically, including
an explanation of the financial incentives of the state.

Breakdown of marks:

Format 5 marks

Body 30 marks

Interpretation of question 5 marks

[40]

QUESTION 6

Write an essay explaining in detail how government revenue is raised and how it is allocated.

Breakdown of marks:

Format 5 marks

Body 30 marks

Interpretation of question 5 marks

[40]

Total: 150 marks

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FINAL EXAMINATION PAPER MACROECONOMICS

© Via Afrika Publishers >> Economics 154

MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

Marking memorandum
Economics examination Paper Microeconomics

Question 1

1.1

1.1.1 A√√

1.1.2 C√√

1.1.3 C√√

1.1.4 B√√

1.1.5 C√√

1.1.6 C√√

1.1.7 B √√

1.1.8 A√√ (16)

1.2

1.2.1 G √

1.2.2 F √

1.2.3 B √

1.2.4H √

1.2.5E √

1.2.6 C √

1.2.7 D √

1.2.8 A√ (8)

1.3

1.3.1T √

1.3.2 T√

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MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

1.3.3F√

1.3.4 F√

1.3.5 F√

1.3.6 F√ (6) [30]

Question 2

2.1 2.1.1 D-A because marginal costs are greater than marginal revenue . √√ (2)

2.1.2 Normal profit occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. √√√√ (4)

2.1.3 Point E, where MR = short-run marginal costs. √√ (2)

2.2

a) Many buyers and sellers√√

b) Homogenous product√√

c) Perfect information√√

d) No collusion√√

e) Freedom of entry and exit√√

f) Mobility of the factors of production √√

f) Unregulated market√√ ( 6 x 2)(12)

2.3
Perfect competition Imperfect competition

Many businesses One or few businesses

Homogeneous product Heterogeneous or unique

Price taker Price maker

No barriers to entry Some or many barriers to entry

Factors of production are freely available. Factors of production not all freely available.

Complete market knowledge on the part of both Incomplete market knowledge

buyers and sellers

Collusion s not possible Control over market or collusion or product

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MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

differentiation.

(any 5 x 2 =10)

2.4

2.4.1. P1 √√ (2)

2.4.2 Q1 √√ (2)

2.4.3 The demand curve is D2√√ with equilibrium at P2 Q2 . √√This is because the entire demand
curve for land lines has shifted backwards because less land lines are demanded at any price level.
√√ (6) (10)
[40]

QUESTION3

3.1 1 a √√ (2)

3..1.2 Higher √√ (2)

3.1.3 Lower √√ (2)

3.2 A method of encouraging consumers to buy a product rather than other similar products. √√ (2)

3.3 To make the product appear better quality or price, for example no name brands or to give the
product a unique branding for example designer jeans and watches. ( any suitable answer) √√ (2)

3.4
 There is only one seller of the product. This single firm is therefore responsible for the
output of the industry. √√
 The good or service is unique and there is no close substitutes. √√
 There are barriers to entry. These can be as a result of patents and other forms of
intellectual property rights, control over resources, government regulations and decreasing
costs. √√
 The monopolist is regarded as a price maker since it is able to influence the market price
through changing the quantity it supplies to the market. √√
 It is also possible for the monopolist to make an economic profit in the long run. √√. (10)

3.5 Because entry into the market is fairly easy the economic profit made by the firm will attract
other firms to enter the market. √√This will increase the competition the firm faces and changes the
demand for the firms product. √√ The demand curve will shift to the left as and therefore the
marginal revenue curve as well. Since there are now more substitutes the curve becomes more
elastic. √√ This process continues until economic profits are eliminated . √√
(8)

3.6 Relatively many firms and buyers – Under monopolistic competition the number of firms are
more than a monopoly (where there is only one), more than an oligopoly (where there are only a
few) but less than perfect competition. √√

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MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

Firms are price makers. Unlike perfect competition where firms have no influence on the price
under monopolistic competition they have some control over the price since they sell a
differentiated product. √√

There is no collusion between firms. Due to the large number of firms it is not possible for them to
collude to restrict their output and agree on price setting as is the case in oligopoly. √√

There is freedom of entry and exit. Entry into the market is fairly easy since it does not require large
capital outlays or access to a scarce natural resources or advanced technology and this increases
competition in the market. √√ (2 x 4) (8)

QUESTION 4
4.1
4.1.1 Externality √√
4.1.2 Deforestation √√
4.1.3 The demand for exports √√
4.1.4 Transport √√ (4 × 2 = 8)
4.2 Any relevant answer, such as dance, cultural art, fabric designs, souvenirs. √√ √√ (2 × 2 = 4)
4.3 More revenue for use in protecting the environment, √√ greater awareness of need for
environmental protection√√more overseas interest in assisting in environmental
sustainability, √√skills training for locals in environmental projects. √√ (4 × 2 = 8)
4.4
4.4.1 Political instability, lack of infrastructure, safety concerns – any suitable answer. √√ √(3)
4.4.2 That too little is being done too late (drowning), √√that not enough is being done, √√that
voices raising concerns over environmental sustainability are not being heard√√ (2 × 2 = 4)
4.4.3 Yes or no, with any valid reason. √√√ (3)
4.5 Environmental degradation; √√safety and labour regulations are undermined; √√individual
governments cannot make their own decisions about their market; √√foreign companies can
sue governments for losses; √√job loss and outsourcing; √√free trade leads to globalisation
and increased activity by MNCs. √√
(10)
[40]
QUESTION 5
The New Growth Path identifies tourism as one of the six core pillars of growth. Tourists spend, so
an increase in tourism in a certain area will contribute to an increase in income in that area√√
The following types of expenditure resulting from tourism can be identified:
 Direct expenditure: This will involve the expenditure on goods and services by the tourists
themselves in hotels, restaurants, shops, other tourist facilities, tourism-generated export,
i.e. goods that are purchased by the tourists as well as investment in an area specifically
related to tourism, e.g. erection of accommodation facilities at a tourist destination. √√
 Indirect expenditure: This is expenditure by those supplying services and goods to tourists,
such as the goods purchased by the hotels and tourist shops. √√
 Induced expenditure: This is the increase in consumer spending that results from the
additional personal income generated by the direct √√
For every rand that a tourist spends, there is a multiplier effect, so the total effect on income is
much larger. √√

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MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

Unemployment is the largest socio-economic problem in South Africa and because tourism is a
labour-intensive industry it has the potential to contribute to alleviate unemployment. When foreign
tourism expenditure rises, fixed capital formation on average also increases. Tourism contributes a
large percentage to total GDP and this contribution is growing. Tourism is therefore an important
industry in South Africa. It also indicates that an increase in tourism affects both capital formation
and employment, so tourism also contributes to economic development. √√√√
An advantage of the tourism industry is that there are few entry barriers. Entry barriers refer to
obstacles that may make it difficult to enter a particular market. The funding requirements can be
low, it is not a technology-intensive industry and it does not involve skills that are particularly hard
to master. This makes the tourism industry a relatively easy industry to enter, even for people with
little educational background. √√√√
Another advantage of tourism is that tourism also contributes to preserving our unique culture and
heritage. Tourism, and especially rural and cultural tourism, contributes to preserving our indigenous
knowledge systems. √√√√
Tourism also plays an important role in establishing the character of our country and society. If
foreign visitors to our country have a pleasant experience, this can contribute to strengthening
international relations and building socio-economic and political networks that may benefit us in
future. Therefore, investment in tourism is also an investment into the image of our country. A
country with a positive image may find it easier to secure foreign investment√√√√
If other countries perceive our country as having a positive image, this will also contribute to
national pride. Enhancement of national pride can have a multitude of positive spin-offs such as
taking better care of our environment, resources and our communities, including the elderly and the
youth. National pride contributes to creation of a hopeful community that works towards the future.
√√√√
Tourism has a mostly positive impact on a country, especially from an economic perspective.
However, there may be some important negative implications that countries should not overlook
and should, ideally, address before the problems become unbearable or unsolvable. √√√√
The first important negative impact that tourism may have is on the environment. In the first place,
tourism involves transport, and transport in an important source of pollution. Policy should be in
place to ensure that tourists are transported in the most environmentally friendly way, while still
preserving their comfort. In many instances, tourists, especially those interested in a more culturally
authentic experience, may prefer less comfortable, more environmentally friendly means of
transport such as the rickshaw used as a travelling means in Durban. Travelling by horses and camels
is also a popular tourist activity, as is cycling, hiking and canoeing. √√√√
Tourists can also harm the environment by placing more pressure on natural resources such as
water and beaches. If numbers of tourists are not controlled a lack of adequate resources may lead
to such resources becoming depleted or inadequate. Africa has many arid areas where lack of fresh
water may become a problem if there is too large an influx of tourists. Countries should keep this in
mind when attracting visitors to certain areas. √√√√
Similarly, too many tourists may also put pressure on existing infrastructure. Sanitation, electricity
provision services, road and railways may be inadequate to provide for additional tourists’ needs.
Such services can, however, be updated and increased if it is expected that this will contribute to
increasing tourism and then financed from the additional income that is created by the tourism
industry. Such improvements in infrastructure will also benefit the local community. √√√√
When tourists visit natural and cultural heritage areas, care should be taken to ensure that they do
not affect such areas negatively. Procedures should be in place to ensure that such sites are
preserved in pristine order, firstly because it is an issue of national pride and secondly because it will
ensure that such sites remain attractive to tourists in the future. √√
Breakdown of marks:
Format 5 marks
Body 30 marks

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MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

Interpretation of question 5 marks

[40]

QUESTION 6
Climate change policy:
Climate change is a global problem that must be addressed. The origin of emissions occur is not
important – it still has the same effect on the atmosphere and therefore on climate change. √√

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the arrangement that
oversees global climate policy. √√
In 1992, countries joined this international treaty to decide what could be done to limit average
global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and to decide how best to address
the consequences, many of which were, by that time, already inevitable. √√
The steps that were formulated to form part of the Convention are the following:
 Recognises that there was a problem using scientific evidence.
 Sets a specific goal for the decrease in carbon emissions and other greenhouse gasses.
 Puts the onus on developed countries to lead the way.
 Directs new funds to climate change activities in developing countries.
 Keeps tabs on the problem and on what is being done about it by expecting countries to
report on progress.
 Charts the beginnings of a path to strike a delicate balance to ensure that development is not
hindered by limiting emissions.
Recognises that adaptation to climate change is also an important issue. √√√√ √√
By 1995, countries realised that emission reduction provisions in the Convention were inadequate
and negotiations started to improve the global response to climate change. In 1997 the Kyoto
Protocol was adopted. √√
The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed countries to emission reduction targets. The Protocol’s
first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. √√

At COP17 in Durban, governments of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol decided that a second
commitment period, from 2013 onwards, would seamlessly follow the end of the first commitment
period. The length of the second commitment period was to be determined: it would be either five
or eight years long. √√√√

There are now 195 Parties to the Convention. √√

Reaction to climate change rests on two pillars: adaption and mitigation. √√

Adaptation refers to practical steps to protect countries and communities from the possible
disturbance and damage that may result from effects of climate change. For example, if climate
change is expected to lead to floods in a certain area, flood walls may be erected and measures
should be put in place to move human settlements out of floodplains and other low-lying areas. √√
Mitigation refers to human actions to reduce the sources of greenhouse gasses and/or increase the
sinks that absorb greenhouse gases. √√

The UNFCCC has several action plans in place to encourage adaptation in developing countries that
may be mostly vulnerable to the results of climate change. These include the Cancun Adaptation
Framework and the Nairobi Work Programme. √√√√

We must account for the cost of climate change when we make economic decisions, otherwise we
will not make the most economically effective decisions. When we have a cost that is not accounted

© Via Afrika Publishers >> Economics 160

MEMORANDUM MICROECONOMICS

for in the economic decision-making process, we call it an externality. An externality can be positive
or negative but climate change is a negative externality. The way to make sure that the externality is
also taken into account in the economic decision process is to put a price on it. This cost will be
determined by the cost of climate change. Often this cost will take the form of a tax. √√ √√

In South Africa, we have a carbon tax. From the beginning of September 2010, the introduction of a
carbon emissions tax or levy on all new motor cars was introduced. This tax is paid on the extra
amount of carbon emissions emitted by the vehicle. √√ √√

This means that the cost of the higher emissions will be taken into account when deciding on the car
best suited to your needs and budget. √√ Similar taxes may be also raised on any activity that results
in carbon emissions. √√

An alternative to carbon tax is the cap-and-trade system. √√ Under this system carbon credits are
allocated to companies. √√ Each credit will allow a company to emit a certain amount of carbon. This
allocation can take place in the form of an auction where the companies bid for the amount of
credits that they require, or through a process called grandfathering where companies receive a
certain amount of credits based on their previous emissions. At the end of a certain period, if their
carbon emissions fall short of the carbon credits that they own, a company can sell the extra credits
in the carbon credit market. √√

Countries that are party to the Kyoto Protocol and have ratified this protocol will use measures such
as the ones that Nordhaus (2009) summarises. The following describes the mechanisms through
which putting a price on carbon emissions leads to a decrease in such emissions: √√
It provides a signal to consumers about what goods and services produce high carbon emissions
and should therefore be used more sparingly. √√
It provides signals to producers about which inputs (such as electricity from coal) that use more
carbon, and those (such as electricity from wind) that use less or none. So, it creates an incentive to
use low-carbon technologies. √√

Inventors and innovators will be induced to develop and introduce low-carbon products and
processes to replace carbon-intensive technologies, due to the higher cost of carbon. √√
Measures that put a price of carbon mean that those economic participants who wish to act ethically
do not have to engage in a costly information gathering process to determine the processes that
result in the fewest carbon emissions. √√
 Breakdown of marks:
Format 5 marks
Body 30 marks
Interpretation of question 5 marks
[40]
TOTAL MARKS 150

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MEMORANDUM MACROECONOMICS

ECONOMICS GRADE 12 MACRO ECONOMICS MEMO

QUESTION 1

1.1

1.1.1B √√

1.1.2 C √√

1.1.3 B √√

1.1.4 C √√

1.1.5 A√√

1.1.6 B√√

1.1.7 B √√

1.1.8 B √√ (16)

1.2

1.2.1 B √

1.2.2 D√

1.2.3 E√

1.2.4 H√

1.2.5 F√

1.2.6 C√

1.2.7 G √

1.2.8 A √ (8)

1.3

1.3.1 T√

1.3.2 T√

1.3.3 F√

1.3.4F√

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MEMORANDUM MACROECONOMICS

1.3.5T√

1.3.6F √ (6) (30)

QUESTION 2

2.1.1 Improves Global Efficiency. √√ Specialisation. √√ Economies of scale. √√ Innovation. √√ Choice.

√√Lower Prices. √√ Spreads Democratic Values. √√ (2
x 2)

2.1.2 In a fixed exchange rate the value of the currency is fixed, usually again the US dollar. When a
country wants to adjust a fixed exchange rate it must devalue or revalue the currency. √√√√In a
floating exchange system the currency is treated as any other market and allowed to find its own
level by supply and demand. √√√√
( 4 x 2 = 8)

2.2 Increased imports, √√ repayment of loans to Europe, √√tourists visiting Europe, √√businessmen
visiting Europe. √√ (2 x 2) (4)

2.3.1 The balance of payments is a record of all of a country's transactions with the rest of the world
over a period of time. √√ (2)
2.3.2 South Africa now imports textiles which has a negative effect on the current account of the
balance of payments because we must purchase more foreign currency to pay for them. √√√√ (2x2)
(4)
2.3.3 Imports have been increasing causing a negative balance to increase. √√ (2)(8)

2.4 Because they are not considered good for us, therefore the government intervenes to discourage
their use by using laws and taxes, an example is cigarette smoking or drugs. √√√√ (4 x 2) (8)

2.5 The Southern African Customs Union (SACU) The SACU consists of South Africa, Botswana,
Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland. These countries jointly negotiate free trade areas with other
countries. √√

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) The SADC is a free trade area and its member
countries are interested in forming an economic and monetary union. √√

The African Union (AU) The AU exists to promote cooperation between the countries of Africa. Its
economic development programme, called the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)
encourages regional cooperation and integration. The AU would like all African countries to join
together to form an economic and monetary union. √√

The European Union (EU) The EU-SA free trade agreement encourages increased trade between the
two signatories. SA has agreed to certain targets concerning reduced tariffs on goods traded
between itself and the EU. √√

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MEMORANDUM MACROECONOMICS

Mercusor is a regional trade area (RTA) consisting of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. In
2000 SA agreed to work towards a free trade agreement between SACU and Mercusor. √√

SA has an agreement with the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) which includes Norway, Switzerland,
Iceland and Liechtenstein. √√

In 2010 South Africa and China signed trade contracts worth R2, 3 billion.

SA is also in the process of concluding negotiations with India regarding a free trade agreement. √√

South Africa has recently become part of this group which is now referred to as the BRICS. (Brazil,
Russia, India, China and South Africa) √√ (any 5 X 2 =10)
[40]

QUESTION 3

3.1 Physical or geological reasons, such as presence or absence of fertile land, water,
minerals, management of natural resources. √√ Conflict, e.g. between political or
religious groups in a country. √√
Availability of and access to infrastructure. √√
(2 × 2 = 4)
3.2 An Industrial Development Zone (IDZ) is a clearly delineated industrial estate or area that
constitutes a free trade enclave in the customs and trade regime of a country, √√ and where
foreign manufacturing firms produce mainly for export, √√ and benefit from fiscal and
financial incentives. √√The advantage of an IDZ is that it attracts investment, including foreign
investment, and leads to job creation.√√The IDZs, which are all based near ports and airports,
focus mainly on export industries. √√

(3 × 2 = 6)
3.3 Economic integration could yield greater developmental benefits √√by the collective use of
economic policies.√√Working together can be much more effective and efficient √√and a
project that may not be viable for one country or region to undertake may become viable
through cooperation√√
(2 × 2 = 4)

3.4 Full employment is a major economic objective, this means employment for all economically
active persons willing to work. √√ Regional development includes programmes such as IDZ's, SDI's,
incentives, BBSDP and strategic investment programmes. √√ The national Skills Authority aims to
assist in facilities for skills training to improve the quality of labour. √√The RDP, GEAR and ASGSA are
broad national economic programmes aimed at creating a platform for economic growth which will
increase employment opportunities. √√ (4 x 2) (8)

3.5 Standard of living, √√ employment and education opportunities, √√ poverty levels, level of
economic development. √√

3.6 Healthcare, √√grants to the elderly, √√ education, √√ primary healthcare. √√ (4 x 2) (8) [40]

QUESTION 4

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MEMORANDUM MACROECONOMICS

4.1 Demand-pull inflation happens when total demand for goods and services exceeds total
supply. √√ It is also known as excess-demand inflation. √√ We also say that demand-pull
inflation occurs when aggregate spending in the economy is continuously exceeding the
increase in supply of goods and services. √√ Demand is pulling up prices. √√

(6)
4.2 Inflation coupled with unemployment and economic stagnation. √√
(2)
4.3 Pay rise freezes√√ Price freezes √√ Increased cost of borrowing√√ Tightening of credit
controls√√
(any 3 × 2 = 6)
4.4 Inflation benefits debtors (borrowers) at the expense of creditors (lenders) by redistributing
wealth from debtors to borrowers. √√
People dependent on savings and fixed income are particularly vulnerable to this
distribution effect of inflation. √√
Inflation also redistributes income from the private sector to the government because
governments are usually debtors. √√ Exports become less competitive due to higher prices.
√√
(4 × 2 = 8)
4.5 Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price levels √√ over a period of time√√
(4)
4.6 Increased spending by households. This might be due to easier access to credit or lower
interest rates that make credit cheaper. With credit being cheaper, households will borrow
more, and therefore spend more. √√
Increased investment spending by firms. This might be the result of a higher demand for
goods and services produced by them, a lower interest rate that decreases the cost of
borrowing, or increased business confidence. √√
Increased spending by government. This can be the result of policies to deal with
unemployment or that provide more services to the public.√√
Increased spending by the foreign sector. This can be the result of a higher demand for
exports due to higher economic growth rates in our trading partners or a decrease in the
price of minerals, which increases the quantity demanded. √√
(any 2 × 2 = 4)
4.7 4.7.1 The growth of inflation at the expense of the economy√√
(2)
4.7.2 Borrowing increases, fixed incomes and pensions are reduced, increased

4.7.3 As price levels rise, the real value of economic growth decreases. There
is an inverse relationship between inflation and economic growth. √√√√ (2 × 2
[40]
QUESTION 5

1. IDZ stands for industrial development zone. IDZ's are geographically designed, purpose-built
industrial sites which provide services tailored for export-orientated industries.√√ They are physically
enclosed and linked to an international port or airport.√√ They are designed to attract new
investment in export-driven industries. √√ They fall outside domestic customs zones and able to
import items free of customs and trade restrictions, add value, and then export their goods. √√
development and management done by private sector. √√ The government IDZ policy is designed to
boost exports and jobs. √√IDZ's aim to encourage economic growth and attract foreign investment

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MEMORANDUM MACROECONOMICS

in industrial development√√ and facilitate international competitiveness regarding manufacturing.

√√ (max 10)
2. Spatial Development Initiative programmes attract infrastructure and business investments to
underdeveloped areas with the primary aim of creating employment √√ The Department of Trade
and Industry is the driving force behind industrial and spatial development √√ and the DTI makes
plans together with the central, provincial and local government, IDC, parastatals and research
institutions. √√ The Industrial Development Policy Programme (Spatial Development) has 2 main
focus points: - spatial development initiative (SDI) and financial incentives.√√ SDI refers to national
government initiative programme aimed at unlocking inherent and underutilised economic
development potential of certain specific spatial locations in SA. √√
Some of the main focus points of the SDI Programme are: Lubombo Corridor (agro-tourism,
education, craft, commercial and agricultural sectors); √√ KwaZulu-Natal (ports of Durban and
Richards Bay); West Coast SDI (fishing and industrial ports); √√ Coast-2-Coast Corridor with agro-
tourism. √√ (max 10)
3. Financial incentives: Small and Medium Enterprise Development Programme (SMEDP) √√ an
incentive that provides a tax-free cash grant for investment in industries in South
Africa√√ E.g. manufacturing, agricultural, processing, aquaculture and tourism. √√ Critical
Infrastructure Fund Programme (CIF) √√ a tax-free cash grant incentive for projects that are designed
to improve critical infrastructure in South Africa√√ e.g. for installation, construction of infrastructure,
payment of employees, materials directly consumed during installation. √√ Duty-free Incentives (for
businesses operating in the IDZs) aimed at export orientated manufacturing to enhance
competitiveness√√ and promote foreign and local direct investment. √√Foreign Investment Grant a
cash grant to assist foreign investors who invest in new manufacturing businesses in SA √√ Qualifying
cost of relocating
new machinery and equipment from abroad. √√ Strategic Investment Projects (SIP) attract
investment from local and foreign entrepreneurs with the following industry sectors: manufacturing,
computer,
research and engineering. √√ Skills Support Programme (SSP) cash grant for skills development
encourage greater investment in training in general and stimulate development
of new advanced skills. √√ Black Businesses Supplier Development Programme (BBSDP) incentive
consist of 80% cash grant provides black-owned enterprises with access to
training to improve management effectiveness of their enterprises. √√ (max 15)
Format - 5 marks
Body - 30 marks
Interpretation of question - 5 marks as per grid [40]

QUESTION 6
The budget is a plan for raising and spending the money from the people of the country by the
government for the public benefit. √√ The people of South Africa are represented by Parliament and
the Constitution, which sets guidelines for estimating, allocating and monitoring the budget. √√

The government uses income that it receives from taxation, state run enterprise and loans to pay
for its expenditure on social services, economic growth and government worker salaries amongst
other things. √√√√ In February of each year the Minister of Finance sets out his plans for how he will
raise and spend money for the coming year in the Budget. √√

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MEMORANDUM MACROECONOMICS

The medium term expenditure framework. This is published each year, a few months before Budget
Day. √√ It contains a summary of government's goals and objectives, information about how the
government expects the economy to perform over the next three years how much tax is expected
to be collected and levels of government spending and government deficit. √√It also contains an
explanation of the way revenue will be shared between national, provincial and local government
and a summary of the policies upon which the MTEF is based. √√The main objectives in publishing
such a document ahead of the actual budget are to improve transparency and to allow time for
debate. √√

The main budget. This is the budget of the central government and it is presented during the
second half of February. √√ It is presented to parliament by the minister of finance in order to get
their approval. This budget is for one fiscal year which runs from 1 April to 31 March. √√After the top
slice has been allocated, the governments' revenue is divided up among the national, provincial and
local spheres. √√ The provinces receive the largest portion of this revenue as they perform most of
their functions on behalf of central government. √√

Taxation is the main revenue of the government as well as income from property and investments
and loans. √√√√√√ taxation can be both direct, as in income tax and indirect as in VAT. Revenue is
allocated on an equitable basis, according to population size, to provincial governments (43.5%) and
local municipalities. (1.1%) The top slice (23%) is used for debt repayment and emergencies. 43.3 %
is retained by national government for nationally provided services such as the armed forces.
√√√√√√√√
(14)[40]

Format - 5 marks
Body - 30 marks
Interpretation of question - 5 marks as

TOTAL 150

© Via Afrika Publishers >> Economics 167

 Via Afrika

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

Computer Applications
Let us go the extra mile for our learners. Let us
give them guidance and inspire them. These young Technology
minds we are teaching today are going to be
tomorrow’s leaders.
Grade 12 Study Guide
F. Avrakotos, N. Dlamini, E. Llewellyn, S. Oelofsen, B. Rennie
— Bandile Bavuma, Teacher A. van Kampen

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Computer Applications Technology

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 16 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 16–23 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 26 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 87 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 102 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 142 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.
8. A question bank with tests you may photocopy will help you assess your learners effectively. See the Question Bank on
page 209.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at
computerapplicationstechnology@[Link]? Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
 Fotiene Avrakotos • Nomonde Dlamini • Estelle Llewellyn •
Sharon Oelofsen • Brandon Rennie • Anton van Kampen

Via Afrika
Computer Applications
Technology
Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-305-5
This is the best Grade 12 Computer Applications Technology study guide
you will ever have!

Here are some tips to make this a good year.

Remember, good learning begins in the classroom!

Always:
 listen and concentrate
 observe: watch carefully what is happening
 make notes to help you remember what you are learning
 ask questions to make sure you understand.

Study tips
 Allocate one hour every week-night as study time in addition to your homework.
 Decide when your main study time should be. Some learners study better in the early
morning, some study better in the evening.
 Keep to your timetable.
 Study time is a priority – it is one of the most important things in your life at school.
 Find a quiet place to study. (Try a quiet classroom at school or the local library if
possible.)
 Choose study partners who are serious about doing well to work with you.

7 golden rules for success

1 Always do your homework.
2 Do not fall behind.
3 Study every day.
4 Eat healthy food and sleep at least eight hours each night.
5 Make sure you understand as you go along.
6 Do it now!
7 Do not give up: learning gets easier and faster when you practise.

Good luck!

The authors

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 ii

Contents
Welcome Via Afrika Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 ii

Chapter 1 Systems technologies 1

Unit 1 General concepts (Term 1) 2
Unit 2 Hardware (Term 1) 4
Unit 3 Software (Term 1) 15
Unit 4 System software and computer management (Term 3) 21

Chapter 2 Network technologies 27

Unit 1 Networks (Term 2) 28

Chapter 3 Internet technologies 38

Unit 1 Communication (Term 3) 39

Chapter 4 Data bases 54

Unit 1 Reports and queries (Term 1) 55

Chapter 5 Spreadsheets 65
Unit 1 Formulas and functions (Term 1) 66
Unit 2 Text functions (Term 2) 72
Unit 3 Solve problems with functions and charts (Term 3) 74

Chapter 6 Word processing 78

Unit 1 Referencing, reviewing, pagination and importing data (Term 1) 79
Unit 2 Mail merge and file management (Term 2) 85
Unit 3 Advanced document styles and integration (Term 3) 89

Chapter 7 HTML/Web design 93

Unit 1 HTML and HTML tables (Term 2) 94
Unit 2 Revise HTML and website design (Term 3) 102

Chapter 8 Information management and PAT 104

Unit 1 Managing and gathering information (Term 1) 105
Unit 2 Process and analyse information (Term 2) 109
Unit 3 Present information (Term 3) 110

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 iii

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 iv
Chapter 1 Systems Technologies

Overview

It is important for you to revise the hardware and software concepts that you learnt in Grades
10 and 11. In this chapter, you will learn about: general concepts of computing; hardware
input and output devices; hardware storage devices and processing procedures; software and
software management; and computer management.

Unit 1 (General concepts) reinforces the information processing cycle, types of computers
and their typical features. Different computer categories and the reasons for using computers
as well as the convergence of technology is investigated.

Unit 2 (Hardware) is about make buying decisions and how to fix ordinary computer-related
problems. You will investigate and reinforce new technologies and social implications.

Unit 3 (Software) covers software that enhances accessibility, efficiency and productivity, and
the use of common applications software. You are required to interpret system requirements
and choose software for a specific situation. We also cover the risks of using flawed software
and user-centred design.

Unit 4 (System software and computer management) covers the role of the operating system
within a computer and investigates the factors that influence the speed of a computer.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 1

Unit 1 General concepts (Term 1)

1 Types of computer systems for different users

Computer systems are designed to satisfy the needs of different types of users.

1.1 Personal computer

 Personal computers (PCs) are designed to perform a wide range of tasks for a single user.
 Are usually cheaper than other computer systems.
 Has the basic input and output devices such as a monitor, keyboard and a mouse.

1.2 SOHO user

 The single office/home office (SOHO) uses a collection of computing devices such as
printers, computers and scanners connected together in a small area such as an office.
 Can be used for a small business or personal network at home.

1.3 Mobile user

 Mobile computer systems are designed to be transported easily and used whilst on the
move.
 Includes PDAs, laptops, tablets and smartphones.

1.4 Power user

 Power users use faster and more expensive than personal computers.
 More RAM, faster CPU and more storage space.
 Higher specifications needed for applications that use more resources, such as that used by
gamers or photographers.

1.5 Enterprise user

 Companies (enterprises) that have hundreds or thousands of users across the country or
world.
 Each user on a large network is an enterprise user.

2 Role and use of data, information, knowledge and

conclusions
 Data is a collection of raw facts that are not organised in a meaningful format.
 Information is the meaningful knowledge obtained after processing the data.

3 Reasons for using computers

3.1 Saving paper, time and labour
 Paper can be saved by compiling, using and sending data electronically.
 Electronic documents are faster to create than writing them out by hand, and electronic
documents can be sent faster via e-mail than by the normal postal service.
 Repetitive jobs that require low skills can be done by computers instead of humans.
 Computers can perform complex mathematical calculations easier and faster than humans.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 2

3.2 Communication costs
 E-mail, VoIP and instant messaging are cheaper than conventional communication
methods such as phone calls.
 Communication is not free, as an Internet connection is still needed.

3.3 Efficiency, accuracy and reliability

 Computers allow users to enter data efficiently by ensuring accuracy.
 Garbage in garbage out (GIGO) means inaccurate input will result in inaccurate output.

3.4 Effect on distance and time

 Communication can occur irrespective of distance.
 Communication costs the same irrespective of distance.
 Instant communication of documents is possible.

3.5 Global communication using social networks and web tools

 Social networks allow people from around the world to interact socially irrespective of
time and distance.
 Web tools are functions and features on the Internet to help users: for example blogs and
wikis.
 A blog is an online form of a diary.
 A wiki is a website that allows users to use their web browsers to create, edit or remove a
particular website’s content.
 Real simple syndication (RSS) compiles updates from multiple sources such as blogs to
one central place which could be an application or a website. Users do not have to visit
separate blogs, but can find all new news in one place.
 Web 2.0 refers to social websites that allows users to interact socially by sharing personal
information.

4 Convergence of technology
 Convergence is the trend where manufacturers offer devices in which technologies
overlap.
 Example of convergence is a smartphone which is a device used to make calls, take digital
pictures, take digital video, browse the Internet and act as a GPS receiver or navigator.
 Other examples of the convergence of technology are modern television sets which allow
users to browse the Internet.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 3

Unit 2 Hardware (Term 1)

1 Information processing cycle

 The information processing cycle consists of input, processing, output and storage.
 Input is data being entered into a computing device using an input device.
 Processing is when data is being translated into something useful by the CPU and RAM.
 Output is when information is presented to the user after processing.
 Information and data can be stored for future use.
 Computers can communicate data and information using a communication network.

2 Integration of input modes to enhance productivity

 Separate devices using different input modes can be used together to input data
productively.
 If one input mode fails another can be used: for example, a cashier entering barcode
manually when a scanner malfunctions.
 Integrating input modes for security makes it more difficult for criminals to gain access to
a secure system.
 QR codes (Quick Response codes) make use of a camera and OCR (Optical Character
Recognition) technology to translate QR code to a series of characters.

3 Making buying decisions

Knowledge regarding devices will allow users to make enlightened decisions regarding which
device will suit a specific purpose.

3.1 Keyboard and mouse

The keyboard and mouse are the main input devices on computers that are used for extended
periods of time.

3.1.1 Ergonomic considerations

The shape of the device and location of the buttons will influence the ergonomic functionality
of a device.

Ergonomic considerations for keyboard and mouse

Keyboard Mouse

Wrist rests help to keep wrists straight A mouse pad that includes a wrist rest and which
while typing. supports the wrist.

Split key or curved keyboards allow a The shape of the mouse influences how
user to have his or her hands on the comfortable it is to use.
keyboard at a more natural angle.

The keyboard should be at a comfortable Keys should be easy to click.

height for the user.

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Ergonomic considerations for keyboard and mouse

Lowering the keyboard and bringing it The mouse should move easily.
closer to the body using a keyboard tray
can also help reduce stress on the wrists,
shoulders and back.

3.1.2 Wireless and cabled hardware

Comparison of cabled and wireless hardware

Wireless Cabled

Can operate from a distance, without cables Cannot be used further away from the computer
getting in the way. than the length of the cable.

Needs a separate power source, such as Receives power from the computer through the
batteries. cables.

Can be used in situations where cables are not

practical.

3.2 Digital cameras and webcams

Digital cameras are able to capture or record live images using a sensor and store the data
digitally on a memory card.

Advantages and disadvantages of digital cameras

Advantages Disadvantages

Image can be seen immediately on the camera The initial cost of buying a digital camera can be
screen. Those you do not want can be deleted. expensive.

Images can be downloaded to your computer and Moisture may cause a problem because of the
edited or sent electronically. electronic circuits in a digital camera.

You print only the images you want.

A memory card is able to hold a large amount of

images, depending on the storage space.

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Advantages and disadvantages of digital cameras

A memory card can be erased and reused.

Most digital cameras can also record digital

video.

Webcams are digital cameras that take low resolution pictures or videos intended for
transmission over a network such as the Internet.

Advantages and disadvantages of webcams

Advantages Disadvantages

Webcams are relatively cheap to buy. Images and videos from webcams have a low
resolution.

Because images and videos from webcams have Poor or slow Internet connections can result in
a low-resolution, they can be transmitted over the poor video quality.
Internet.

Webcams allows video communication from

anywhere in the world where an Internet
connection is available.

Non-verbal cues such as facial expressions can

be seen during a video call or video conference.

3.3 Scanners and monitors

Scanners use light to convert images or documents from hard copies to soft copies as
electronic files on your computer.

3.3.1 Resolution and image quality

 Resolution describes the image quality measured by the amount of pixels displayed in
horizontal and vertical lines.
 Colour depth indicates the amount of colours that can be shown.
 Higher image quality will depend on a high resolution and colour depth.

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3.3.2 OCR
 Optical character recognition (OCR) translates a scanned document to editable text.
 Scan needs to be of a good quality for OCR to work.

Advantages and disadvantages of scanners

Advantages Disadvantages

Images transferred to a computer can be High-quality scanned images use large amounts
e-mailed or used as input to another application. of disk storage space.

A scanner can be used together with a printer to A scanner needs to be of a high quality to
make copies of documents or images. produce a good quality image.

3.4 Voice recognition

 The ability of a computing device to recognise and distinguish between spoken words.
 Can be used to give voice commands such as dialling a phone number or type out the
words a user is saying.

Advantages and disadvantages of voice recognition

Advantages Disadvantages

Speech is a more natural input method than using Background noise can influence the accuracy of
a keyboard or mouse. any voice recognition.

The technology is relatively cheap as no special A voice can be recorded easily and played back,
hardware is needed. making the method unsafe for passwords.

A cold may affect the user’s voice and make

voice recognition impossible.

3.5 Printers
 Used to transfer text and images contained in electronic files to paper (hard copy).
 Printer types include laser and inkjet printers.

3.5.1 Which printer will suit your needs?

 Be aware of the following requirements when deciding on a printer:
 Budget: Entry level A4 printers are much cheaper than photo quality A3 printers.
 Printer speed: Laser printers are much faster than inkjet printers.
 Colour: Some printers will not be able to print in colour.
 Cost per page: Laser printers are usually cheaper per page than inkjet printers.
 Graphics capability: Inkjet printers produce better quality graphics.

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  Photo printing: For photos a high-quality photo printer is needed.
 Paper sizes and paper type: Common size is A4 although larger or smaller sizes are
available as well as specialist printers such as label printers.
 System compatibility: Newer printers may not be compatible with older computer
systems. Be sure to check that a port on the computer and drivers are available.
 Wireless capability: Wireless printers may be ideal when cables cannot be used.
 Mobility: Printers are available that have been designed to be mobile to be used in
conjunction with a mobile device such as a printer.

3.5.2 Resolution
 Printer resolution refers to the amount of ink droplets in a line of 1 inch (2.54 cm) long.
 The resolution will influence the use: for example you will not use a low resolution printer
for printing photos.

3.5.3 Economic and environmental considerations

 Laser printers tend to produce more prints per cartridge resulting in a printer that is
cheaper to run.
 When disposing of used cartridges do so responsibly by:
 Returning the cartridge to a company that will dispose of it.
 Refilling and re-using the cartridge.
 Not throwing cartridges in the rubbish bin as the contents may be toxic.

3.6 Storage
Data storage on a computer enables a user to save instructions for future use.

3.6.1 Capacity
 The amount of data that can be stored.
 Storage capacity is measure in bits and bytes. A byte is a group of 8 bits.
 8 bits = 1 byte
 1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (kb)
 1024 kilobyte = 1 megabyte (MB)
 1024 megabytes = 1 gigabyte (GB)
 1024 gigabytes = 1 terabyte (TB)

3.6.2 Volatility
 Volatile memory loses its content when electricity to the device is cut off.
 Non-volatile memory keeps contents even without electricity.

3.6.3 Durability
 Durability refers to how long data on a storage device will be viable.
 Storage devices should be handled with care: for example do not place a magnet near a
hard drive and ensure that DVDs and CDs are not scratched.

3.6.4 Backups
 A backup is a copy of data, files or programs stored on a separate storage medium or
device which is usually in a different geographical location (off-site).

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 If the original data gets lost or is corrupted then data can be restored from the backup.

3.6.5 Cloud storage

 Cloud storage enables users to store data on servers around the world using the Internet to
transfer data.

Advantages and disadvantages of cloud storage

Advantages Disadvantages

Storage space is free of charge in most Users struggle to retrieve data over slow Internet
Cases, but you still need to pay for your Internet connections.
connection.

Users can retrieve data from anywhere in Users never know if the data in the cloud
the world where an Internet connection is is totally secure.
available.

Users do not have to carry any removable Users cannot retrieve data or use it in any
storage or mobile devices around with them in way, if the Internet connection is unavailable..
order to access their data.

3.7 Processing
 The CPU and RAM work together to process data into information.
 The RAM temporarily stores the data the CPU is working on.
 The CPU does all of the calculations.

3.7.1 Making informed decisions regarding CPUs and RAM

 CPU speed is measured in gigahertz (GHz).
 Be sure to check the specifications needed by applications before purchasing a CPU.
 Buy a CPU that is faster than your needs so that it will be fast enough for longer.
 Determine the amount of RAM needed.
 Be sure to buy the correct model or size of CPU and RAM to fit your motherboard.

3.7.2 Interpret specifications

 Interpret advertisements by identifying specific components such as the CPU and RAM.
 Find these specifications by searching for the speed, manufacturer or amount.

3.8 Productivity, efficiency, accuracy and accessibility issues

 Computers are capable of doing more work than a human.
 Accuracy can be controlled and improved by using features such as data validation and
input masks.
 Users with disabilities can perform functions using computers which they otherwise could
not have done.

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3.9 Risks associated with input devices
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) is an example of Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI).
 CTS is inflammation of the joints caused by continuous repetitive motion.
 Keyloggers record every keystroke on a keyboard.
 Keylogging can be used by:
o Computer hackers may install keyloggers in an attempt to steal usernames,
passwords and pin numbers, for illegal purposes
3.10 Specifications for processing, input, output, storage and
communication devices
Each user has a specific unique situation for which a computer can be used.

3.10.1 Specifications for home user

For basic tasks such as word processing and browsing the Internet.

Specifications for the home user

Input Output Storage Communication Processing

Keyboard Monitor Hard drive Modem or router Entry-level CPU

Mouse Printer CD or DVD drive and minimum
Speakers amount of RAM.

3.10.2 Specifications for SOHO user

 Devices need to be connected together in a small area such as a house or office.
 Devices are used for more intense purposes than personal computers.

Specifications for the SOHO user

Input Output Storage Communication Processing

Keyboard Monitor Hard drive Modem or router Higher speed CPU

Mouse Speakers CD or DVD drive and more RAM
Multifunction Flash Drive than a personal
printer and computer.
scanner

3.10.3 Specifications for mobile user

 A mobile user must be able to transport devices easily and use little electricity.
 Usually will involve the use of a laptop, netbook or tablet.

Specifications for the mobile user

Input Output Storage Communication Processing

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Specifications for the mobile user

Integrated Integrated Hard drive 3G connection Mobile entry-level

keyboard and monitor and CD or DVD drive CPU and minimum
touchpad speakers Flash drive amount of RAM.
Mobile scanner Mobile printer

3.10.4 Specifications for power user

Use computers for tasks where high processing power and large storage space is needed.

Specifications for the power user

Input Output Storage Communication Processing

Keyboard Large monitor Hard drive Modem or router High-end CPU and
Mouse High quality CD or DVD drive large amount of
Scanner printer Flash drive RAM.
Speakers

3.10.5 Specifications for disabled user

Special devices may be needed to allow a disabled person to use a computer.

Specifications for the disabled user

Input Output Storage Communication Processing

Alternative Large monitor Hard drive Modem or router Ranges from entry-
keyboard Printer CD or DVD drive level to high-end
Pointing stick/ Speakers Flash drive CPU and varying
Joystick amount of RAM
depending on the
situation.

4 Consolidating and reinforcing knowledge

It is important for you to refer to your Grade 10 and 11 CAT work and revise and consolidate
hardware and software – including advantages, disadvantages, limitations and uses of input
devices, output devices, storage devices and communication devices.

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5 Fix ordinary problems
Understand and fix common problems yourself, without paying a technician, in the following
ways.

5.1 Application not responding

 Applications may stop responding to user input due to:
 Hardware malfunction
 Not enough RAM to perform function
 Virus infection
 Incorrect configuration
 Thrashing (see explanation below).
 Virtual memory uses hard drive space as RAM.
 Data is saved in a swap file from where it is swapped to and from the RAM as needed.
 Thrashing describes the situation of swapping becoming so rapid the application stops
responding.

5.2 Sticky mouse

 Mouse will stick when dirt clogs the light or it is placed on a reflective surface.
 To fix the problem remove the dirt or place the mouse on a mouse pad.

5.3 Scanning

Scanning problems and solutions

Problem Solution

The edges of the document or picture did not get Reposition the document or picture, as it was not
scanned. aligned correctly on the scanner.

The colours in the document look wrong. Make sure to select the correct colour profile. For
example, do not use monochrome or greyscale if
you want to scan a colour picture.

The OCR application cannot recognise any text in Make sure that the document is clear, and
the scanned document. increase the scanning resolution.

The resulting file from a scan is too large. Decrease the dpi or resolution setting of the scan.

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5.4 Resolution
 The number of pixels used to create an image on the screen or a printout.
 If the resolution of a monitor was set too high, wait for 15 seconds and it will revert to its
previous setting.
 A low resolution will result in everything on the screen being extremely big.

5.5 Printing problems

Printing problems and solutions

Problem Solution

Printer does not switch on . Check the connection of the power cable.

Is the power outlet switched on?

Is the power outlet being supplied with power?

Paper jams Remove the paper jammed in the printer.

Printer is not available Install the printer on your computer

The wrong printer driver has been installed

Check the USB connection of your printer

Network printer does not print Install the printer correctly

Check the connections to the printer

Printer does not print Check to see of the toner/cartridge is empty.

5.6 Disk errors

 Fragmentation is when parts of a file (clusters) are not located together physically on the
disk but scattered all over the hard drive.
 Fragmentation slows down your computer as all the clusters must first be collected and
combined before the file can be used.
 Defragmentation is the process where clusters are rewritten to be in sequential clusters on
the disk.
 Defragmentation does not open up extra storage space.

5.7 Closing non-responding programs

 Access the Task Manager by pressing Ctrl, Alt and Del together, then select Start Task
Manager.
 Select the application that is not responding and click on End Task.

5.8 Checking free space on storage devices

 Open My Computer
 Right click on the relevant storage device and select Properties.
 The dialog box will display all the information regarding storage space.

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6 New technologies
 Solid State Drives (SSD) are hard drives that do not have any moving parts.
 SSD drives are expensive but very fast.
 Raspberry Pi is a cheap, extremely small computer designed for educational purposes.

7 Social implications: environmental issues

7.1 Printing
 Use printers in environmentally friendly way by ensuring the following:
 Print on both sides of the paper.
 Use recycled paper.
 Send used paper to be recycled.
 Print two pages of information on one page of paper.
 Avoid printing at all if possible.
 Print in draft mode to reduce ink use.

7.2 Monitors
 Use LED or LCD monitors because:
 They use less electricity.
 They contain fewer toxic chemicals than older monitors.

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Unit 3 Software (Term 1)

1 Software that enhances accessibility, efficiency

and productivity
1.1 Voice recognition
 Voice recognition allows a computer to recognise the spoken word.
 Voice recognition can be used so that:
 Computers respond in certain ways for disabled users.
 Documents can be typed while a user speaks, which will then allow the user to use his
hands for another purpose such as voice dialling on a smart phone.
 A transcriber can transcribe directly into an electronic document.

1.2 Typing tutors/keyboarding skills

Typing tutors are programs that improve the speed and accuracy with which a user can type by
enabling the user to take part in keyboard 'games'.

1.3 Note-taking software

 Note-taking software allows users to make notes just as they would in a physical paper
notebook.
 Software then converts these handwritten notes to a form of video, digital handwriting and
pictures.

2 Use of common application software

2.1 Practical applications

Applications used for common tasks

Application Common tasks

Word processing application Writing a letter; setting a fax

Spreadsheet Creating an invoice that calculates amounts

automatically

Database Collecting related facts, which can then be

presented in an orderly fashion

Presentation Creating a slide show

2.2 Reference software

Reference software is used instead of printed versions of an encyclopaedia, thesaurus, atlas or
dictionary.

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Types of reference software

Reference type Software examples

Encyclopaedia Wikipedia®, Britannica

Dictionary Babylon, MasterWriter, Cambridge dictionary

Atlas Google Earth

Thesaurus [Link]

Translation dictionary English to Xhosa and Google Translate

2.3 E-mail software

Also called an e-mail client application

Common e-mail functions

Major functions of an e-mail client Examples of e-mail clients

Retrieving e-mail  Windows Live Mail

Composing and sending e-mail  Mozilla Thunderbird
 Microsoft Outlook

Storing sent and received e-mail

Searching through e-mail

2.4 Document management software

An application or set of applications used to store and manage a collection of electronic
documents is called document management software.

Common document management software functions

Function Description

Storage Stores documents in an orderly fashion

Index Keeps an index or list of documents for easy reference

Retrieval Finds and opens documents

Security Stops users accessing one another’s work and illegal access from outside

Publishing Allows the user to output data to hard copy, or a different file format

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Common document management software functions

Workflow Helps a user keep track of what has been done, and what needs to be done
management (that is, the workflow)

2.5 Web browsers

 A web browser is an application used to view a web page.
 Examples of web browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and
Google Chrome.

3 Web-based and installed applications

 Applications that can be accessed on your computer without the need to insert a removable
device such as a CD are called installed applications.
 Web-based applications are stored on servers and accessed via the Internet or an Intranet.
 Examples of web-based applications are Google Docs, Skydrive and Dropbox.
 Functions include:
 Basic office applications such as word processors and spreadsheets
 Online file storage
 Navigation using online maps
 Basic photo editing.

Advantages and disadvantages of web-based applications

Advantages Disadvantages

The user does not need to install the software. The user’s web browser needs to be compatible
with (able to work with) the application.

In large organisations, all the computers with a If the user cannot connect to the Internet, he or
web browser can access the application without she cannot access the application or the saved
any individual installations being needed. data.

The application does not take up any storage The interfaces of web-based applications are
space on your computer. usually not as highly developed as those on
installed applications.

The user does not need to update the application There is a security risk linked to web-based
on his or her computer because it will be updated applications. Users are not always sure that the
on the server where the application is hosted. data on the servers is safe.

Web-based applications are independent of the In most cases, the application is much slower
operating system, and can be accessed from any than an installed application.
computer.

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Advantages and disadvantages of web-based applications

Users can access their applications and data

from any computer connected to the Internet.

In many cases using the application is free.

Advantages and disadvantages of installed applications

Advantages Disadvantages

The application offers the user more functions. The user must install the software before using it.

The user can use the application without being The user installs the software on one computer
connected to the Internet. and he or she can access it on only that
computer.

Applications take up storage space on the user’s

computer.

4 Interpret system requirements

 System requirements: these describe the hardware and software needed to make an
application work.
 Minimum system requirements: the lowest possible specifications for the application to
work at all.
 Recommended system requirements: the specifications that will make the application work
at its full potential.

5 Common software problems and upgrades

 Errors can be made during the development of software.
 Criminals may make use of these errors for illegal purposes or certain features on the
software may not work as expected.

5.1 Obtaining and installing software improvements

 Updates to fix errors are released by software developers in the form of patches.
 Patches are small pieces of programming code that fix problems.
 Patches are periodically grouped together in one installation and released as service packs.

5.2 Read-only files

 Read-only files allow users to open and read the file, but no changes can be made and
saved.
 This protects data from being changes on purpose or by accident.

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6 Risk of using flawed software
 Flawed software contains software bugs, which are small errors by programmers that may
make the software or features within the software unusable.
 Risks include:
 Security error that may allow criminals to get into the system
 Navigation systems can miscalculate your route.
 Salary management software may not function correctly and workers might then not
receive payment.
 It could cause an application to crash repeatedly.
 A virus was created on purpose to cause a problem whereas a software bug was created by
accident.

7 Software use – when, where and by whom

 In order to buy the correct software ask yourself:
 What will the software be used for?
 When will the software be used?
 Who will use the software?
 Office suites contain a selection of applications such as a word processor and a
spreadsheet application.

Types of software that can help in various situations

Situation Software type Software examples

A professional photographer needs software to Photo manipulation  Adobe Photoshop

edit photographs he has taken with his digital software or photo editing  GIMP
camera. software

Home users want video and audio editing Video and audio software  Adobe Premier
software to edit home movies, add music or Elements
sound to their videos and share their movies on  Corel VideoStudio
the web.

A user wants to be able to view a map, determine Travel and mapping  Google Earth
her route directions and locate points of interest. software  Google Maps
She wants to be able to search for places of
interest, for example museums, airports and
accommodation. She also wants to be able to
calculate times and kilometres.

Users want to play interactive computer games Entertainment software  Wii

on game consoles and mobile devices.  PlayStation Move

An accountant needs to keep track of financial Accounting package  Pastel

records.  QuickBooks

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Types of software that can help in various situations

A publisher needs to create textbooks and Desktop publishing software  Adobe InDesign
magazines. (DTP)  Scribe

A business owner needs to keep track of all the Database package  Microsoft Access
stock in the business, with easy access to certain
types of information.

A builder needs software he can use to record Spreadsheet application  Microsoft Excel
the details of a building project, and get the  LibreOffice Calc
software to calculate the costs, taxes and totals
automatically.

A user needs to send and receive e-mails. E-mail client  Windows Live Mail
 Mozilla Thunderbird

An architect needs software to help her draw up Computer-aided design  AutoCAD

plans for a new building. (CAD) software.  TurboCAD

7.1 Using a trial version

 Make use of trial versions that can be installed free of cost.
 Test the functions before spending money to buy the software.

8 Social implications: user-centred design

 Designed to work in the way that a user wants to work.
 Designed to be easy to use and have features in logical places.
 Advantages of a UCD approach include:
 Users are less frustrated with the software.
 Users need less training as the layout is logical and user friendly.
 Users make fewer errors.
 Users who have never used the application learn how to use it very quickly.
 Users find websites easy to navigate.
 Data entry can be easy to use.
 Presentations are easier to present or understand.

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Unit 4 System software and computer
management (Term 3)

1 Role of the operating system

 The operating system is a set of programs responsible for controlling a computer.
 The operating system maintains system software, runs applications and controls hardware
devices.
 Provides the user with an interface to tell the operating system what to do.

1.1 Starting the computer

Booting is the start-up procedure in which a computer checks that all its parts are working and
the loads the operating system.

1.2 Providing a user interface

 The user interface is a way in which a user can control the computer.
 Known as a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
 Uses graphical elements such as icons, buttons, tabs and drop-down boxes instead of text
commands instead of text commands.

1.3 Managing applications

 The operating system manages all of the applications within the computer system.
 While the application is busy the OS assigns and controls system resources needed.
 The operating system provides input from the user and returns the output.

1.3.1 Controls single users and multiple users

 Single-user operating systems only allow one user to work on the computing device at any
time.
 Single-user operating systems can connect to networks in order to use or share resources.
 Multi-user computers are good solutions in situations where space and finances are an
issue. This usually includes the use of thin clients and servers or mainframes.
 Thin clients contain the absolute minimum hardware as most of the processing and storage
happens on the server/mainframe.

1.3.2 Controls multitasking

 Multitasking is the process where a computer can process more than one task at the same
time.
 The operating system shares out resources in order for the processes to run at the same
time such as downloading e-mail in the background while playing music.

1.3.3 The Task Manager in the Windows operating system

 Task Manager provides the user with information about tasks that are running on the
computer.
 Access the Task Manager by pressing Ctrl, Alt and Del together, then select Start Task
Manager.
 Information shown on the Task Manager includes:

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  CPU and memory use
 Applications being used
 Network activity
 Operating system services currently running.

1.4 Management of files

 The operating system controls all functions relating to the management of files:
 Creating and editing folders and subfolders
 Copying and deleting files and folders
 Changing the attributes of files and folders
 Sorting files according to type.
 Files and folders need to be managed in an orderly way in order to save time.

1.5 File types and properties

 File properties include information such as file type, size, date created and modified.
 The file type indicates the application needed to open the file, for example docx.
 Metadata is a more detailed set of information relating to a specific file.
 Metadata of a photograph may include the type of camera and the settings used on the
camera to take the picture.

1.6 Operating system utilities

The operating system provides small programs/applications that help to keep the system
running. These are called utilities.

1.6.1 File management

File management utilities such as Windows Explorer are designed to perform file management
such as copying and pasting for files and folders.

1.6.2 Scheduled updates

 Updates are important to keep security up to date and have the newest features available
on the computer.
 Schedule updates to run automatically in order for it not to be possible for the user to
forget doing updates.

1.6.3 Compression
 Compression allows users to make files and folders smaller with regards to their physical
size on the storage medium.
 Also known as zipping.
 Uncompressing (unzipping or extracting) is returning the files to their original state.

1.6.4 Backups
 Backups need to be created on a regular basis and on multiple formats.
 People do not make regular backups because:
 They forget
 Storage devices may be expensive
 Backups may take a long time to make (depending on the amount of data).

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1.6.5 Coordinate tasks
 The operating system coordinates tasks and processes in order for problems not to occur
due to two tasks trying to access the same printer.
 Print jobs are placed in a print queue by a program called a print spooler on a first in first
out (FIFO) basis, stored in a memory called a buffer.

1.6.6 Control security

The operating system controls the security on a computer by using built-in functions
or 3rd party software:
 Firewall: hardware or software that stops any unauthorised access to or from the
network or computer.
 Access control: uses details such as a username and password to restrict access to the
computer or specific data
 Anti-malware: keeps out malware such as spyware, viruses, worms and Trojans.
 An adware blocker: Adware are free programs that companies pay for to have their
advertisements being shown on the programs. Most are harmless but some need to be
stopped as malware may be hidden in it.

1.7 Antivirus software

 System software designed to stop viruses from entering your system.
 Tasks include scanning removable devices, checking e-mail attachments, when
connected to a network to check network traffic and check websites for viruses.

1.8 General troubleshooting using utility software

Examples of utility programs and their functions

Utility type Function

File manager Used to manage files and folders on a computer; has functions such as copying,
moving and deleting files and folders

Disk Cleanup Removes temporary or unnecessary files from a computer to save space

Disk defragmenter Checks whether a disk needs to be defragmented or not and, if necessary,
defragments the disk

Uninstaller Used to remove programs or applications permanently from a computer

Backup software Makes automatic backups of the data or information on your computer, or
assists with manual backups

Data recovery Used to recover any files or folders that were deleted by accident

Compression Used to compress files or folders

software

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 23

2 Factors that influence performance

2.1 RAM
 Data used by the CPU is temporarily stored and then retrieved from the RAM.
 RAM is much faster than secondary storage, and thus it is faster for the CPU to retrieve
data from the RAM instead of secondary storage.
 More RAM will allow more data to be stored for fast access

2.2 Processors
 CPUs have the greatest influence on the speed of the computer as all the calculations and
instructions are done here.
 A higher CPU speed will increase the speed of your computer.

2.3 Number of applications running

Each application running uses resources. If too many applications are running at the same time
system resources will have to be split which will slow down the applications.

2.4 Caching
 Memory caching is when a small section of RAM is set aside that the CPU can access
much faster than the normal ram.
 Data that is used often is stored in a place where it can be quickly accessed.
 Web caching saves often opened websites on your hard drive for fast retrieval.
 Disk caching on a hard drive saves files used a lot in a fast piece of memory.

2.5 Disk space and speed

 The size of a disk will not have a great influence on the speed of a computer.
However there must be enough open space for temporary files.
 Newer hard drives allow for data to be accessed and retrieved faster.

2.6 Malware – basic concepts

 Malware: term used to describe any software designed to perform unwanted actions on
your computer or generally disrupt its normal working.
 Virus: Attaches to a file to be distributed.
 Worm: Copies itself from one computer to another without user intervention.
 Trojan: Represents itself as a harmless program or application.
 Rootkit: Malware that is hidden in the system files of an operating system.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 24

 Questions

1 In each of the following cases identify the type of user that is being described:
1.1 A company representative travelling from one town to the next, selling new products. (1)
1.2 A professional gamer being paid to test the newest games on the market. (1)
1.3 A home owner keeping record of the household expenses. (1)
2 Name ONE example in your school where using computers could accomplish these goals:
2.1 Saving paper (1)
2.2 Saving on communication costs (1)
2.3 Saving time (1)
3 Smartphones are devices that show the trend of convergence within computing devices.
Name TWO more devices which may fall within the convergence trend. (2)
4 How could the integration of input modes be used to help secure your PAT project
on the server or computer in the computer centre? (2)
5 Name TWO reasons why a webcam would not be suitable to take pictures or
photographs at a prestigious event such as a prize giving. (2)
6 What is OCR? Explain how the resolution of a scan might affect the OCR process. (3)
7 The principal would like to install a voice recognition system to open the safe at school.
However, only his voice will be allowed to open it. Why should he also allow a
second or even third person to be able to access the safe via voice recognition? (2)
8 Name ONE reason each why you would consider the following points when
choosing a printer:
8.1 Graphics capability (1)
8.2 Colour (1)
8.3 Mobility (1)
9 Arrange the following in descending order according to storage size:
DVD, CD, Blu-Ray (1)
10 You recommended that the staff make use of cloud storage to bring documents
to school from home. Name TWO reasons why this is a good idea.
Describe what cloud storage is. (3)
11 What is keylogging? (2)
12 Rewrite each of the following false statements so they are true:
12.1 Defragmentation does not speed up your computer, but it does open up
a lot of storage space. (2)
12.2 The Control Panel is accessed using the Ctrl, Alt and Del key combination. (1)
12.3 LED monitors use more power than LCD monitors. (1)
12.4 Web browsers cannot be used to access web-based applications. (1)
13 Define the difference between a patch and a service pack by giving a definition
of each one. (2)
14 What is UCD? (2)
TOTAL MARKS [35]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 25

 Answers

1.1 Mobile user (1)

1.2 Power user (1)

1.3 Personal user (1)

2.1 Any valid way to save paper such as using electronic documents instead of printing, (1)
preview documents before printing, etc. 

2.2 Any valid way to save on communication costs such as using e-mail or VoIP instead of (1)
telephone calls. 

2.3 Typing letter on a computer is much faster than writing them out in pen and e-mails are (1)
faster to send than traditional snail mail

3 Any TWO devices showing convergence such as smart TVs, refrigerators with monitors (2)
and Internet access, gaming consoles with internet browsers, etc. 

4 By forcing a user to use multiple input devices to prove his/her identity such as a (2)
fingerprint/facial scan combined with a password.

5 Low resolution usually they cannot be used without being attached to a computer (2)

6 OCR is a software process  that takes a scanned copy of a document and converts it to (3)
editable text.  If the scan is of a low resolution the software will not recognise the text.

7 If he has a cold or flu that affects his voice, they will not be able to open the safe. (2)

8.1 Not all printers are able to print the same quality of graphics (1)

8.2 Some printers (like most entry-level laser printers) can only print monochrome (1)

8.3 If you need to travel a lot and would need the printer to be available at all time with you, a (1)
mobile printer would be needed

9 Blu-ray, DVD, CD (1)

10 Cloud storage makes use of storage space on other servers through the Internet (3)
Teachers can access their files from any computer connected to the Internet
No chance of leaving their work at home as with a flash drive

11 A type of spyware that records every keystroke on your keyboard. (2)

12.1 Defragmentation speeds up your computer, and does not open up any storage space (2)

12.2 The Task Manager is accessed by using the Ctrl, Alt and Del key combination (1)

12.3 LED monitors use less power than LCD monitors (1)

12.4 Web browsers are used to access web-based applications (1)

13 A patch is a small piece of programming code meant to fix a specific problem within a (2)
software component, a service pack is a selection of patches that are combined into one
download for easy installation

14 User-centred design (UCD) is a design philosophy that developers use to create software (2)
such as applications or websites that meet the needs and wants of the user. 

TOTAL [35]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 26

Chapter 2 Network Technologies

Overview

Unit 1 (Networks) is an overview of the components and concepts of a network and more
specifically wide area networks (WANs) such as the Internet. You will need to know the
social implications of networks and the Internet, and how to make an informed decision
regarding Internet connections. You also need to examine the global impact of ICT.

You need to be familiar with wide area networks, Internet services, types of Internet
connections, social and security implications, improving security on the Internet, the impact of
the Internet on the global community.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 27

Unit 1 Networks (Term 2)

1 Wide area networks

1.1 Definition of a WAN
 A wide area network (WAN) is a large network of computers that covers a wide area such
as a city, province, country or even the world.
 Communication methods include cables, microwaves, radio waves and satellites.

1.2 The purpose and role of a WAN

 The main purpose of a WAN is to connect LANs together.
 Facilitate communication between users over a large distance.
 Share a central data source

1.3 The WAN called the Internet

The Internet is a huge collection of LANs, servers and computers connected to each other by
communication channels.

2 Internet services
2.1 Real-time messaging
 Real time messaging is also known as instant messaging (IM).
 Users exchange messages immediately, while other systems such as e-mail have a delay.
 Allows users cheaper communication and multiple users at a time.

2.2 Voice over Internet protocol

Advantages and disadvantages of VoIP

Advantages Disadvantages

Much cheaper than normal telephone calls Audio quality is very low

Text messages and file transfers can happen Calls can sometimes break and delays in
while you are talking using VoIP communication can happen

Video communication is also possible via VoIP Specific software needs to be installed, for
example Skype® (although it is free)

Very difficult to trace the call in an emergency

because there is no fixed location

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 28

2.3 File transfer protocol
Internet service used to transfer files over the Internet.

2.4 Cloud and grid computing

 Cloud computing lets you make use of storage and applications facilities that are not
necessarily hosted on your computer.
 Data and applications can be accessed from any computer connected to the Internet.
 Grid computing refers to the use of multiple computer systems as one.
 Grid computing allows processes to happen over the multiple systems that will not be able
to happen on one computer system, saving money.

2.5 File sharing

 Data is stored on servers around the world using the Internet to transfer files.
 Examples include Dropbox and SkyDrive.

Advantages and disadvantages of file sharing

Advantages Disadvantages

The latest version of your files will always be There is no guarantee that your documents will
available to other users because the files are be kept private.
constantly synchronised, even when you modify
them.

You can store the files and send the link to You will not be able to use your files if there is no
another user via e-mail. This means that you do Internet connection available.
not have a problem trying to attach large files to
an e-mail.

You can use a limited amount of storage space Managing your files on a file-sharing website may
for free once you join. You may have to pay for be a little more difficult than using a file
more space – but it is relatively cheap. management application on your own computer.

You will not have the problem of leaving your files If you have reached your cap limit, you will not be
at home. able to access your data.

You can access your files from anywhere in the

world using the Internet.

You do not need any removable storage devices.

3 Government Internet services

Citizens can use services over the Internet to save time instead of standing in queues or
visiting the relevant offices.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 29

3.1 Election information
 Election information can be posted on the Internet providing:
 Up to date information
 Facilities to make sure you are registered to vote
 Detailed voting results.

3.2 TV licence repayment

Television licences can be renewed over the Internet instead of people having to drive to
specific offices or other venues where payment can be made.

3.3 Tax returns

In the past taxpayers had to complete returns on paper whereas now it can be done
electronically over the Internet.

Advantages of e-filing

Advantages for the taxpayer Advantages for SARS

You can do your tax return at home. SARS can save paper because the forms are
now filled in electronically.

The Internet service is faster and more SARS can input the information into the database
convenient than travelling to the nearest SARS quickly because the information is already
office. electronic.

You do not have to wait in long queues. More people are declaring their income and filing
in their tax returns than in previous years,
because the system is easy to use.

Refunds are handled much more quickly than in

the case of manual tax returns.

E-filing is a secure way to do your tax return.

4 Internet connections and access

4.1 Types of connections
Connection types include wireless and cabled connections.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 30

Advantages and disadvantages of cabled connections

Advantages Disadvantages

Cheaper than wireless connections Fixed in a single location

Connection is usually more reliable than wireless

Advantages and disadvantages of wireless connections

Advantages Disadvantages

Can be used in places where cables cannot Connections lost more easily than wired ones
reach

Can connect to the Internet from anywhere where More expensive per megabyte than cabled ones.
there is coverage

4.2 Modems and routers

 A modem is a device that connects a computer to the Internet via a telephone line.
 A router is a device that connects two networks together.
 An ADSL modem router is a device where both devices are combined in one.

4.3 Broadband and bandwidth

 Bandwidth: the amount of data that can travel from one point to another over a connection
in a specific time period.
 Broadband: describes a high speed (high bandwidth) connection to the Internet.
 ADSL and 3G are examples of broadband connections.

4.4 Data transmission speeds

Data transmission speed measured in bits per second (bps) and kilobits per second (Kbps).

4.5 Internet service providers

 Company that has a permanent high-speed connection to the Internet.
 The ISP then hires out the bandwidth to customers for a monthly fee.

4.6 CAP and bundles

 A cap is a limit placed on the amount of uploads and downloads a user may make on an
Internet connection

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 31

Popular types of data caps

Type of cap Description

Hard cap This type of account stops all Internet access once the cap limit has been
reached.

Soft cap The user is allowed some Internet connectivity after the limit has been
reached. Sometimes only local browsing is allowed and sometimes all
browsing is allowed, but at a much slower speed.

Uncapped An uncapped account has no download limit. Some ISPs may apply a fair
usage policy in which a user may not exceed a certain amount of
downloads within a given time, for example 10 GB a week.

 A bundle is similar to a cap in that an operator allows the client a certain amount of data to
be used. After the bundle is finished a user may be charged for data used thereafter.

4.7 Shaped and unshaped accounts

 Shaping allows for certain Internet functions such as browsing and e-mail to be given
priority and activities such as streaming are limited.
 All downloads on an unshaped account get equal priority.

4.8 Downloading and uploading

Downloading is when data is sent away from a computer over the Internet connection and
uploading is when data comes into a system.

4.9 Coverage and access points

Coverage is a term used to describe the area where a connection is available.

4.10 Internet services

Internet services include e-mail, mailing lists, instant messaging, chat rooms, VoIP, FTP and
newsgroups.

5 Social implications
5.1 Right to access and the right to privacy
 Everybody has the right to privacy.
 Only you have the right to access your own work and not anyone else.
 Access rights help to protect data and information from outsiders.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 32

5.2 Internet attacks
5.2.1 DoS attacks
A denial-of-service (DoS) attack is an attack where a computer is bombarded with huge
amounts of data to slow down a computer or network.

5.2.2 Sniffer attacks

 A sniffer is a small program that can read packets of data being sent on a computer or a
network.
 Encryption is a process where data is translated into a secret code for secure transmission.

5.3 Computer crimes

Computer crimes include all crimes that are committed by using computers.

5.3.1 Theft of hardware and software

 Process of stealing the actual physical hardware.
 Theft of software includes stealing the installation media.

5.3.2 Identity theft

A process where a criminal uses the personal details (identity) of a person to dishonestly apply
for bank loans, access bank accounts and other criminal activities.

5.3.3 Bandwidth theft

 A person’s username and password is found out and a criminal will then use these details
to access the Internet on the account of the victim.
 Hotlinking is a process where a link on a website links to a file that is hosted on another
website. This limits downloads on the primary website.

5.3.4 Information and data theft

Information such as personal details is stored in databases. These databases are valuable to
advertising businesses to whom criminals then sell them.

5.3.5 Theft of time and services

 When employees use a computer to browse social networking sites or conduct their own
personal matters they are using resources owned by the company without permission.
 This use also leads to time being lost that should have been used for company business.

5.4 Internet-related fraud scams

 A scam is the process in which criminals get people to give them money by tricking them.
 A hoax e-mail is an e-mail that tries to deceive you by using a story that you cannot check
is true.

5.5 Computers can be taken over

 A zombie is a computer that has been taken over by a criminal and is being controlled
from a different physical location.
 The criminal can use the computing power and Internet connections of the zombie army to
perform multiple DoS attacks, send spam or spread malware to other computers
around the world.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 33

 Bots are independent programs that perform automated tasks over the Internet.
 Bots perform tasks that are simple and repetitive much faster than humans can
 Bots can be used for malicious purposes such as collecting e-mail addresses from web
pages to be used for spam.
5.6 Misuse of personal information
Information should be private and not be sold or distributed.

6 Security issues
6.1 Malware and spyware
 Malware is the term we use for harmful software such as viruses, Trojans and worms that
perform unwanted actions on a computer, or generally disrupt the way a computer
normally works.
 Spyware is a type of malware that secretly collects information such as your browsing
history or even redirects websites and slows down the Internet connection.

6.2 Adware
 Adware is any application that displays online advertisements on web pages, e-mail or
other Internet services.
 Adverts can be in the form of banners or pop-ups.

6.3 Pop-ups
A pop-up is an advertisement that opens in a new window, usually displayed on a web page in
the user’s web browser.

6.4 Keylogging
Keyloggers are examples of spyware that records key combinations such as usernames,
passwords and pin codes.

6.5 Firewall protection

Hardware or software that stops any unauthorised access to or from the network or computer.

6.6 Avoiding security threats

 Avoid security threats by:
 Updating all of the software to avoid security problems
 Using encryption to send important data
 Installing anti-malware software
 Scanning removable devices for threats before use
 Not opening e-mail or e-mail attachments before scanning for malware
 Not visiting websites where threats may possibly be
 Not installing software from unverified developers.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 34

7 Security safety measures

Types of security software

Type of software Example

Antivirus software to prohibit any virus infections Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky,

Bitdefender

Anti-spyware to stop any spyware infections Kaspersky, Bitdefender

Firewall to prevent any unauthorised access to your ZoneAlarm, Comodo

computer or network

Updates to fix any security issues within the software Patches and service packs

Anti-spam package to prevent spam e-mails entering your Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky,
computer Bitdefender

8 The impact of technology on the global community

Technology has created a global village where everybody can communicate and interact as if
we live in one small village.

8.1 Communication
 Communications technologies include:
 E-mails being sent and received almost immediately
 Video conferencing
 Cell phones allowing calls from almost anywhere.

8.2 Banking
Banks allow users to complete banking tasks such as transfers and paying accounts from
anywhere using Internet or cell phone banking.

8.3 Commerce
Businesses have a larger, global market to sell to.

8.4 Social networking

Allows users to keep up to date with their friends.

8.5 Distributed computing power

 Distributed computing power or grid computing is the use of multiple computer systems as
if they were one computer.
 A company can save on costs using this type of processing because a process can make use
of processing power that is not currently in use. Instead of buying a new powerful
computer, the company can use existing unused processing power and storage space.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 35

 Questions

1 Why can the Internet be described as a WAN? (1)

2 Name TWO advantages of real-time messaging. (2)
3 Define the term cloud storage. (2)
4 Name TWO advantages for the government with regards to tax return being done
electronically via e-filing on the Internet. (2)
5 Explain what the difference is between a router and a modem by referring to the
function of each. (2)
6 How would the term bandwidth influence your choice of Internet connection? (2)
7 Your new uncapped ADSL Internet connection is soft capped at 50GB per month.
7.1 What does 'soft capped' mean? (2)
7.2 The account is also a shaped account.
How could this impact your use of the connection? (2)
8 Why would a DoS attack be performed? (1)
9 Briefly define each of the following terms:
9.1 Spyware (1)
9.2 Pop-up (1)
9.3 Keylogger (1)
10 What type of software can be used to protect your computer from illegal attempts
to access it via a network or the Internet? (1)

TOTAL MARKS [20]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 36

 Answers

1 The Internet is a very large collection of networks and computers around the world that are (1)
interconnected. 

2 Much cheaper than traditional communications such as telephone calls and many users (2)
can communicate at the same time.

3 Data is stored on servers/computers other than your own using the Internet to transfer (2)
data to and from your computer to the server.

4 Any TWO of the following: (2)

 SARS saves on paper use.
 SARS can input data into their database much more quickly as the information is
already available electronically and need not be entered manually.
 More people are declaring their tax incomes as it is much easier than in the past.

5 A router is a device used to connect two networks together whereas a modem is used to (2)
connect a network or computer to the Internet via a telephone line.

6 Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can travel from one point to another via a (2)
connection in a set period of time. This means that you need to choose a line that will
suit your use: a faster line for high usage or a cheaper, slower line for average use. 

7.1 When the 50 GB soft cap is reached, the line will be throttled to a lower speed, or you may (2)
only be allowed to browse South African based websites.  However your Internet
connection will NEVER be stopped as it is an uncapped account. 

7.2 Certain protocols will be given a lower priority such as streaming video and downloading. (2)
Other protocols such as normal browsing and e-mail are given high priority.  This means
that if you got the connection to serious downloading or streaming video, the connection
will not fulfil your needs. 

8 To slow down a computer or network as much as possible, to a point where the system (1)
may even crash. 

9.1 Spyware is a type of malware. The software secretly collects data about the computer and (1)
the user. 

9.2 A pop-up is an advertisement that opens in a new window, usually displayed in a web (1)
page in the user’s web browser, while he or she is working on the computer. 

9.3 Keyloggers are an extremely dangerous type of spyware because the creator or installer of (1)
the keylogger can use the program to record key combinations such as usernames,
passwords and PIN codes. 

10 A firewall (1)

TOTAL [20]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 37

Chapter 3 Internet Technologies

Overview

Unit 1 (Internet technologies) deals with types of Internet technologies such as video
conferencing as a mode of communication. We look at the advantages and disadvantages, as
well as good practices of using digital communication.

You will need to revise the typical features of web browsers which include bookmarks, history
and favourites. You need to know about home page settings of your web browser, pop-up
blockers, blocking of websites, caching and browser plug-ins.

You need to be familiar digital communication; including the advantages, disadvantages and
limitations of digital communication; good practices in digital communication; uses of
computer communication; and new trends and technologies in digital communication.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 38

Unit 1 Communication (Term 3)

1 Types of digital communication

 Digital communication is the way in which one computer or mobile device transfers data
from one device to another.
 Standards and rules called protocols control the way devices send and receive data.
 Some examples of digital communication are: e-mails, picture/video messaging, blogs and
wikis, and social networks.

1.1 Video conferencing

 Video conferencing is the process by which users use a network of computing devices to
see, talk and hear one another even though they are in different locations.
 Video conferencing is used by businesses to conduct meetings between colleagues from
different countries.

1.1.1 Hardware and software required for video conferencing

Good reliable equipment is needed to set up a video conference. For example, a high speed
computer, high resolution monitor, a webcam, speakers, and microphones and also a
connection to the network as well as web-based software installed on the computers.

Advantages and disadvantages of video conferencing

Advantages Disadvantages

Video conferencing can save money on travelling to It is expensive to set up a video lab and
another country to attend a meeting. maintain the conferencing equipment.

Visual and audio information can be shared through video Users must be fully trained to use the
conferencing. equipment.

One-on-one meetings are possible between people who A power failure will cause a break in
are far apart as they can see who they are talking to. communication.

Video conferencing enables collaboration and can Time zones differ across continents, which can
strengthen relationships between colleagues who work far be inconvenient for some people in a video
away from each other.
conference.

1.1.2 Good practices for video conferencing

 Keep to only the matters that need to be discussed at the meeting. Maintain eye contact
with the people in the meeting.
 The room must be quiet and there should not be noisy distractions in the background.
 Talk clearly and simply.
 Only run the computer program used to communicate. No other program must be open
during a video conference.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 39

2 Uses of computer communications
Computer communication is the most common and the fastest form of communication today.

2.1 RSS feeds

 RSS stands for Really Simple Syndication.
 An RSS feed is a service designed to deliver regular Internet content and news updates
directly to subscribers.

Advantages and disadvantages of RSS feeds for subscribers

Advantages Disadvantages

Subscribers are able to access news whenever they Not all RSS feeds display graphic, video or audio
want to. material from the original site.

RSS readers can be customised so that the The URL or identity of the original source is not
subscriber may access the news from different shown on the RSS feed, which could cause
news groups on one page. confusion for subscribers as they may not know
what they are actually reading.

A subscriber is able to capture and republish news if Many users still prefer email messaging, rather
he or she has a website that collects news from than having to visit a website.
other sites.

Advantages and disadvantages of RSS feeds for publishers

Advantages Disadvantages

RSS offers easy and simple publishing as The publishers cannot see how many users
subscribers will access the feed and get updated subscribe to their websites or how frequently the
content automatically using the reader. visits to the feeder are.

RSS offers a simpler writing process as new content

to your website is written in the form of titles and
short description and then links back to the website.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 40

2.2 Bogs/vlogs
 A blog is a website that contains posts or pieces of information that are in the form of a
diary or journal.
 Blogs can be created and used by:
 Teachers who want to work with learners.
 Anyone who wishes to share hobbies, interests, opinions or parts of their personal life
with others.
 Businesses that want to communication with customers, employees and other
important people.
 A vlog is a video blog.
 Vlogs are created by recording an event and publishing it on the blog so that other users
can view it.

2.2.1 Create a blog

 Decide what you want the blog to be about.
 Decide whether you are going to use a free blogging service or whether you will host the
blog yourself.

Characteristics of free blogging services and hosting a blog

You do not own the blog. You have more freedom to do what you want.

You will not get your own domain. You will have a domain name.

If you move to your own domain, you cannot Hosting your own blog is relatively cheap.
take your readers with you because you have no
control over the site.

2.2.2 How to register a blog space using [Link] by Google

 Connect to the Internet.
 Make sure you have a Google Gmail account.
 Type [Link] or [Link] in the address bar of your web browser and
then select the site.
 Follow the prompts on the sign-up screen.
 You can then starting blogging and specify the settings, change the layout and view of
your blog.
 Click the Sign out button to leave the blog.
 Other users will have to type in your blog address in the address bar of their web browsers
if they want to view your blog.

2.2.3 How to publish a blog through Word 2010

 Launch Microsoft Word 2010, click on file, select New and then click on Blog Post.
 Follow the prompts on the Register a Blog Account.
 Select your blog service provider from the drop-down list on the New Blog Account
dialogue box.
 Each service provider will require different details.

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Advantages and disadvantages of a blog

Advantages Disadvantages

Blogs are easy to create and can often be A blogger can spend a lot of time writing the blog in
created for free. a logical manner.

People can be part of an online community and A person needs to update their blog regularly to
use blogs to share their knowledge with other keep readers interested in the blog.
people who have similar interests.

A person can use a blog as a diary. Bloggers must be careful about the information they
post on their blog, especially if anyone is allowed to
read the blog.

2.3 Podcasts/vodcasts
 A podcast is a recorded audio file that is usually stored in an MP3 or MP4 format.
 A vodcast is a video podcast that contains video and audio information.

Advantages and disadvantages of podcast/vodcasts

Advantages Disadvantages

Podcasts are a way to communicate and allow Podcast/vodcasts do not really allow the audience to
users to hear material. join in or interact.

Vodcast allow users to see and hear material Sufficient bandwidth is needed to download
such as demonstrations. podcasts/vodcasts.

Users are able to listen to downloaded podcats

An entire file downloaded and this may take up a lot
and see and hear vodcasts when and where it
of storage space.
suits them.

Information travels quickly using People with hearing impairment will not find a
podcasts/vodcasts so people are able to get podcast very useful. People with sight impairment will
updated information quickly. not find a vodcast very useful.

2.4 Wikis
 A wiki is a website that allows users to create, add to, remove, edit or delete website
content via their web browser.
 One popular wiki is Wikipedia®, which is a free web-based encyclopaedia.

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2.5 Global positioning systems
 A global positioning system (GPS) is a system that uses signals from a satellite to calculate
exactly where you are in the world.
 GPS receivers can be in devices used by people travelling in a car or boat and by people
going on a hiking trail.
 Many mobile devices such as smartphones have GPS technology in them.

2.5.1 Uses of GPS technology

Devices with GPS technology in them can be used to:
 work out directions to a place
 create a route map and choose the best route from one place to another
 find another route to avoid traffic jams
 find facilities such as restaurants, petrol stations, entertainment places, schools and hotels
 locate a stolen vehicle or lost person.

Advantages and disadvantages of a GPS

Advantages Disadvantages

A GPS is a tool that helps a user get directions Sometimes the signal to a GPS device can be blocked
to geographical places quickly. by storms or heavy cloud cover. Overhead bridges
and tall buildings can also block signals.

A GPS device can be plugged into a car’s A GPS device needs power, so the battery needs to
cigarette lighter to get power from the car be charged regularly for it to work.
battery.

A GPS can help locate a person quickly if he or Some people may not have the money to buy a GPS
she is in danger or is involved in an accident. device.

A GPS can be used produce maps of GPS devices are small so they can be easily lost or
geographical areas. stolen.

GPS software is updated regularly to cover the While driving, a driver may spend more time looking at
whole world. the GPS screen than at the road, and this could cause
an accident.

A GPS can be used at sea to locate a ship’s Technology can fail at any time, so the user should
position. have a backup resource such as a map book as well.

2.6 Social networks

 Online social networks are also known as social networking websites.
 An online social network is a group of users who have registered to use a website to share
their interests, ideas, stories, photos, music and videos with one another.
 To join an online social network you usually need to have an e-mail address.
 The social networking website uses the profile of each user to maintain the user’s links to
friends and family members.
 Most social networks offer communication services such as chat rooms and newsgroups.
 Examples of social networks are Facebook, Twitter, Google+, MySpace and LinkedIn.

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3 Typical features of web browsers
 A web browser finds a web page by using the web page’s web address (this is also called
the uniform resource locator or URL).
 Web browsers also use the coding to create the links between web pages and websites.

3.1 Bookmarks (favourites)

 A bookmark is a saved web address that a user can access by clicking on its name in a list.
 To save time, users often save the web addresses or URLs that they wish to visit again.

3.2 History
 Most web browsers keep a record of your browsing history and have a feature called
History.
 You can use the History feature to revisit a web page, especially if you do not remember
the URL.

3.3 Home page settings

 A home page is usually the first page you see when you open a web browser.
 You can instruct your web browser what web page it must use as your home page.
 This can save you a lot of time because you will not have to re-type the URL in the
address bar to revisit this favourite web page.
 You can change the home page this way:
 Launch your Internet browser by clicking on the Start button or using the icon on the
status bar at the bottom of your screen.
 Once the web browser is open, click on Tools, then Options (or Internet options), and
then select General.
 Type in the name of the page you want as your home page, for example:
[Link]

3.4 Adware and spyware removers, and pop-up blockers

 Adware is software that has advertisements within the application. Adware is not illegal.
Advertisers pay software developers to place their advertisements in banners and pop-
up windows on web pages, e-mail and other Internet services.
 A pop-up ad is an Internet advertisement that suddenly appears in a user’s web browser
window while the user browses the Internet.
 A pop-under ad is an advertisement that hides under (behind) an active window.
 Anti-spyware software is software that finds and deletes spyware.
 A pop-up blocker is a program that stops pop-up ads displaying on a web page.

3.5 Blocking websites

Blocking websites is the process in which Internet access is controlled so that some websites
cannot be viewed.

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3.5.1 How to block a website
 If you use Internet Explorer, clock on the Tools tab, select the Internet Options menu item.
 Click on the Privacy tab and then click on Sites.
 Type in the URL or address of the website you want to block.
 Click on Block, then OK. This will block one site at a time.
 Other web browsers will have similar options.

3.6 Caching
 A cache is an area of memory that stores frequently used data or instructions. Some
browsers have a cache area called ‘Temporary Internet Files’.
 Two important reasons why a cache is useful:
 Time is saved because the web browser can find some of the information it needs on
the computer's own hard drive.
 Less data needs to be transmitted over the network because the web browser already
has some of the information it needs. This reduces the amount of bandwidth used,
which in turn can save the user money.

3.7 Browser plug-ins

 A web browser plug-in is an additional piece of software that gives a web browser more
functions.
 Plug-ins can improve videos, multimedia, animation and games.
 Some plus-ins do not update automatically, so you need to update your plug-ins to
improve the computers' web security.
 Old plug-ins can waste your time if they cause interruptions while you browse the Internet.
 Old plug-ins can carry security threats and can increase the risk of malware infections and
virus attacks on the computer.

Examples of browser plug-ins

Plug-in Web
Description
application address

Adobe Reader Allows you to view portable document format (PDF) files. [Link]
When you view these files, they look the same as they will when
they are printed.

Flash Player Displays web pages across a whole screen, showing clear [Link]
graphics and animation, together with very good sound

Quick Time Enables you to view and listen to animation, music, audio and [Link]
video directly on a web page
Java Enables web browsers to run programs written in Java. This [Link]
adds interactivity to web pages.
Silverlight Videos can be watched directly through a webpage without [Link]
needing to install a specific program such as Windows Media
Player. Also items such as graphics can be used on a website
without needing to install separate plug-ins.

Windows Media Enables you to listen to audio, play or edit WMA, MP3and MP4 [Link]
Player files, burn CDs and watch DVD movies.

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4 Digital communications
 Digital communication is the exchange of information between users through the use of
technology.
 Some examples of digital communication are video and web conferences, blogs, wikis and
online social networking.

4.1 E-mail
Electronic mail or e-mail is a method of exchanging messages and files between computers or
mobile devices over a computer network such as the Internet.

4.1.1 Setting up a contacts list

 The e-mail application allows you to create a contacts list.
 To set up a contacts list in the Outlook e-mail application click on the Home tab, and select
New Item.
 Click on the Contact option, or use the shortcut Ctrl+Shift+C.
 This will open a contact window. You can now type in the contact details of the person you
want to add to your contact list.

4.1.2 Setting up a contact group (distribution list)

 To set up a contact group, also known as a distribution list, in the Outlook e-mail
application:
 Click on the Home tab, and select New Items.
 Select Contact Group (from the More Items option) or use the shortcut, Ctrl+Shift+L.
 Click in the Name box and type in a name for your group, for example ‘CAT friends’.
 You can now select the Add Members option for any of the entries in your Outlook
Contacts or Address Book.
 You also have the option to select New E-Mail Contact from the Add Members option.
 If you select the New E-Mail Contact option, a dialogue box requesting the details of
the new member will appear and you will have to type in the new member’s name and
e-mail details.
 Once you have added the contacts that you want in your contacts list, click on Save
And Close.

4.1.3 Setting tasks

 An e-mail account also allows users to set tasks and remind themselves of those tasks.
 Tasks are stored in e-mail folders and can be linked to e-mails.
 Users can create notes that will remind themselves of important dates and events (for
example, meetings).

4.1.4 How to create a task

 Click on the Home tab, and then in the New group, click on the New Task button, to
open the task window.
 In the Subject window, type a name for the task. You can add other details such as start
date, due date, status and priority.
 On the Task tab, in the Actions group, click on the Save & Close button.

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4.1.5 Archiving
 The e-mail archive is an organised way to save old e-mails so that they are still available if
they are needed at later date.
 Steps to follow to archive e-mails in the Outlook e-mail application:
 Click on the File tab, and then Cleanup Tools.
 Click on Archive, and then select the radio button next to the Archive this folder and
all subfolders option.
 In the list that is displayed, click on the folder you want to archive. All subfolders of
this folder will also be archived.
 Click on OK.

4.2 Strengths and weaknesses of digital communication

 Digital communication can be effective or not, depending on how you use it.
 In the next table, you can read about some of the strengths and weaknesses of digital
communication.

Strengths and weaknesses of digital communication

Strengths Weaknesses

Digital communication is very fast over both short It can be difficult to prove that a digital
and long distances. It is also reliable and easy to communication is from the person it says it is
use. from, as it cannot be recognised through a
handwritten signature.

Digital communication is much cheaper than Digital communication can make it difficult for
postal services, for example, universities can send people to separate their social lives from their
messages to many students at the same time. work lives.

You can use more than one type of digital People such as hackers, crackers, fraudsters and
communication at the same time: for example, cyber predators misuse digital communication for
videos can be uploaded at the same time as data harmful purposes.
and audio files.

4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of digital communications

Digital communications have made our lives much easier. The next table lists some of the
advantages and disadvantages of digital communications.

Advantages of digital communication

Advantages Disadvantages
Digital communication contributes towards Some people may misuse digital communications to
green computing and protecting the send viruses or hoax messages to harm other people.
environment because costs can be saved if
no printing takes place and no paper, ink
cartridges or toner is wasted.

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Advantages of digital communication
Files can be saved electronically on various Digital communication equipment such as cellphone
storage media for later use. and microwave towers may not fit into the environment
or be pleasant to look at.

People from all over the world are able to Many people cannot use computers and so cannot
collaborate and share communications, take full advantage of digital communication.
graphics, interactive software, etc.

Messages can be read anywhere and at any Some people may become addicted to cyber activities,
time, and communication is much cheaper. which may lead to social withdrawal or anti-social
behaviour.

Digital communication enables facilities such There is no guarantee of privacy especially with e-mail
as video conferencing, which can save a lot messages, which can be read by others.
of time and money.

4.4 Limitations of digital communication

 Digital communication has become very popular, but it has limitations.
 Electromagnetic fields and radio signals can interfere with wireless communication.

4.5 Good practices in digital communication

It is important for users to apply good practices when using digital communication.

5 Communication devices
Some of the more modern communication devices are small enough to hold in your hand.
These devices are called handheld devices.

5.1 Tablet PCs

A tablet PC is a special type of notebook computer that allows users to write using a digital
pen.

5.2 Personal digital assistants

A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld device that provides useful features such as a
calendar, a digital camera, an appointment book, a calculator and a notepad.

5.3 Smartphones
 A smartphone has the features of a PDA and a cell phone.
 Smartphones are Internet-enabled so you can send and receive e-mails and surf the
Internet.

5.4 New trends and technologies

Businesses are developing new applications, products and communication devices all the time
to make communication and work easier.

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6 Social issues linked to digital communication
New trends in technology have helped many people, especially consumers and travellers.
For example, it has improved services at airports and cinemas by increasing the speed at
which people can be served.

6.1 Impact and use of social networking sites and technologies

Technology has made the world a global village where people all over the world can
communicate with one another like neighbours.

6.1.1 Facebook
Facebook is an online social networking service that provides a way for people to interact and
chat by sharing interests, activities, photos, videos and so on.

6.1.2 Twitter
Twitter is a free online social network. It is also called a microblogging service because
people share their thoughts and interests by using very short messages called tweets.

6.1.3 LinkedIn
LinkedIn is a social network site where professionals exchange and share information.

6.1.4 MySpace
MySpace allows a user to add a photograph and some brief information about his or her
personal interests - after he or she can communicate with their MySpace contacts.

6.1.5 Virtual communities

A virtual community is a group of people who share their common interests through e-mails,
social networks and blogs. An example of a virtual community can be found on the website
Second Life.

6.2 Impact of technology on the global community

Technology has helped the global community because it has given people the ability to
telecommute.

6.2.1 Telecommuting (teleworking)

Telecommuting (teleworking) is the process by which a person is able to work from home
using technologies such as a home computer, a fax machine and a telephone to communicate
with colleagues and customers in different places.

Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting

Advantages Disadvantages
Many businesses have found that telecommuters Not all people can manage or schedule their time
have greater work satisfaction, and are more well when working as a telecommuter. Some
productive, than people who work in offices. managers may also mistrust the telecommuters.

Flexible working hours allow telecommuters to run Many people need social interaction with other
errands during the day without losing work time. people and may feel isolated if they telecommute

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Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting
The environment is preserved because there are
now fewer cars, buses and taxis on the road,
which reduces the amount of pollution.

Telecommuters are generally less stressed

because their working hours are more flexible.

6.2.2 Computer fraud

 The Internet makes it possible for criminals to access millions of interconnected
computers.
 Computer fraud, also known as cybercrime, is any crime that involves the use of a
computer to deceive someone, steal data and information or cause harm.
 Some examples of computer fraud:
 E-mail hoax: A false message, for example a message that describes a new virus, a
missing child or a prize that you have won. It could also be a chain letter requesting
you to forward the original message to others.
 E-mail spoofing: The process in which a criminal sends an e-mail with a web address
and logo that looks like it comes from a different person or company.
 Identity theft: The crime in which the criminal steals a person’s personal or financial
information so that the criminal can pretend to be that person.
 Data theft: The crime in which data is stolen from computers or handheld devices.
Spyware is often used to gather information on people. Some data theft involves
accessing a business’s databases and stealing customer information from them.
 Phishing: The process of getting sensitive information such as user names, passwords,
bank account numbers or credit card details. Users are asked to enter their details on a
fake website that looks similar to the website the user expects to see.
 Pharming: The process in which a user is redirected from the right website to a fake
website, without the user being aware of it, so that the user’s personal details can be
stolen.

6.3 How technology can benefit and harm society

Technology has many benefits but it can also be harmful. Let us look at some of the good and
bad points of technology.

6.3.1 How technology can benefit society

 Some ways that technology has benefited society are:
 In the medical field, doctors can take part in webcam consultations to get advice on
difficult surgery. Robotic surgery has also benefited society.
 Communication: Technology has made communication much simpler and easier.
People are able to communicate from different parts of the world more cheaply.
 Banking and finance: Technology has made banking easier and more convenient.
E-banking can be done from the security and comfort of home at any time of the day.
 Education: Distance learning is possible through technology. Students can submit their
assignments online and access lectures or academic material via vodcasts.
 Closed circuit television (CCTV) and geographic information systems (GIS) are able
to help fight crime by showing the locations where crimes occur.

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6.3.2 How technology can harm society
 Some of the ways that technology can harm society are:
 Internet technologies can reduce the personal and social interaction between people.
 People may become less physically active, which could lead to obesity and ill-health.
 The overuse of technology may cause physical harm to people, for example, repetitive
strain injury (RSI), carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) and eye strain.
 Technology processes may result in unwanted by-products that pollute the
environment.
 E-waste can also harm the physical environment.
 People such as drug peddlers and addicts can use the Internet to find out how to create
dangerous drugs from simple household chemicals.
 Criminal activity, such as identity theft and phishing over the Internet, can cause
people to lose large amounts of money.
 Young people may be persuaded to join groups that have hidden motives because
instant messaging and social networks make it so easy for people such as cult leaders
or paedophiles to reach young people and commit crimes.

6.4 Use of information sources from around the world

 The Internet has become a major information source in the world.
 Even traditional information sources such as newspapers, television, magazines and radio
use their own websites on the Internet to spread information. For example, the
television service of the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) has a
website at [Link]
 E-zines (electronic magazines) and e-books (electronic books) not only provide
information, they also contribute to green computing because their electronic versions
save paper.

6.5 Information overload

 Information overload happens when there is too much information for the brain to process.
 Information overload can cause people stress.
 Some ways to control information overload are:
 Spend time on the information that you need to know rather than information that is
nice to know.
 Control information overload by processing or sorting out the information before
passing it on to other people.
 When sending an e-mail, ensure the message is short and to the point.
 Focus on one task at a time, then move on to other tasks.

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 Questions

1 Clearly define digital communication. (2)

2 How can video conferencing influence communication in business? (2)
3 What is the main function of a GPS technology? (1)
4 Describe the function of an RSS feed. (2)
5 Name two advantages of an RSS feed and two disadvantages of
an RSS feed for subscribers. (4)
6 Differentiate between a podcast and a vodcast. (2)
7 Briefly define each of the following terms:
7.1 Caching (1)
7.2 Smartphones (1)
7.3 MySpace (1)
8 Name any two web browser plug-in applications. (2)
9 What is telecommuting? (2)
10 Give three ways in which a learner can deal with information overload. (3)
TOTAL MARKS [23]

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 Answers

1 Digital communication occurs when computer or mobile devices transfer data between
each other.  (2)
2 Communication has become convenient between colleagues who live in different
Geographic locations.  (2)
3 GPS technology allows the devices to receive and send signals.  (1)
4 An RSS feed is a service designed to deliver regular Internet content and news updates
directly to subscribers (2)
5 Advantages of an RSS feed:
Subscribers can access news whenever they want to. RSS readers can be customised (1)
so that the subscriber may access the news from different news groups on one page.  (1)
Disadvantages of an RSS feed:
The URL or identity of the original source is not shown on the RSS feed, which could (1)
create confusion for subscribers as they may not know what feed they are reading. 
(1)
Many people are still not exposed to RSS feeds and so they prefer e-mail messaging. 
6 A podcast is a recorded audio file that is usually stored in an MP3 or MP4 format.  (1)
A vodcast is a video podcast that contains video and audio information.  (1)
7.1 Cashing: cache memory is an area of memory that stores frequently used data or
instructions.  (1)
7.2 Smartphones: smartphones are Internet-enabled so you can send and receive e-mails (1)
and surf the Internet. 
(1)
MySpace: initially designed to help young people such as students communicate. 
7.3
8 QuickTime (1)
Java (1)
9 Telecommuting is the process of working outside of the office environment using
electronic devices such as fax, emails and other communication devices.  (2)
10 Any three of:
 Spend time on information you need to know, rather than on information that is
nice to know. 
 Control information overload by processing or sorting out the information before
passing it on to other people. 
 Ensure the e-mail messages are short and to the point. 
(3)
 Focus on one task at a time, then move on to other tasks.

TOTAL [23]

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Chapter 4 Databases

Overview

This chapter comprises three units in the Learner’s Book and one unit in this Study Guide.

Unit 1 (Reports and queries) covers the concepts, knowledge and skills required for
databases. It explains basic skills such as creating and editing tables; queries; forms and
reports; assigning data types; data validation; doing calculations and integration; and more
advanced skills such as calculations in queries, grouping in reports and calculations in report
groups.

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Unit 1 Reports and queries (Term 1)

1 Reinforce content, concepts and skills

1.1 Getting started
 We use databases to store related data. We store this related data in records, which are kept
in tables. Tables are kept in databases.
 To open a database application:
 Click on the Windows Start button and choose All Programs.
 Click on Microsoft Office and then on Microsoft Office Access.
 To create a database:
 Click on Blank Database and type the name you want to give your database in the File
Name box.
 If you then click on the Browse icon, the File New Database window appears.
 Open the folder that must store your database.
 The name of the file you entered appears in the File Name box.
 Click on OK, and then the Create button.
 To open an existing database:
 Click on More, on the right-hand side of the screen.
 Browse to find the folder that stores the database.
 Click on Open.

1.1.1 Objects
 Tables store data in rows (records) and columns (fields).
 Queries select data from tables. You use criteria to tell the query what data to select.
 Forms are data entry windows. These windows make it easy for users to enter data.
 Reports organise and/or summarise both the tables and the queries.
 Macros are recorded sets of actions, such as clicks. We create them to perform particular
tasks.
 Modules are small programs written in a programming language called Visual Basic.

1.1.2 Data types

Data types in MS Access 2010

Data type Explanation
Text: Data that does not need calculations and is not Date/Time

Memo: Long alphanumeric text, such as a comment

Number: Numbers used for calculations

Date/Time: Used for date and time

Currency: Money values

Yes/No: Used when only one of two values can be selected, such as Yes/No or
True/False

OLE Object: Used to attach an object such as a spreadsheet or picture that will automatically

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Data types in MS Access 2010
(Object Linking update in the database when the source data changes
and Embedding)

Hyperlink: Used to store a link to another file

Attachment: Used to attach a file. More than one file can be added

Lookup Wizard: Creates a field that allows you to choose a value

AutoNumber: Numbers automatically added when a new record is entered

Calculation: A field that holds the answer to a calculation

1.1.3 Field properties

Field properties control what a data type does and how it appears.

Field properties
Field property What the field property does

Field size When you choose a data type, the application creates space in memory.
Sometimes you do not need to use all the space created. You can change the
field size so that you do not waste space.
Format This property controls how data displays in a field.
The Number and Currency data types have special formats you can use to
control how numbers are displayed. They are General Number, Currency, Euro,
Fixed, Standard and Percent.
The Date/Time data type has special formats you can use to control how date
and time data is displayed. They are General Date, Long Date, Medium Date,
Short Date, Long Time, Medium Time and Short Time.
The Yes/No data type has three formats. They are True/False, Yes/No and
On/Off.
Decimal places The Number and Currency data types allow you to set the decimal places
needed.
Caption This property changes the display of the field name in Datasheet View. It will not
change the field name in Design View.
Default value If you put a value in this property, it will display automatically in the field in
Datasheet View.
Required This property makes sure that the field always has data in it.
Indexed This property tells the application to create an index using the data in this field.
(An index makes searching and sorting faster.)
Text align This property controls how the data is lined up (aligned) when it is displayed.

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1.2 Working with tables

How to work with tables

Task Steps to take
Add a field to a Enter data in the cell below the Click to Add column header. Right-click in the
table column and rename the column to the name you want.
Delete a field Select the column and press Delete on the keyboard.
Add a record Enter the data in the bottom row of the table.
Delete a record Select the record and press Delete on the keyboard.
Create a primary Set the primary key in Design View by right-clicking in the field and selecting
key Primary key. Or select the Design tab on the ribbon and click on the Primary Key
icon in Design View.
Sort information In Datasheet View, place the cursor in the field to sort by, click on the Home tab
and click on the Ascending or Descending button in the Sort & Filter group.
Remove a sort In Datasheet View, move to the Home tab. In the Sort & Filter group, click on
Remove Sort.
Filter information In Datasheet View, place the cursor in the field you want to filter by. Click on the
Home tab on the ribbon and then click on the Filter button in the Sort & Filter
group. Check to boxes with the values you want to filter by.
Remove a filter Click on the Toggle Filter button in the Sort & Filter group.
Change a field’s In Datasheet View, select the field. Click on the Fields tab on the ribbon and then
data type click on the Data Type list arrow in the Formatting group. Select a data type.
Edit data in a Change any data in the table by typing over it in Datasheet View.
table

1.3 Working with queries

 Create a query:
 Click on the Create tab and select the Query Wizard. Select Simple Query Wizard.
 On the drop-down menu, choose the table you need.
 Select the fields, and click on Next.
 Type in a name for your query, and then click on Finish.
 Display fields:
 To display a field in a query, ensure there is a tick mark for that field in the Show row.
 If you do not want a field to display in a query, remove the tick mark.
 Criteria:
 When you want to select only some of the records, use the Criteria row to control what
will be selected.
 The application compares the information you enter here with the value in the field.
 If the value matches the criteria, the field is selected to be displayed.
 Datasheet view is where the data is displayed while Design is where the fields and
data types are viewed.
 Use the Home tab to switch between views.

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Examples of criteria
Example of criteria Explanation
Like “Brown” The value in the field must match exactly
Like “B*” The value must start with the letter ‘B’, followed by any number of any
characters
Like “L?” The value must start with the letter ‘B’, followed by one character
Like “*s” The value must end with the letter ‘s’, with any number of any characters in
front

Like “?d” The value must end with the letter ‘d’ with any one character in front
Not “Dan” The field can have any text value, other than ‘Dan’
“Blue” or “Red” The value must be equal to ‘Blue’ or to ‘Red’
1000 The value must match exactly
#24/2/2002# The date must be 24 February 2002
Between #2/1/2001# The value must be a date between 2 January 2001 and 20 October 2010
AND #20/10/2010#

<Date() The value must be a date before current date

<#24/2/2002# or The value must be a date before 24 February 2002 or after 24 April 2004
>#24/4/2004#

200 or 250 The value must be equal to 200 or 250

Between 50 and 100 The value must be between 50 and 100
<30 or >80 The value must be less than 30 or greater than 80

1.3.1 AND, OR, NOT logic

 AND: If you place two criteria on the same line, the application selects only the records
where there is a match on BOTH criteria.
 OR: If you place one criterion on the Criteria line, and one criterion on the OR line, the
application selects records that match EITHER criterion.
 NOT: If you place a NOT operator in front of any criterion, the application selects records
that have any values other than the value specified.

1.4 Working with forms

 You can use the form wizard to create a form:
 On the Create tab in the Forms group, select Form Wizard.
 Once the form wizard has started, choose the table you need and then select the fields
you want to display in the form.
 Choose the layout for the form and give the form a title.

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1.5 Working with reports
 Create a report:
 To use the report wizard, select the Create tab and click on the Report Wizard icon in
the Reports group.
 Select the table you need and then select the fields you want on the report.
 Choose the way the information must be grouped and/or sorted by clicking on the
arrow.
 Choose the layout you like and the page orientation (portrait or landscape).
 Finally, give the report a title.
 Display page headers and footers, and report headers and footers:
 Right-click anywhere on the report and select whether you want to view the page
header, page footer, report header and/or report footer.
 Calculations in reports:
 We can use reports to analyse data. We use calculations to do this. Calculations are
usually done at the end of a report by using the report footer. Calculations can also be
done in groups in a group footer.
Examples of criteria
Function Explanation Example
name =Sum([Owing])
SUM Calculates the total values in the field called ‘Owing’

AVG Calculates the average value in the field called =Avg([Donation])

‘Donation’

MIN Displays the lowest value in the field called ‘Donation’ =Min([Donation])

MAX Displays the highest value in the field called ‘Donation’ =Max([Donation])

COUNT Displays the total number of records that have a value in =Count([Name])
the ‘Name’ field

PAGE Displays the page number =[page]

DATE Displays the current date as it is set on the computer =Date()

NOW Displays the current date and time as it is set on the =Now()
computer

ROUND Rounds off to the specified number of decimal places. =Round(Avg([Donation]),2)

The example shows how to round off to two decimal
places

1.6 Importing and exporting

 Import:
 Click on the External Data tab on the ribbon.
 In the Import group, click on the type of file you want to use. Follow the instructions.
 Export:
 Click on the External Data tab on the ribbon.
 In the Export group, click on the type of file you want to use. Follow the instructions.

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1.7 Conditional formatting
 To change the way information looks on a report or form, first select the Text box or
Combo box.
 On the Format tab in the Control Formatting group, click on the Conditional Formatting
button.

2 Grouping in reports
 We use grouping to present the data in a report in a more organised way. Grouping
combines fields that contain the same value.
 Select the field to use to group the report. When you click on Grouping Levels, you will
see more grouping options, for example grouping intervals.
 You can add grouping to an existing report too. First, switch to Design View and then
click on the Group and Sort icon in the Grouping & Totals group on the Design tab.

3 Group headers and footers

When you group a report, you can use group headers and group footers to display additional
information such as group summaries, additional text and calculations.

4 Calculations in groups
 If you want to calculate something separately for a specific set of records, you have to
insert a calculation in a group.
 The group combines the records that must appear together, and then forces the calculation
to use only those records in that group.
 If you use the group header, the calculation will display before the group.
 If you use the group footer, the calculation will display after the group.

4.1 Important points to remember

 Where you insert the calculation will control what records the application uses in the
calculation. If you put the calculation in the report header or footer, all the records are
used. If you put the calculation in the group header or footer, only the fields that
belong to the group are used in the calculation.
 You must spell the field name correctly, and you must place the field name in square
brackets.
 The calculation must suit the field type. For example, you cannot use the SUM or AVG
function for a text field.
 You must type calculations in text boxes.
 You must start all calculations with an equal (=) sign.
 Add a suitable label to describe the calculation.

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5 Calculations in queries
 If you want to calculate something for every record, you will need to add the calculation in
the query. Create a new field with the calculation in it.
 To add a calculation in a query, switch to Design View first. Move to a new column, type
in the new field name followed by a colon, and then type in the calculation. If you
need to use a field name in the calculation, you must put it in square brackets.
 To change the format of the calculation, right-click in the cell and choose Properties, to
make the property sheet visible. Now move to Format and select a suitable format
from the options available. To change the decimal places, move to Decimal Places and
choose the one you want.

Examples of calculations in queries

Description Calculation in a query

To calculate 14% VAT and add it to the value in VATInclusive:([Price]*14/100)+[Price], or

the field VATInclusive:([Price]*0.14)+[Price], or
VATInclusive:[Price]*1.14

To calculate 15% discount and subtract it from DiscountedAmount:[Price]−([Price]*15/100), or

the value in the DiscountedAmount:[Price]−([Price]*0.15), or
field DiscountedAmount:[Price]*0.85

To add the values in two fields together SellingPrice:[CostPrice]+[Profit]

To divide the value in one field by the value in AveragePayment:[TotalAmount]/[NumberLearners]

another field

To multiply the value in one field by the value in TotalCost:[Units]*[Price]

another field

To calculate 10% of a value Increase:[Salary]*0.1

To calculate the percentage where a mark is out PercentageMark:[Mark]/60*100 or

of 60 PercentageMark:[Mark]/0.6

6 Adding fields in reports

If you have already created a report using the report wizard and now want to add some more
fields, you do not need to create a new report. You can use Design View or Layout View to
add fields to a report that already exists.

7 Data validation
 Primary key: Each record must have a unique identification field, called a primary key, so
that the application can find a particular record. Two records cannot contain the same
data in the primary key field.
 Data type: The data type you choose for a field controls what data users can enter.
 Field size: If you change the default field size to a smaller size, users will not be able to
enter large amounts of data.
 Field properties: Fields have additional properties that you can set. These properties
control what data can be entered.

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 Index: The database application uses indexes to speed up searching and to control whether
duplicate values in an index are allowed. If the field will be used to create an index
you can choose one of two options: Yes (Duplicates OK) or Yes (No Duplicates).
 Lookup column: You can give users the ability to select predefined values from a list. You
use a lookup column to do this. A lookup column is a list of entries that appears when
the user clicks on a drop-down arrow. The user can then select any of the available
values.
 Input mask: The input mask guides the user by displaying a number of characters when the
user clicks on the field. These characters show the user an example what the data
should look like. Input masks are very helpful when entering date and time.
 Validation rule and validation text: A validation rule is an expression (or rule) that control
what data the user can enter in a field. Only data that suits the validation rule is
accepted. A validation rule has validation text that is displayed to the user to tell him
or her what data to enter.
 Table validation: You can create a rule that prevents data entry if the data would break a
specified rule in a table. A table validation rule can check the value of more than one
field.
 List box and Combo box: List and combo boxes are very similar to lookup columns. We
use list and combo boxes in forms. They both have predefined options that they user
can be select. A list box contains a scroll bar and a combo box has a drop-down arrow.

8 Operators in queries
A wildcard is the name we give to a character that represents a character, or a number of
characters, in criteria. Different wildcards in criteria have different meanings. You can use
these wildcards with a ‘Like’ operator:
 ‘*’ (asterisk) representing zero or more characters, for example: Like “Bedroom*”
 ‘?’ (question mark) representing a single character, for example: Like “Bedroom Bazaa?”
 ‘#’ (number sign) representing a single digit, for example: Like “BD#9”. When you want
to select and display records that have no value in a specific field, you need to use the
‘Is Null’ operator. When you use ‘Is Null’ in the Criteria row, only the records with no
value in that field will display. The opposite of ‘Is Null’ is the ‘Is Not Null’ operator,
which displays all the records with values in that field.

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 Questions

1 You set up a database for a company to keep record of all the computer users.

FIELD NAME DESCRIPTION

LogInName Name of user
ComputerNumber The number of the computer
Password 11 characters, all uppercase, numbers included
Department Research and Development, Accounting, Customer Service,
Legal Department, Sales and Marketing, Advertising
DateStarted The date the employee started at the company
InternetUse The amount the Internet usage amounts to

1.1 Indicate the most appropriate data types for all the fields. (6)
1.2 Provide the characters of the input mask for the Password field. (3)
1.3 Briefly describe the steps to create a combo box for the Department field. (5)
2.1 You were asked to create a form. Briefly describe what the purpose of a form is. (2)
2.2 The following was entered as criteria for a query:
“Accounting” and “Advertising”
Briefly describe what the problem with this criterion is
and why it will not give a result. (2)
2.3 The following calculation was entered in the group footer:
=SUM[InternetUse])
2.3.1 What is the purpose of a group? (1)
2.3.2 By what field would you group the report? (1)
2.3.3 Explain what this calculation will calculate in the group footer. (2)
3 Correct the following calculation in the query:
=Added InternetUse:{InternetUse}*1.14 (3)
TOTAL MARKS [25]

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 Answers

1.1 LogInName – Text

ComputerNumber – Number
Password – Text 
Department – Text/Combo box/List box
DateStarted – Date/Time
InternetUse – Currency  (6)
1.2 >AAAAAAAAAAA (correct character) (12 characters) (3) (12 characters)
1.3 Text data type 
Select Lookup Wizard
Select “I will type in the values that I want”
Click on Next
Enter the values in as rows
Click on Next 
Enter a label for the lookup field
Click on Finish  (5)
2.1 A form is a user-friendly  way to input data in a table (2)
2.2 A value can either be Accounting OR Advertising.
No record contains BOTH the values Accounting AND Advertising in the same field (2)

2.3.1 Grouping combines fields that contain the same value. (1)
2.3.2 Department  (1)
2.3.3 This calculation will add up all the InternetUse amounts separately for each group. (2)
3 AddedInternetUse:[InternetUse]*1.14 (3)
TOTAL MARKS [25]

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Chapter 5 Spreadsheets

Overview

This chapter reinforces and consolidates Grade 10 and 11 spreadsheet knowledge and skills.

Unit 1 (Formulas and functions) explains more complex functions like VLOOKUP and the
nested IF function, as well as variations of functions that you should know such as
ROUNDUP and ROUNDDOWN, which are based on the ROUND function. You will
combine basic functions such as SUM and AVERAGE with ROUND and work with date and
time calculations.

Unit 2 (Text functions) continues with new text functions such as LEFT, RIGHT, MID,
CONCATENATE, LEN, VALUE and FIND.

Unit 3 (Solve problems with functions and charts) You will learn about applying your
spreadsheet skills to solve problems you may encounter, as well as more intricate chart
techniques allowing you to edit, format and change charts.

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Unit 1 Formulas and functions (Term 1)

1 Reinforce content, concepts and skills

This section provides an overview of the work learnt in Grades 10 and 11.

1.1 Overview of spreadsheets

 Spreadsheets contain cells arranged in columns and rows.
 Spreadsheet files are also called workbooks, an individual sheet within a workbook is a
worksheet.
 Each cell has a cell reference, or cell address which made up of the the letter of the column
and the number of the row, to identify its place in the spreadsheet. For example cell A1
A1 is column A and row 1.
 Spreadsheets can store different types of data such as numbers and text.
 Row height and column width can be adjusted by right-clicking on the row number or
column letter.
 Spreadsheets work with different types of data. Cells simply need to be formatted with the
appropriate data types.

Examples of data types

Type Explanation Examples
General Has no specific format Computer, Office 2010
Text Numbers not to be used in calculations Student number
Number Used for the general display of numbers 1,3333
Time Can be displayed using different separators 09:45 or 09h45
Date Can be displayed using different options 22 March 2015 or 22/03/98
Currency Numerical value shown as currency such as South African R5.70
Rand
Accounting Lines the currency symbol and decimal point up R 5.70
R 3.35
Percentage Multiplies the value of a cell by 100, displays the result as a 45 is displayed as 4500%
%
Custom Allows you to specify the format of dates, times and other dd/mm/yy or dd/mmm/yyyy
values as required or other variations.

1.1.1 Basic calculations and operators

 Formulas are used to add (+), subtract (-), multiply (*) and divide (/).
 Every formula begins with an equals (=) sign.
 Calculations are done in the order of brackets first, then division and then multiplication,
then addition and subtraction.

1.2 Functions
 A function is a preset formula in a spreadsheet that starts with an equals sign (=) followed
by the function name and the formula to perform a specific calculation.
 Functions can be typed in, or inserted using the Insert Function feature. Alternatively use
the Functions Library.

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 Functions from Grade 10 and 11 include:
Examples of functions (that you should already be familiar with)
Function Name Purpose Example
SUM Calculates the total of a range of numbers =SUM(A3:A8)
AVERAGE Calculates the average of the numbers in a =AVERAGE (A3:A8)
specified cell range
MIN Finds the smallest value in a specified cell =MIN(A3:A8)
range
MAX Finds the highest value in a specified cell =MAX(A3:A8)
range
COUNT Finds the total number of cells that contain =COUNT(A3:A8)
a numerical value in a specified cell range
TODAY Returns the current date as set on the =TODAY()
computer
RAND Generates a random number each time the =RAND()
function is calculated
MODE Returns the value that occurs most often in =MODE(A3:A8)
the specified range
MEDIAN Returns the middle value of the values in =MEDIAN(A3:A8)
the specified cell range
SMALL Finds the smallest specified number in a =SMALL(A3:A8,3)
range
LARGE Finds the highest specified number in a =LARGE(A3:A8,4)
range
COUNTIF Finds how often specific criteria occurs in a =COUNTIF(A3:A8,”Grade12”)
cell range
COUNTA Finds the number of cells that contain text =COUNTA(A3:A8)
in a specified cell range
COUNTBLANK Finds the number of blank cells in a =COUNTBLANK(A3:A8)
specified cell range
SUMIF Calculates the total figures in a cell range if =SUMIF(A1:A6,”GRADE12”,B1:B6)
a specific criteria is met
ROUND Rounds figures off to a required number of =ROUND(A1,3)
decimal places
POWER Finds the result of a number raised to a =POWER(A1,2)
specific power
IF Tests if a specified criterion has been met =IF(B3>40,”Pass”,”Fail”)
and provides one of two actions based on
the result

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1.2.1 Error indicators
Error indicators reveal a spreadsheet problem with a function in the spreadsheet.

Error indicators, why they appear and solutions to the problem

Indicator Reason Solution
##### Column is not wide enough to display the Widen the column
contents
#NAME! Incorrect function name in formula (typing Check spelling of function names in the
error or unknown function) formula
#DIV/o! Formula attempts to divide by 0, which is Find and correct the error in cell reference
not possible in mathematics or cell contents
#REF! The cell reference in the formula is no Change the cell reference to refer to the
longer valid (that cell was deleted) correct cell
#N/A Formula refers to a cell that is not available Correct the cell reference
anymore
#VALUE! Incorrect value used in the cell (for Correct the cell value or cell reference
example, a text value being multiplied)
#NUM Invalid number in a formula (for example, a Correct the value in the relative cell
negative instead of a positive number)
#NULL! Cell references in a function are not Separate the cell references by adding the
correctly separated (for example operator is appropriate operator or colon
not placed between two cell references)
Circular Indicates the destination cell for a formula is Accept the warning if it is correct or change
Reference used in the calculation of the formula the cell reference in the formula or alter the
Warning destination for the formula

1.3 Charts or graphs

Charts are used to display spreadsheet data in a visual format.

Chart types and their uses

Chart type Use and description
Pie chart Used to represent data as percentages that add up to 100%
Example: Show sales of various products in relation to the total
Column/Bar chart Used to compare values or items
Example: Compare CD sales over a period of time, or compare voting results
Line chart Used to display trends over a period of time
Example: Track increases or decreases in CD sales from 2010-2013
Scatter chart Used to show relationships between two pairs of data
Example: Compare rainfall in KZN to rainfall in Gauteng
Area chart Used to show changes in sets of data over a period of time
Example: Show increases in temperatures attributed to global warming

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1.4 Working with spreadsheets
There are tools available to adapt spreadsheets to your own needs.

1.4.1 Cell referencing

 Relative cell references change each time a formula is copied to a different cell.
 Absolute cell references always refer to the same cell wherever the formula is copied to.
 To make a cell reference absolute, highlight the reference and then press the F4 key.
Alternatively place the $ symbol before the column and row cell reference, for
example, $A$2.
 A column on its own may be referenced as absolute, for example $A2, in the same way as
a row can, for example A$2.

1.4.2 Auto Fill options

Include: Copy Cells, Fill Series, Fill Formatting Only and Fill Without Formatting.

1.4.3 Importing and exporting data

 Data can be imported from a text file or a database into a spreadsheet.
 Spreadsheet data such as a Chart can be pasted in a word processing document.
 A chart pasted into a word processing document can be linked to the spreadsheet data by
using the Paste Special feature.
 This means the pasted chart in the word processing document will be updated when
changes are made to the spreadsheet data.

1.4.4 Moving and copying worksheets

 The order of the spreadsheets can be changed by dragging and dropping the worksheets
into order that you choose.

1.4.5 Linking cells and formulas between sheets

 To link cells and formulas between sheets, type an equals sign (=) into the cell where you
would like to place the final answer.
 Then click on the cell containing the data followed by the relevant mathematical operator,
then the next cell and so on until all the required cells have been linked.
 Complete this by pressing the Enter key.

1.4.6 Headers and footers

Date and time, file name, page number, number of pages and file path are some of the data
that can be inserted into the Header.

1.4.7 Protecting data

Data can be protected by adding a password to open or modify cells, a worksheet or
workbook.

1.5 Printing
 Options are available for printing a selected portion of data, a worksheet or an entire
workbook.
 Exercise caution when printing to avoid wasting paper and ink.

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1.5.1 Print area and sheet options
 Setting the Print area allows you to print pre-selected cells without having to select the
cells each time you print.
 Print gridlines can be selected for printing. This means you do not have to add borders to
the work for printing purposes.

2 More-complex functions
 Use more complex functions for greater analysis and decision-making assistance.
 These are also useful as a time-saving method for working with large volumes of data.
2.1 Nested IF functions
 The IF function is used to test a condition.
 Different criteria and operators can be used within the nested IF function such as greater
than (>), less than or equals to (<=) or other variations.
 Remember:
 The function must be typed in. The Insert Function feature cannot be used in this
instance.
 For every opening bracket there must be a closing bracket.
 Any text typed into the function must be included between quotation marks.
 A result can be left empty by typing in only quotation marks “”

2.2 The vertical lookup function (VLOOKUP function)

 VLOOKUP is used to return a value from a range in a table in the same worksheet or
another worksheet within the workbook.

2.2.1 Using the VLOOKUP function

 This function has four arguements to it:
 Lookup_value – the value you wish to insert in the specified cell.
 Table_array – the cell range where the required data is stored.
 Col_num_index – the location of the column where the data must be taken from. That
is the first, second, third etc column. Key in 1, 2 or 3 etc not A, B, C.
 Range_Lookup – type False if an exact data match is required or True for the closest
data match.

2.2.2 The #N/A error indicator in the VLOOKUP function

The error may occur if:
 True is inserted in the Range_lookup field instead of False (and vice-versa).
 A relative cell reference is used where an absolute cell reference is required. This usually
occurs in the Table_array.
 Data in the Lookup_value does not match data in the reference table.

2.3 ROUND function

 The ROUND function is is used to round a number off to a required number of decimal
places.
 Values of .5 and higher are rounded up while those below .5 are rounded down.

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 Unlike increasing or decreasing decimal places this function rounds the number off rather
than just changing the number of decimal places displayed.
 ROUNDUP rounds the figure away from zero.
 ROUNDDOWN rounds the figure towards zero.

2.4 Combining ROUND with other functions

 The ROUND function can be combined with functions such as SUM or AVERAGE.
 ROUND is typed first, then the other function, followed by the cell range and the number
of places to round off to.
 Example: =ROUND(SUM(B2:B4),0)

3 Basic date and time calculations

 The regional settings for Windows will influence how the dates and times will be
displayed when you format them.
 For example, you may use forward slashes to enter a data value for a date field as
14/02/2014, but when you apply the General Date display format, it may display
differently depending on the regional setting for Windows.

3.1 Customising the date format

 Dates can be formatted as either long date or short date.
 You can also customise the date format by customising the formatting of the date by using
the Custom option on the Number menu in the Home Ribbon.
 Dates can be formatted with or without the – or / separators.
 The Day, Month, Year sequence is the most commonly used in South Africa.

3.2 Using dates in calculations

 To calculate the difference between dates as days you subtract one cell from another.
 To format the number of days as years the result must be divided by 365.25.
 An example of this would be =(A2-B2)/365.25.

3.3 Using time in calculations

 Data representing time can be formatted as hh:mm:ss or before midday (AM) and after
midday (PM).
 Subtracting one cell from another produces an answer in days.
 The cell reference should be multiplied by 24 and the cell formatted as Number.
 An example of this would be =(A2-B2)*24.

3.4 Date and time functions

 Simple time and date functions include:
 =TODAY() – inserts the current date into a cell.
 =NOW() – inserts the current date and time into a cell.
 =DATE(Year, Month, Day) – combines the data from 3 different cells into one cell.
 =TIME(Hour, Minute, Second) – combines the data from 3 different cells into one
cell.

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Unit 2 Text functions (Term 2)

1 Revise content, concepts and skills

Regular and repeated practice is important to master and maintain your skills.

2 Working with text

 Most functions are designed to work with and manipulate numbers.
 Text functions will return a value which is converted to text in a specified number format.

Summary of text functions

Function Purpose Example
LEFT Extracts and returns the left most characters from a =LEFT(A1,3)
text string, for example if you want only the left most
3 letters of a surname to appear it will return ADA for
ADAMSON
RIGHT Extracts and returns right most characters from a =RIGHT(A1,3)
text string, for example if you want only the right
most 3 letters of a surname to appear it will return
SON for ADAMSON
MID Extracts a substring from a string, starting at any =MID(A1,3,2)
position that you specify. For example, in the
surname ADAMSON the letters AM can be extracted
using this function.
CONCATENATE Joins or combines the contents of different cells into =CONCATENATE(A1,B1,C1)
one cell. For example, the Title in cell A1 is Mr, the
Name in cell B1 is Sam and the Surname in cell C1
is Smith. The result placed in one cell is Mr Sam
Smith
LEN Returns the length of a string, that is, the number of =LEN(A1)
characters in a cell. For example the word
ADAMSON returns a result of 7
VALUE Converts a value that represents a number into a =VALUE(A1)
number OR Converts a text argument to a number
If text is not a number, the Value function will return
#VALUE!. For example if the number 50 is imported
from another application the function will convert it to
a number format that the spreadsheet recognises
FIND Returns the location of a string of text from a =FIND(Text,A1)
specified cell
Note: FIND is case sensitive. For example letters
SON can be found within the text ADAMSON

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2.1 LEFT, RIGHT and CONCATENATE
 The LEFT function is useful for extracting the leftmost characters from a string of data in
a cell.
 The RIGHT function works exactly like the RIGHT function but from the right.
 The CONCATENATE function combines strings of data from different cells into one cell.
 LEFT or RIGHT can be combined with CONCATENATE.
An example of such a combination could look like:
=CONCATENATE(B2,RIGHT(C2,4)).

2.2 LEN, VALUE and FIND functions

2.2.1 LEN and VALUE functions

 LEN finds the length of the data in a string.
 This function can be applied to text and numerical data.
 VALUE allows for data representing numerical data to be formatted as a Number.

2.2.2 FIND function

 This function finds a specific string of text within a function.
 The exact position of the string within the cell is easily identified.
 Remember:
 This function is case sensitive.
 You cannot use a Wildcard (*) in this function.
 A #VALUE! error is returned if the value being sought is not contained in the cell.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 73

Unit 3 Solve problems with functions and
charts (Term 3)

1 Further revision of content, concepts and skills

Ensure you familiarise yourself with newer content from Grade 12 and that you are able to
apply these skills with ease.

2 Use functions to solve problems

Summary of functions categories used in CAT

Function Category Example of function
Logical IF
Text LEFT, RIGHT, MID, CONCATENATE, LEN,
VALUE, FIND
Date & Time TODAY, NOW, DATE, DAY, MONTH, YEAR
Lookup & Reference VLOOKUP
Math & Trig POWER, RAND, ROUND, ROUNDDOWN,
ROUNDUP, SUM, SUMIF
Statistical AVERAGE, COUNT, COUNTA, COUNTBLANK,
COUNTIF, LARGE, MAX, MEDIAN, MIN, MODE

 Functions can be used to solve any problem suitable to a spreadsheet.

 Problems to which a spreadsheet solution can be applied include:
 Calculating learner marks
 Analysing survey results
 Monitoring data from scientific experiments
 Analysing weather patterns
 Calculating salary payments and scales

 When using a spreadsheet as a tool to solve a problem remember:

 Think about what you would like the spreadsheet to solve.
 To plan what data types you will be working with.
 To decide what data will need to be collected in order to solve the problem.
 Consider what functions will be useful in assisting you to solve the problem.
 Plan how you will present your solutions to the problem.

3 Advanced combinations of functions

 More advanced combinations of functions can be used to provide information useful for
decision-making.
 Such combinations include CONCATENATE with LEFT or RIGHT, adding or
multiplying SUMIF and COUNTIF functions.

4 Edit, format and use charts

More advanced chart features can be utilised to improve the effectiveness of the chart.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 74

4.1 Editing data labels

How to change titles and labels

To change titles To change labels
 Click on the chart or axis title  Click on the data label (the Chart Tools Ribbon will be visible).
 Highlight the existing title  Select the Data category from the Design tab.
 Type over the data  Click on Select Data.
 Click off the title  Choose a label from the Select Data Source dialogue box (see
Figure XX below) For example, Series1.
 Click on Edit.
 Type the new label name in the Series name box.
 Click OK and repeat steps 4-6 if there are other labels to
change.
 Click OK again to close dialogue box and save the changes.

4.2 Changing scales on the axes

 Numerical intervals are displayed on the vertical axis.
 Text intervals are displayed on the horizontal axis.
 The space between each point on an axis is called an interval.
 The Format Axis option allows you to make changes to the scale.
 The minimum and maximum value are automatically determined by the application when
creating a chart but these can be further manipulated manually.
 Tick marks on the axis can be changed by adjusting the minor and major unit in the Axis
Options menu.

4.3 Creating stacked bar and column charts using a graphic

 A stacked chart allows you to group similar data in one chart.
 Stacking shows the relationship between individual items..

4.4 Using charts for specific scenarios

 A pie chart can be used to compare different values adding up to 100%.
 A line chart can be used to compare Grade 12 year-end pass rates over several years.
 A scatter chart can be used to show the difference between pass rates for boys and girls.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 75

 Questions

Open the spreadsheet SG_Excel and do the following:

Refer to Sheet 1
1 In the spaces provided calculate the total number of learners for each learning area. (2)
2 Use a suitable function in column W to determine a Grade 12 learner’s subject status.
The criteria are:
A learner taking more than seven subjects should state ‘Monitor’. For a learner taking
seven subjects only the cell should state ‘Acceptable’ and if a learner is scheduled for
fewer than seven subjects it should state ‘Review’. Repeat this for Grades 10 and 11. (5)
3 Create a learner number for each Grade 12 learner in column B. The code should be
the Grade, the first three letters of the learner name and last three letters of the learner
surname. For example: 12Jacith for Jack Smith. (3)
4 Adjust the page layout to ensure that the data for each grade will print on a separate
landscape page. (2)
Refer to Sheet 2
5 Use a function to insert today’s date in column H. Format columns G and H using
the dd/yy/yy format. (2)
6 Use an appropriate formula in column I to determine the length of time each learner
has spent at the school. Ensure this is reflected in years and not as days. (2)
7 A registration fee is charged for each learner joining the school (column D). Calculate
the total for each class in cells M2:4 and then provide an overall total in cell M5. (4)
8 Format the data in column D as a suitable data type. (1)
9 In cell M7 use a function to determine the second largest amount received by a class. (1)
10 After grade 12 the school refund part of the registration fee. This amount is
determined by subtracting the registration fee from 5% of the total registration fee
amount received. Insert your formula in cell J2 and copy it down for all learners. (3)
11 Use a suitable formatting technique to highlight the two lowest refund amounts.
Format these in a red font with blue shading. (2)
Refer to Sheet 3
12 Create a chart which will compare each class’s registration fee for a particular year. The
chart must display the years 2009 – 2013 (do not use a line chart). Be certain to add
suitable titles, axes labels etc., and ensure that the vertical axis is formatted to show a
minimum value of 28000 and a maximum value of 38000 with increments of 1000. (3)
TOTAL MARKS: 30

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 76

 Answers

1 Sheet1
Cell E20: =SUM(E3:E18)repeated through to cell T20
and the same in rows 33 and 47.  (2)

2 Cell W3: =IF(V3>7,"Monitor",IF(V3=7,"Acceptable",IF(V3<7,"Review")))

Repeated for Grade 10 data and Grade 11 data 
(5)

3 Cell B3: =CONCATENATE (A3,LEFT(C3,3),RIGHT(D3,3))  (3)

4 Page break lines adjusted so only one sheet fits per page
Page orientation changed to landscape
(2)

5 Sheet2
Cell H2: =Today(), copied down
Cells G and H formatted as dd/mm/yy
(2)

6 Column I: (H2-G2) /365.25 (2)

7 Cell M2: =SUMIF(B2:B36,"j",D2:D36)

Formula used in cells M3: M4

Cell M4: =SUM(M2:M4) 

(4)

8 Column D formatted as Currency. 

(1)

9 Cell M7: =LARGE(M2:M4,2) 

(1)

10 Cell J2: =$M$5*5%-D2

(3)

11 Column J Conditional Formatting applied:

Rule: Top/Bottom Rules applied – bottom 2 red font on blue fill
(2)

12 Sheet3
Stacked Column Chart (not line chart) 
Titles and axes suitably labelled 
Vertical axes increases in increments of R20 000 (3)

TOTAL [30]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 77

Chapter 6 Word Processing

Overview

Unit 1 (Referencing, reviewing, pagination and importing data) This chapter consolidates
Grade 10 and 11 word processing knowledge and skills. You will also learn to insert
bookmarks and how to hyperlink to bookmarked locations. We focus on the reviewing tools
and the track changes feature. Line breaks and pagination options such as widow and orphan
control and the importing of data collected using electronic forms are explained.

Unit 2 (Mail merge and file management) You are familiar with mail merging and how to
create and print personalised labels, envelopes and letters. You will practise the mail merge
feature using data from different data sources. We explain advanced file management and how
to prepare a document for electronic distribution. We look at advanced page layout and styles
as well as the integration with other applications such as databases and spreadsheets.

Unit 3 (Advanced document styles and integration) You will reference and manage sources,
add a table of contents, insert footnotes and endnotes and add a caption to a picture. We revise
hyperlinking and use the paste special option to link or embed objects in different
applications. We reinforce reviewing and proofreading features, page and document layout,
bulleted and numbered lists, tabs and tables, and the design and creation of electronic forms.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 78

Unit 1 Referencing, reviewing, pagination and
importing data (Term 1)

1 Bookmarks
Instead of scrolling through the document to find the text, you can go to it by using the
bookmark name.

1.1 Working with bookmarks

 Select the text or item to which the bookmark will refer.
 From the Insert tab, Links group, click Bookmark.
 At the Bookmark dialogue box under Bookmark name, type a name for your bookmark,
then click Add.

1.1.1 View the bookmarks

Click File tab, Options button, Advanced. Under Show document content, select the check
box at Show bookmarks, and then click OK.

1.1.2 Delete a bookmark

At the Bookmark dialogue box, click the name of the bookmark that you want to delete, and
then click Delete.

1.1.3 Go to a bookmark
At the Bookmark dialogue box, click the name of the bookmark that you want to revisit, and
then click Go To.

1.1.5 Use a hyperlink to go to a bookmarked location

 In the current document, allocate a bookmark to the text or object.
 In the same document, select the text or object that you want to display as the link.
 On the Insert tab, in the Links group, click on Hyperlink.
 In the Insert Hyperlink window, under Link to, select Place in This Document.
 At the list of options, select the bookmark that you want to link to, and then click OK.
 To go to the bookmarked location, press the Control key and click on the hyperlinked text.

1.2 Cross-references
A cross-reference is a reference from one part of a document to another point within the same
document.

1.2.1 Insert a cross-reference to a bookmark

 Create a bookmark at a place in the document.
 Move the cursor to the place where you want the cross-reference to appear.
 Click the Cross-reference button at the Insert tab, Links group.
 In the Cross-reference dialogue box that appears, under Reference type:, select Bookmark
as the type of item that the link will search for.

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 Place a check mark at the Insert as hyperlink option.
 At the Bookmark dialogue box, click the name of the bookmark that you want to revisit,
and then click Go To.
 Under For which bookmark, select the bookmark name that will be the destination of the
link.
 Under Insert reference to:, choose Page number as the type of text that will be displayed in
the link. Click on Insert, and then Close.

2 Reviewing and tracking changes

2.1 Tracking changes
The Track Changes feature keeps a record of all the changes that you make in a document.
You can choose to accept or reject the tracked changes.

2.1.1 Track the changes while you edit

 Open the document you want to edit.
 On the Review tab, Tracking group, click the drop-down arrow at the Track Changes
button. Click the Track Changes option.
 Make the changes that you want by inserting, deleting, moving and formatting text.
 To turn off the tracked changes, click the Track Changes option.

2.1.2 View the tracked changes in a document

You can review the changes using the options on the Review tab. In the Tracking group the
options, Show Markup and Reviewing Pane, control what you see.

2.1.3 The 'Display for Review' box

 Choose how you want to view the changes that have been made to a document:
 Final: Show Markup: Displays the final version of the text with all the tracked changes
and comments showing.
 Final: Displays the final version of the text with all the suggested changes included in
the text, but the tracked changes are hidden.
 Original: Show Markup: Displays the original version of the text with all the tracked
changes and comments showing.
 Original: Displays the original version of the text before changes were made.

2.1.4 The 'Show Markup' option

 To choose what kind of markup to show in the document, click on the drop-down arrow of
the Show Markup button. Place a check mark next to the type of change that you want
to see in your document:
 Comments shows comments that have been added to the document.
 Insertions and Deletions shows what has been added, or deleted.
 Formatting shows what formatting changes have been made.
 Markup Area Highlight highlights the margin where balloons appear.
 Balloons shows changes in balloons in the margin.
 Reviewers shows which author (called a reviewer) made a change or added a
comment.

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2.1.5 The 'Reviewing Pane' option
You can show changes in a document in a separate window, either at the left or at the bottom
of the screen. Use the drop-down arrow of the Reviewing Pane button to select either
Reviewing Pane Vertical or Reviewing Pane Horizontal.

2.1.6 How to show the tracked changes

 Click on the drop-down arrow at the Show Markup button in the Tracking group.
 Hover the mouse over the Balloons option to open the list of markup options:
 Show Revisions in Balloons shows deletions in balloons in the margins and insertions
as underlined text.
 Show All Revisions Inline shows all the changes in the document itself.
 Show Only Comments and Formatting in Balloons shows only comments and
formatting changes in balloons in the margin, not insertions and deletions.

2.2 Accepting or rejecting tracked changes

 To accept the tracked changes click on the drop-down arrow at the Accept button in the
Changes group. Use the Accept button to do the following:
 Click on Accept and move to Next to accept the current change and move to the next
change.
 Click on Accept Change to accept the current change.
 Click on Accept All Changes Shown to accept all the changes in view.
 Click on Accept All Changes in Document to accept all the changes.
 The Reject button is next to the Accept button. Rejecting a change is similar to
accepting one, but when rejected, the change is ignored and removed.

3 Line breaks and pagination options

Page breaks
 The application automatically creates a soft page break once the page is full.
 You can also insert a page break at any place in the document by selecting Page options on
the Page Breaks drop-down menu, or the shortcut keys, Ctrl+Enter.

Insert section breaks

 Click in the document where you want the section break to be.
 On the Page Layout tab in the Page Setup group, click on the Breaks button.
 Click on the type of section break that you want to use:
 Next Page starts a new page (useful for new chapters).
 Continuous stays on the same page (useful for adding columns to a page).
 Even Page starts the next section on the next even-numbered page.
 Odd Page starts the next section on the next odd-numbered page.

Line breaks
Line breaks (Shift+Enter) are used in a document when you want to start a new line but not a
new paragraph.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 81

Pagination options
 Pagination is the process of dividing a document into pages. You can control the
pagination of a document by setting options in the Paragraph group on the Page
Layout tab.
 Click on the paragraph group's dialogue box launcher arrow to open the Paragraph
dialogue box, and then click on the Line and Page Breaks tab.

Widow/Orphan control
 Widow is the last line of a paragraph that appears by itself at the top of a page.
 Orphan is the first line of a paragraph that appears by itself at the bottom of a page.
 To prevent widows and orphans in a document:
 Select the paragraphs in which you want to control widows and orphans.
 In the Paragraph dialogue box, under Pagination, select the Widow/Orphan control
check box. Then click on OK.

Prevent page breaks between paragraphs

 Select the paragraphs that you want to keep together on a single page.
 Under Pagination, select Keep with next, and click on OK.

Keep lines of a paragraph together on a page

 Select the paragraph that contains the lines you want to keep together.
 Under Pagination, select Keep lines together, and click on OK.

Force a page break before a paragraph

 Select the paragraph or text that you want to appear after the page break.
 Under Pagination, select Page break before, and click on OK.

4 Import data collected using electronic forms

4.1 Saving only the data from electronic forms
Use these steps to create a delimited text file (where the fields are separated by a comma)
containing data from a form.
 Step 1: Use the Legacy Forms controls of the Control group, on the Developer tab, to
create an electronic form.
 Step 2: Protect the form so that a user can enter data only in the form's fields.
 Click on the Restrict Editing button in the Protect group of the Developer tab.
 In the Restrict Formatting and Editing task pane, under Editing restrictions, select
Allow only this type of editing in the document.
 Select Filling in forms from the list of editing restrictions.
 Under Start enforcement, click on Yes, Start Enforcing Protection.
 Step 3: Save the form as a template by clicking on the Save As option on the File tab. At
the Save as Type drop-down list, select Word Template (*.dotx).
 Give your file a name and then save and close the file.
 Step 4: Locate your template file in your templates folder and fill in the form.
 After you have filled in the form, select Options at the File tab.
 Click on Advanced and, under Preserve fidelity when sharing this document, select the
check box at Save form data as delimited text file.
 Click on OK. Click on OK again to save the document as a text file.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 82

4.2 Importing form data
4.2.1 Import form data into a spreadsheet using the Text Import
Wizard
 Open a spreadsheet. Use the import buttons in the Get External Data group of the Data tab.
Click on the From Text button.
 In the Import Text File dialogue box, double-click on the text file that you want to import.
This opens the Text Import Wizard dialogue box.

4.2.2 Follow the Text Import Wizard

 In the section Original data type, select the Delimited option. Click on Next.
 If your data contains commas, in the section Delimiters, select Comma. Click Next.
 In this window you can select Do not import column to skip any column.
 Click on Finish. An Import Data dialogue box opens asking you where you want to put the
data. You can choose any cell in the existing worksheet.
 Click on OK to complete the import process.

4.2.3 Import form data into a word processing document

 Open a word processing document. At the drop-down arrow of the Object button in the
Text group of the Insert tab, click on the Text from File option.
 In the Insert File dialogue box, search All Files (*.*).
 When you locate the file, double-click on it, and then click OK.

4.2.4 Export form data to a word processing application

 In a database, right click on the database table where the data is stored.
 Select the option Export on the context menu, and then select Word RTF File from the
sub-menu. This will open the Export – RTF File window.
 Select the option to Open the destination file after the export operation is complete, and
then click OK.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 83

 Question 1

Open the file SG_6A. Make changes to the document as follows:

1 Hyperlink the word 'Toggle' to the bookmark called 'Num_Lock'. (2)
2 Delete the bookmark 'num_keys'. (2)
3 Create a cross-reference from the name of the author, 'Sonia Pass' on page 1,
to link to the first heading on page 3. Use the page number as the reference. (3)
4 Switch the track changes feature on. (1)
5 Display the following markup in the document: Comments and all Reviewers. (2)
6 Apply a two-column format, with a line between, to the last two paragraphs on the last
page of the document. (3)
7 Control the pagination of the document as follows:
7.1 Prevent widows and orphans. (2)
7.2 Keep headings together with their paragraphs. (2)
8 Import the text file SG_6B into cell A1, row 1, of the spreadsheet which is
saved as SG_6C. (3)
TOTAL MARKS [20]

Answers to Question 1

1 Hyperlink on 'Toggle'  to the bookmark 'Num_Lock'. (2)

2 Bookmark 'num_keys'  deleted  (2)

3 Cross-reference at author name (Sonia Pass)  linked to 1st heading on page 3 (3)
(Availability of types….) page number as reference 

4 Track changes switched on (either at Reviewing tab or Status bar) (1)

5 Markups selected: Comments  Reviewers  (2)

6 Two columns applied to last two paragraphs on last page  with a line between  (3)

7 7.1 Pagination  widow/orphan selected  (2)

7.2 Pagination  keep with next  (2)

8 Data from text file  imported into spreadsheet  in cell A1 of row 1 (3)

TOTAL [20]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 84

Unit 2 Mail merge and file management
(Term 2)

1 Reinforce content, concepts and skills

You have used the different features of a word processing application to:
 Develop documents such as letters and reports.
 Create and print personalised documents such as labels, envelopes and letters, using the
mail merge buttons of the Mailings tab.
 Send documents via e-mail and from one application to another using the Save & Send
options of the File tab.
 Convert documents to the newest file formats, as an alternative to working in compatibility
mode, using the Convert option of the File tab.
 Save files in different formats such as TXT or RTF and publish documents in PDF and
XPS formats.

2 Mail merge
Mail merge combines one document with individual details from another file to create
multiple, personalised documents.

2.1 Data source

 A typical data source file consists of:
 Rows that contain one record of data, such as the details of one recipient.
 Columns that contain a category of information called a field, such as the first name of
all the recipients.
 The fields that you add to the main document are the field name tags for these
categories.

2.1.1 Select recipients

You can select your recipients by entering them into a new recipient list, use an existing list,
or import an e-mail contact list. In the following example you will select the recipients from
an existing list. Use the buttons in the Start Mail Merge group on the Mailings tab.

 Step 1: Select the mail merge document type by clicking on Letters at the Start Mail
Merge drop-down list.
 Step 2: At the Select Recipients drop-down arrow, click on Use Existing List.
 Step 3: At the Select Data Source window that opens, locate the file that contains your
data source.
 Step 4: Write your e-mail message. To add the field name tags to your document, use the
buttons of the Write & Insert Fields group. The field name tags are recognised by the
brackets <<>> that mark the place for the information.
 Step 5: Click on the double arrows in the Preview Results group to preview your letters.
 Step 6: Complete the merge. In the Finish group, click on the Finish & Merge button and
select the option to Print the document or Edit individual letters.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 85

2.1.2 Other data sources
 If you use a word processing document as your data source, the document should contain a
single table.
 You can also use any text file that has used tab characters or commas to separate data in a
record.

2.2 Merge data to a directory

 A directory contains a printed list of names, addresses and other information.
 The process of using a directory as your main document is the same as for any other
document type.
 The difference between a directory and a form letter is that the directory lists each
recipient underneath each other with no section break separating the individual
records.

3 File management
 The File ribbon tab in Microsoft Office 2010 replaces the Office Button in the 2007
version of Microsoft Office.
 The File ribbon tab gives you access to the Backstage view which contains the basic file
management commands, such as Save, Save & Send and Options.

3.1 Prepare a document for distribution

To distribute a document means to make an electronic copy of the document available for
others either to share and edit or to read. For example, you can distribute an electronic
document manually using a removable storage device or you can distribute it as a web-based
hyperlinked document.

3.1.1 The Document Inspector

 Each time you create an electronic document, metadata is automatically added to it.
 Metadata provides information about the file, such as the name of the author and the date
the file was created.
 You use the Document Inspector to find and remove hidden metadata:
 Open the document. Click on the File tab and select the Info option.
 Under Prepare for Sharing, click Check for Issues, and then click Inspect Document.
Click Yes to save the file.
 In the Document Inspector dialogue box, select check boxes to choose the types of
hidden content that you want inspected. Click Inspect.
 If the document inspector finds hidden and personal content, the option to Remove
All, will appear under Review the inspection results.

3.2 Publish a document

 To publish a document means to make an electronic copy of the document available for
others either to view and edit.
 You can choose options such as PDF or XPS to publish documents in a more compatible
file format.

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3.2.1 The 'Save and Send' option
Use this option to send your document to a central location on the Internet. You can then share
your document with other people.

3.2.2 The 'Save to Web' option

Use this option to store your documents on a Web server and use the Word web application to
open the document in your browser.

3.2.3 The 'Save to SharePoint' option

SharePoint libraries are locations on a special type of online site where you can store and
control how files are viewed, tracked, managed and created.

3.2.4 The 'Publish as Blog Post' option

A weblog is an informal website consisting of articles in a diary format. To create a weblog
using a document in your word processing application, click on the Publish as Blog Post
option. Then click on the Publish as Blog Post button.

3.2.5 The 'File Types' option

 When you create a document to share and publish, you can save the document as a
readable file only, or as a readable and editable file.
 These options can be accessed from the File tab, Save & Send option, under File Types.

3.2.6 Changing file types

 At Save & Send, click on the Change File Type button, to view the different file formats.
 Under Change File Type, click on the file type of your choice.
 Click the Save As button to open the Save As dialogue box.
 In the Save As dialogue box, the File Name and the Save as type boxes are automatically
changed to the new file type that you chose.
 Click Save, then click OK.

3.2.7 Creating and saving a document in a fixed format

 Click on the Create PDF/XPS Document option, and then click on the Create PDF/XPS
button.
 In the Publish as PDF or XPS dialogue box, in the Save as type list, select PDF (*.pdf) or
XPS Document (*.xps). Click on the Publish button to create the file.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 87

 Question 2

1 Personalised questionnaires must be sent to specific recipients in Grade 12.

1.1 Use the files SG_6D and SG_6E to prepare for a mail merge.
1.2 The 'Disability' table in the SG_6E database contains the recipient list.
1.3 The Questionnaire document is issued to recipients who have a disability.
1.4 Sort the recipients in descending order of the Code column.
1.5 Add the merge fields Name and Surname, for example <Name> <Surname>.
1.6 Save this document as SG_6Merge before completing the merge.
1.7 Save the results of the merge as SG_6Complete. (10)
2 Use the table on page 2 of the SG_6F file and type the answers to the following:
2.1 Why would you publish the contents of a document to a Weblog? (2)
2.2 Why would you send a document to a central location online? (2)
3 Remove the properties, comments and header information from the SG_6F file. (3)
4 Mark the SG_6G file as Final to discourage readers from editing this document. (1)
5 Save the SG_6H file in a fixed format of your choice. (2)
TOTAL MARKS [20]

Answers to Question 2

1 1.1 Correct mail merge document type: Questionnaire SG_6D.  (1)

1.2 Correct data source from the Disability table in the SG_6E.accdb is used.  (1)
1.3 Documents prepared for recipients with a disability.  (1)
1.4 Recipients sorted in descending  order of Code column.  (2)
1.5 Merge fields Name  and Surname  with a space between Name and Surname.  (3)
1.6 Merge is correctly saved as SG_6Merge.  (1)
1.7 Results of the merge correctly saved as SG_6Complete.  (1)

2 2.1. Blogging - publish content consisting of articles in a diary format, to the Web.  (2)
2.2 To access documents from any computer  or to share documents with other people. (2)

3 Metadata document properties,  comments,  headers, deleted. (3)

4 SG_6G file marked as Final.  (1)

5 SG_6H file saved in a fixed format in PDF or XPS.  (2)
TOTAL [20]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 88

Unit 3 Advanced document styles and
integration (Term 3)

1 Reinforce content, concepts and skills

 You use the basic layout options on the Page Layout tab to change the overall design of an
entire document. For example, adding Themes, adjusting and customising the page
setup, adding watermarks, page colour and page borders to the page background, and
inserting line and page breaks.
 You use the basic layout options on the Insert tab to insert and format pages, tables,
illustrations, links, headers and footers, text and symbols.
 The Home tab incorporates all text formatting features such as font and paragraph
changes, creating and applying styles to the document text, paste and paste special and
editing options.

2 Document styles and page layout

2.1 Document styles
 Click on a style in the Quick Styles gallery, in the Styles group of the Home tab, to apply a
style to selected text.
 Change a style set by clicking the Change Styles command and then click on the Style Set
button. Choose a style from the list of options.
 Change or edit an existing style by clicking on the drop-down arrow of a style in the Style
Pane Options dialogue box.
 At the list of options that appear, click Modify to open the Modify Style dialogue box.
 Create a new style:
 Open the Styles task pane and click on the New Style button at the bottom left of the
window.
 This opens the Create New Style from Formatting dialogue box.
 Under Properties, type a new name for your style in the Name box.
 Choose a Style type from the drop-down list. For example, Paragraph.

2.2 Templates
 A template is a file with a page layout, font, margins and styles that are suitable for a
specific type of content.
 The file type of a template is dotx which, when opened, creates a copy of itself.
 You can create your own templates and save them for future use or you can use the
templates available from [Link]. by clicking on New from the File tab.
 To customise a pre-formatted template you can type your own content into the text area of
the content controls.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 89

2.3 Advanced page layout
 Use the buttons of the Page Layout tab to change the design of a document.
 If you want to add a Book fold to your page to create a booklet, you can customise the
margin settings to suit your needs.
 If you want the margins of the left page to be a mirror image of those on the right page,
you can select Mirror margins at the page margins options.
 For page margin options:
 Click the drop-down arrow of the Margins button, Page Setup group, to open the Page
Setup dialogue box.
 On the Margins tab, under Pages, click the drop-down arrow.
 When you modify the margin settings, you are given the option to change the margins
at the Inside and Outside boxes in the Margins section.

2.3.1 View and adjust the document structure

 On the View tab, in the Show group, select the Navigation Pane check box to open the
Navigation Pane.
 In the Navigation Pane you can:
 Reorganise your documents by dragging and dropping headings.
 Delete, cut, or copy headings and their content.
 View Thumbnail images of the document pages.
 Browse through your document by its headings (to do this you must have applied
styles to your headings).
 Show or hide the subheadings under a heading by clicking on the triangle next to the
heading.
 Right click on a heading to promote, demote, add or delete a heading.

3 Techniques of integration with other software

Integration exchanges information between different but compatible applications, such as
those that form part of the same Office Suite.

3.1 Hyperlinking
 To link to an object in the same document, refer to Unit 1, sub-paragraph 1.1.4.
 To link to an object in another document:
 Select the Existing file or Web Page option under Link to:, in the Insert Hyperlink
window.
 Click the drop-down arrow of the Look in: drop-down list and navigate to the file you
want to link to. Click on OK.
 Hover the mouse over the hyperlink to view the file path information. To follow the
link, press the Ctrl key and click the mouse button.

3.2 Import and export external data

 Refer to Unit 1, sub-heading 4.2 to:
 Import data into a spreadsheet using the Text Import Wizard.
 Import data into a word processing document.
 Export data to a word processing application.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 90

Import data into a database using the Import Text Wizard
 Open a database. At the Import & Link group, External Data tab, click the Import Text
File button.
 At the Get External Data - Text File window, click on the Browse button to specify the
source of the data.
 Double click on this file. At the next Get External Data – Text File window, select an
option to import the file into a new table in the current database, append a copy of the
records to a table, or link to the data source by creating a linked table.
 Click OK to open the Import Text Wizard dialogue box. Repeat the steps as for importing
the data into a spreadsheet.
 Click Finish and then Close to complete the import process. The text file should appear as
a new table in your database.

Export data from a spreadsheet as a text file

 Open the spreadsheet. Click the Save As option from the File tab, to open the Save As
dialogue box.
 In the Save as type box, choose Text (Tab delimited), as the text file format.
 In the Save As box, browse to the location where you want to save the new text file.
 Click on Save and then OK, to save only the current worksheet to the new file.
 Click Yes at the dialogue box that appears to save only the worksheet data into the new
text file.

3.3 Linked objects

 You use the Paste Special button in the Clipboard group of the Home tab, to paste data
with a specific formatting.
 A linked object will be updated whenever the original source is updated. To link an object
such as a graph:
o Select Paste Special to open the Paste Special window and then click the Paste
Link radio button.
o Select Microsoft Office Excel Chart Object in the As list box, then click OK.
o To update the graph in the word processing document, right-click the chart and
select Update Link from the context menu.

3.4 Embedded objects

 In a word document, in the Text group of the Insert tab, do the following:
 At the drop-down arrow of the Object button, click on Object.
 In the Object window that opens, click on the Create New tab.
 Scroll down in the window, select Microsoft Excel Worksheet. Click OK.
 Double click on the table in the word document to allow the word processor to load the
features of the spreadsheet.
 Click anywhere in the document to exit the edit mode.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 91

 Question 3

Make the following changes to the SG_6I file:

1 Replace the current watermark with a picture watermark saved as SG_6Image. (3)
2 Use a booklet layout: inside margin 3 cm and outside margin 2 cm. (3)
3 Customise the bullets on page 1 with the picture bullet found in SG_6Image. (3)
4 Demote the heading 'Qualifications' to one level lower in the hierarchy. (2)
5 Change the font colour of all instances of the Heading 2 style to red. (2)
6 Insert a blank page at the beginning of the document. Insert an automatic table of contents
on this page to include only the headings of the Heading 1 style. (3)
7 Copy the chart from the Statistics worksheet in the SG_6J file and paste it as an
updateable linked object on the last page of the word document. (4)
8 Save this booklet as a document template with the same name, SG_6I. (2)
9 Import the data from the SG_6K file into the SG_6E database file, as a new table that
contains headings but no primary key. Save the table as Names. (5)
10 Insert the data from the SG_6J spreadsheet as an embedded object in a new word
document. Save this document as SG_6L. (3)
TOTAL MARKS [30]

Answers to Question 3

1 Text watermark removed  and replaced with picture watermark  (SG_6Image)  (3)
2 Page layout in book fold format  with inside margin 3 cm  and outside margin 2 cm  (3)
3 Bullets on page 1 replaced  with picture bullets  saved as SG_6Image (3)
4 The heading ‘Qualifications’ demoted  to one level lower in the document structure  (2)
5 Heading 2 styles modified to a red font colour  and applied to all 3 instances  (2)
6 Blank page inserted  showing automatic table of contents  with Heading 1 styles  (3)
7 Pie chart copied  and pasted as  updateable linked object  on last page  (4)
8 Document saved as a template file  with the name SG_6I.dotx  (2)
9 Data imported from SG_6K text file  into SG_6E database as a new table  with first
(5)
row headings  and no primary key. Table saved as Names 
10 Data from SG_6J spreadsheet  inserted as embedded object  in SG_6L file  (3)
TOTAL [30]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 92

Chapter 7 HTML/Web design

Overview

Unit 1 (HTML and HTML tables) focuses on HTML tables and reinforces the concepts of
websites, web pages, hyperlinks, uniform resource locators (URLs) and the use of hypertext
markup language (HTML). You will use Notepad++ text editor to create web pages. We will
also revise Grade 11 HTML syntax and HTML tags.

Unit 2 (Revise HTML and website design) revises website and web page design and reinforces
other HTML content, concepts and skills: for example HTML syntax, basic HTML tags,
HTML comments, plain text and text formatting, HTML links, HTML images, HTML lists
and HTML tables. By the time you get to the end of this chapter you should be very familiar
with creating HTML tables and be able to develop a web page for a specific scenario.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 93

Unit 1 HTML and HTML tables (Term 2)

1 Revise web and HTML concepts

Some basic web and HTML concepts that you should know are summarised below.

1.1 Web concepts

 A web browser is a software application that lets a user open and display web pages on the
Internet. Some examples of web browsers are Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Google Chrome, Safari and Opera.
 A website is a collection of web pages, for example, [Link] is a website and it
contains many web pages.
 The World Wide Web (or WWW) contains many websites. Web browsers are able to
translate web pages because the pages are written in hypertext markup language
(HTML).
 A hyperlink is an electronic link in the form of a word, phrase or image that you click on
to move to a new document or section within the same document. The text or image
that contains the link is called hypertext or a hotspot.
 URL stands for uniform resource locator. An URL is the unique address of a website on
the Internet, for example [Link] The ‘http’ stands for hypertext
transfer protocol.
 You can select View source or View, Page Source to reveal the HTML code for a web
page.

1.2 HTML concepts

 HTML stands for hypertext markup language, which is a language that is written in
computer code so that it can be displayed as a page by a web browser.
 Markup code is a set of instructions that defines how structured data is presented.
 Each markup code is called a tag. In HTML, markup tags tell the web browser how to
display the words and images on a web page. HTML is used to format web pages. The
web browser does not display the markup tags.
 Use the file extension ‘.html’ or ‘.htm’ to save a web page.

1.3 Tracking changes

 An HTML editor is a software application used to create web pages.
 Text editors such as Notepad or Notepad++ are programs used to write simple text
documents. Notepad is a free source code editor found in the Microsoft Windows
operating system and Notepad++ is freely downloadable from the Internet.
 Tag editors are programs that have a graphical user interface (GUI), but still use HTML
coding to mark up web pages.
 WYSIWYG (‘what you see is what you get’) programs are web design tools that allow
you to drag-and-drop and type the same way you would in a text processor.

1.4 HTML syntax and tags

 HTML syntax is the way instructions (tags) and text is the structured.
 HTML tags are often paired so that you have an opening tag and a closing tag.
 An opening tag is enclosed by a pair of angle brackets, for example <font>.

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 A closing tag has forward slash (/) in it, for example </font>.
 Container tags are tags that have both an opening and a closing tag.
 Tags that have only an opening and no closing tag are called empty tags.
For example <img src="">.

1.5 Basic document tags

Summary of the basic document tag and attributes

Document outline and page information
Opening tag Closing tag Description
<html> </html> HTML documents begin and end with html tags, so
that browsers are able to recognise HTML language.
<head> </head> Head tag comes after the HTML tag and contains the
title tag.
<title> </title> Title tag gives the document a title that displays on
the browser’s title bar.
<body> </body> The page content is contained between body tags.
Body tags contain the text and images of the
document with all the HTML tags that control and
format the document.
Document structure
<h1> </h1> A heading element includes the heading together
with the opening and closing tag to show the size or
level of the heading, for example 1 to 6.
<p> </p> The paragraph tag makes text between the tags one
paragraph and forces a new paragraph (similar to
pressing the Enter key in your word processor);
creates a double line space.
<br /> The break tag adds a single line space. It moves the
text on to the next line.
<hr /> The horizontal rule tag inserts a horizontal line across
the page. You can change the colours and width of
the lines by adding attributes to the horizontal rule
tag.
Text formatting and font attributes
<b> </b> Bold tags make the text font bold.
<i> </i> Italic tags make the text font italics.
<font> </font> Font
<font color="red"> </font> Font colour
<font size="+8"> </font> Font size (to increase the size)
<font face="arial"> </font> Font face
<!-- --> Comment tags allow you to place notes to yourself so
that you can keep track of elements embedded in
your web pages. The web browser does not display
comments.
Colour attributes
<body bgcolor="#00ffff"> Sets the background colour for the whole page.
<body text="#00ffff"> Sets the text colour for the whole page.
<body link="#00ffff"> Sets the unvisited link colour for the page.

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Summary of the basic document tag and attributes
<body vlink="#00ffff"> Sets the visited link colour for the page.
<body alink="#00ffff"> Sets the activated link colour, which is the colour of
the link as users click on it, for the page.
<font color="#ff0000">sample Sets the colour of selected text within a page.
text</font>
Links
<a href+""> Page link
<a href Opening anchor tag
="http//[Link]"> URL or address of the document
This is a link The text on the web page that is clicked on to link
</a> Closing anchor tag
Images and image attributes
<img src> Images can be placed in a web page with the image
tag <img>. The image is an empty tag and is written as
<img src=image_URL> (‘src’ is the source of the
image, and ‘image_URL’ represents the image file with
its location.
If the image is stored on the local hard disk, write the
code as
<img src=file///C:[Link]>.
If you store the image in the same folder as the HTML
files, then you need only write <img src=xxx>.
‘src’ must always be used together with the <img> tag.
align=left Image will appear to the left of the page, and text on
that page will wrap around the right-hand side of the
image.
align=right Image will appear to the right of the page, and text will
wrap around the left-hand side of the image.
align=top Aligns text with the top of the image.
align=bottom Aligns text with the bottom of the image. By default,
text is aligned with the bottom of the image.
align=middle Aligns text with the middle of the image.
height=200 Controls the height of the image.
width=220 Controls the width of the image.
hspace Horizontal space and vertical space: adds white space,
vspace in pixels, around the image.
=alt The ‘alt’ attribute can be added to the image tag to give
alternative text that will be displayed instead of the
image.
The ‘alt’ attribute helps users who want to stop the
images displaying so that page retrieval is quicker. It
also helps where the browser does not support the
graphics.
It can be used to give tool tips by displaying a
description of the image when the user hovers over the
image with the mouse.
border=5 The border attribute of the image tag controls the
border around an image.

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Summary of the basic document tag and attributes
Lists
<ol> </ol> Ordered list
<ul> </ul> Unordered list
<li> </li> List item; you can specify at which number the list must
start.
Type=A Upper-case or capital letters, for example A, B, C ...
Type=a Lower-case or small letters, for example a, b, c ...
Type=I Upper-case roman numerals, for example I, II,III ...
Type=i Lower-case roman numerals, for example i, ii, iii ...
Type=1 Numbers, for example 1, 2, 3 ...

 If you use Notepad++ then you will only need to click on the Run tab and select the web
browser of your choice, for example Launch in IE for Internet Explorer 3.

2 HTML tables
 You can present information in HTML using paragraphs and lists.
 You can display HTML content in rows and columns using tables, with or without
borders.
 Most websites use tables to control the layout of each page.
 HTML tables are used to list and position elements such as text, graphics/images, and
links on a web page.

2.1 Table elements

 Specify a table with table opening and closing tags: <table> </table>
 Specify each row in a table with the opening and closing tags: <tr> </tr>
 Then specify the actual table cells, which form the columns, with the opening and closing
tags: <td> </td> (the ‘td’ stands for table data).
 Here is an example of a simple table:

HTML coding Web page display

in web browser
<table>
<tr>
<td>Table with no border
attribute</td>
</tr>
</table>

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2.2 Table element with a border attribute
You need to specify a border attribute if you want to see the border.
 Here is an example: border="1">.

HTML coding Web page display

in web browser
<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>Place text in a table border</td>
</tr>
</table>

2.3 Table elements: columns

 Follow a similar process to set up a table with two columns.
 Specify the table cell again (<td> and </td>) and the tags between the opening and closing
table rows (<tr> and </tr>). For example:

HTML coding Web page display

in web browser
<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>1st column </td>
<td>2nd column </td>
</tr>
</table>

2.4 Table elements: rows

 A table with one column and two rows will be specified with:
 the opening table row tag <tr>,
 then the opening table data tag <td>,
 and the text to appear in that cell.
 Insert the closing table data tag </td>, and the closing table row tag </tr>.
 Repeat this process to create another row.

HTML coding Web page display

in web browser
<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>row 1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>row 2</td>
</tr>
</table>

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 98

2.5 Tables with captions and table heading elements
 A table caption adds a label to a table.
 The caption should give the viewer some idea what the table is about.
 Caption tags are defined as <caption> and </caption>.
 Headings are added to rows or columns with the table heading tags: <th> and </th>.
 Browsers usually centre the contents of a <th> cell and display any text in the cell in bold
font.

2.6 Tables with empty cells

 If you want an empty cell (a cell with nothing in it) define the <th> or </td> element with
nothing inside it.
 If you want to see the empty cell then add a break tag.
 Make an outline of your table so that you can see the headings and the value of each cell.
 Use your word processing application or spreadsheet to type up the table quickly.

3 Table appearance attributes

 Use table attributes to change the look or appearance of your tables.
 You can change:
 the width of the tables and cells
 the amount of spacing between cell content and rows and columns
 the width of the borders.

3.1 Table width

 You can control the width of the table using the width attribute, <width>.
 You can set the width value in pixels or specify it as a percentage.
 To make a table as wide as the browser window, you specify the width attribute as 100%,
for example: <table border="1" width="100%">

3.2 Table borders

 Border widths are specified in pixels.
 You can change the size of the border by selecting your own number value.
 Use a border size of 0 if you want a table with no border.
 Sometimes, it is useful to use borderless tables to structure the layout of your web page.

3.3 Cell padding attribute

 Use the cell padding attribute to set the amount of space to be displayed between the cell
edge and the cell content.
 By default, many browsers use a cell padding of 2 pixels.
 Set the space in pixel values by adding the cellpadding attribute to the <table> element.
 If the cell padding attribute is 0, the cell borders will touch the edges of a cell’s contents.
For example:

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HTML coding Web page display in web
browser
<table border="3" cellpadding="10">
<tr>
<td> cell 1 </td>
<td> cell 2 </td>
</tr>
</table>

3.4 Cell spacing attribute

 Cell spacing is the amount of space between the cells.
 Cell spacing is the width of the space between the inner and outer lines of the table border.
 By default, cell spacing is 2 pixels wide.
 Cell spacing also includes the outline around the table, which is just inside the table’s
border (as set by the border attribute).
 In the following coding, the table has a cell spacing of 8.

HTML coding Web page display

in web browser
<table border="3" cellpadding="10"
cellspacing="8">
<tr>
<td> cell 1 </td>
<td> cell 2 </td>
</tr>
</table>

3.5 Column width attribute

 You can apply the width attribute to individual cells to specify the width of columns in a
table, for example in the table heading cell <th> or in the table data cell <td>.
 You can use exact pixels or a percentage.
 The percentage is a percentage of the full table width.

3.6 Colour attribute

 You can add background colour to a table, row, cell or border in Internet Explorer.
 You change the colour of a border by changing the colour value using the border colour
attribute: border colour.

3.7 Background images in tables, rows and columns

 Add background images to tables, rows and columns using the background attribute.

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3.8 Alignment
 The align attribute aligns content horizontally.
 The valign attribute aligns content vertically.
 By default, tables are displayed on a line by themselves along the left side of the page,
with any text appearing above or below the table.
 You can use align="left" to align the table along the left margin with all the text wrapping
around the right side of the table.
 To do the opposite, use align="right".
 As with images, you can use the line break element with the clear attribute to stop
wrapping text alongside the image.
 To centre a table you can use the <center> or <div align="center"> element.
 You can also align data within each cell horizontally or vertically.

3.9 Row and column span

 You can create cells that stretch over multiple rows or columns within a table.
 To create a cell that stretches over (spans) multiple rows, you add the rowspan attribute to
the <th> or <td> elements, together with the number of rows you want the cell to span.
 To create a cell that spans multiple columns, you add the colspan attribute to the <th> or
<td> elements, together with the number of columns you want the cell to span.
 The data within that cell then fills the width or length of the combined cells.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 101

Unit 2 Revise HTML and website design
(Term 3)

Good website and web page design

 The time a viewer spends on a website will depend on:
 what the viewer wants to get from the website
 the other websites the viewer wants to look at
 how important it is for the viewer to get the information or product he or she is
looking for.
 When you design a website, make every part of the site meaningful and helpful.
 It is important that you lay out the images and text on your website attractively.

Guide the viewer’s eye and keep his/her attention

 Plan your design using the ideas below:
 The placement or position of items on the page will have an effect on the order in
which the viewer looks at the items.
 The size of something will get the viewer’s attention. Big lettering and big images
stand out.
 The way colours are used will tell a viewer where to look.
 Use contrast to make things stand out, for example white text on a black background.
 Use Design elements, for example use an arrow to point to something in order make
the viewer look in that direction.

Proximity and spacing

 Proximity refers to distance between elements on a web page, that is, how far apart or
close together they are.
 Here are some spacing ideas:
 Line spacing: The space between the lines can make your web page easier to read.
 Padding: Padding is the space between the elements and the text.
 White space: White space (also called empty space) is used to give order and contrast
to a page.

Navigation
 Help visitors to your website by adding navigation buttons that are well labelled.
 You can also add links to guide a viewer from one part to the next.

Typography
 Typography is the way in which typeface or text is used in the design of a website.
 Text is one of the most common elements of a design so it is important to think about how
you will display it.
 Font styles can say a lot about the design. Choose a font style that matches the kind of web
page you are designing.
 Choose the correct font sizes to make your web page easy to read.
 Main headings will have a bigger font size than subheadings.
 Keep the length of your lines of text short.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 102

 Columns of text often work well. (Use the layout of a newspaper as a guide.)
 Long sentences are difficult to read, so keep your sentences under 16 words.
 Plan your paragraphs and alignment.
 Decide what text and how much text you want in each paragraph.
 Left justification works well in most cases.
 Choose your font colours to match the message of your website.

Questions

1 What is a website? (1)

2 Discuss three features of ‘good’ website design. (3)
3 List two of the most common formats for saving images in, especially for the use in
HTML. (2)
4 What kind of HTML list is used to create a numbered list? (1)
5 Why are tables used in HTML? (1)
TOTAL MARKS [8]

Answers

1 A website is a collection of web pages.  (1)

.
2 Good website or web page design will: (3)
 have a neat design, pleasing colours and fonts 
 have correct and interesting content 
 have links that work 
 credit the work of authors and others 
 be updated regularly (Any three)

3 ‘.gif’ and ‘.jpeg’ format (2)

4 ordered list  (1)

5 Tables are often used to structure the layout of a website.  (1)

TOTAL [8]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 103

Chapter 8 Information management and
PAT

Overview

Information management requires you to access, process, analyse and evaluate data to solve a
problem or make a recommendation.

Unit 1 (Managing and gathering information) reinforces concepts and skills of information
management to prepare you for the Practical Assessment Task (PAT). You will define what
you are required to do; prepare questions to find the information you need; set questionnaires;
find sources of quality information; gather and use different but suitable data and information
to prepare a formal report in a word processing application.

Unit 2 (Process and analyse information) requires you to handle and evaluate the data you
have found, and how to work with it to extract useful information. You will use spreadsheets
and databases to help you process the data and identify patterns in it.

Unit 3 (Present information) deals with steps to complete the final phase of the PAT. You will
use your information to solve a given problem. You will finish a formal and professional-
looking report in a word processing application and prepare a presentation on your findings.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 104

Unit 1 Managing and gathering information
(Term 1)

1 Concepts and skills from Grade 10 and 11

1.1 Information management concepts
 Managing information involves gathering, selecting, organising and interpreting data, and
presenting processed data as information.
 The PAT for Computer Applications Technology describes a topic that you need to
research. The task will be given to you as a scenario for a task to be completed, and a
problem to be solved.
 The PAT consists of phases where you need to demonstrate:
 Data gathering skills and techniques
 Data manipulation skills
 The ability to produce quality output using computer application skills.

1.1.1 Gather data

 Gathering data starts with understanding why you want the data.
 Start by asking questions that identify the problems linked to the topic that you have been
given.
 You need to ask questions because the answers will help you define the problem and work
out what data you must find.
 Identify different sources of data and information.
 You will have to design a questionnaire as one of your sources of data.
 You will use the questionnaire to get answers from a sample of people.
 You will also have to find and evaluate information from the Internet.

1.1.2 Select, organise and interpret information

 Once you have collected data, you will need to process it to make it meaningful.
 Use your spreadsheet skills to process and analyse the data you gather from the
questionnaire to show trends and patterns.

1.1.3 Present information

 The final presentation of the information will be:
 A formal report prepared in a word processing application (outline the problem and
recommend a course of action or plan to solve that problem)
 A summary in the form of a presentation such as a web page.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 105

1.2 Task definition and data gathering
 Before attempting any project, you must understand what is expected of you.
 Follow the PAT instructions carefully, then write a task definition in your own words.
 A task definition specifies the problem you have to solve, who wants you to do this work,
what information you need to find, and how and where you will find the information.
 You need to answer questions such as these:
 Why are you doing the investigation?
 What are the main tasks that you need to carry out?
 How will you go about it?
 What information do you need?
 What do you know about the topic or problem?
 Where and how can you find information you still need?
 Who wants the information?
 How must you present the information?
 By when must the task be completed?
 Plan and create a set of electronic folders to store the information.

1.2.1 Identify problems associated with the topic

 After defining the task and selecting possible headings, ask questions that will guide your
research and your report writing.
 Here are some ideas:
 Questions that lead to factual information: level 1 questions usually starting with
words such as ‘What’, ‘When’, ‘Where’, ‘Who’ or ‘How many’.
 Questions that explore: level 2 questions starting with ‘Why’ or ‘How’.
 Questions that predict: level 3 questions starting with ‘If’ or ‘What if’.
 Questions that help make judgments: level 4 questions that help you reach a
conclusion, that start with phrases such as ‘Would it be better if’, ‘How can I
determine’ or ‘What would be the best way’.
 When you have your list of questions, arrange them according to the headings you have
identified for the main parts of the topic.
 You may want to add new headings or remove some you no longer want.

1.2.2 Find possible sources of information

 After the task definition, you will need to find information.
 Different sources you can use are:
 Publications: Books, newspaper articles, magazines and brochures.
 Electronic media: The Internet, including encyclopaedias and social networks.
 Interviews: Prepare a set of questions.
 Surveys: These useful tools help you find out more about people’s attitudes and
circumstances. You will need a questionnaire with questions that respondents can
complete in a short time.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 106

2 Setting questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a set of questions that have a choice of answers.
 People use questionnaires to get data or information for a survey or research task
 Information gathered using a questionnaire is called primary data.
 When you design a questionnaire, ask closed or yes/no type questions, if you can.
Remember the following:
 Keep the questions short and simple, direct and easy to understand.
 Each question should focus on only one point at a time.
 Make sure that people are able to give unplanned answers.
 When you get a yes/no answer, you may want to ask your respondent ‘Why’.
 Ask the question in such a way that you do not guide people to the answer.
 Arrange your questions from fact-type questions to opinion-type questions, from least
sensitive to most sensitive, from general to specific.
 Get someone else to check your questions to see whether he or she interprets them the
way you intended.
 Keep the final questionnaire short.
 Ask someone else if you can ‘practise’ the questionnaire on them.

2.1 A closed questionnaire

A closed questionnaire usually has questions with only one or other answer, for example ‘Yes’
or ‘No’.

2.2 A quantitative questionnaire

A quantitative questionnaire has questions that measure the quantity of something, for
example how strongly people agree or disagree with a statement.

2.3 A qualitative questionnaire

A qualitative questionnaire has questions that will give you ‘exact’ responses to your
questions.

3 Gathering information
Think of ways to find the information you need for your investigation.

3.1 Quality control techniques

 Not all information is reliable.
 Check these aspects:
 Authority – who created the information?
 Accuracy – can the statements and claims be substantiated?
 Currency – is the information up to date, and is it still relevant?
 Objectivity – does the source/author show any bias?
 Coverage – how well does the information cover the topic?

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 107

3.1.1 Evaluate websites
 Use the following criteria to help to assess the reliability of a website:
 Affiliation – who supports the website?
 Authority/the author – who created the website and what are the author’s credentials?
 Content – is the content properly organised? Do the links work?
 Current – is the information on the web page up to date and still suitable?
 Design – is it easy to navigate and is it visually pleasing?
 Objectivity – does it reflect any preconceptions?
 Trustworthy – Would you be able to use it?

3.1.2 Sift information

Go through the available information and select the most relevant websites and other
information sources.

4 Write a formal report

 A report is a document that gives information about an investigation or research done. It
should include analysis, evaluations and recommendations.
 When writing a report, you should:
 Analyse the information you were given.
 Find more information by reading books, visiting websites and consulting other
sources relevant to the investigation.
 Draw conclusions from the facts presented.
 Give general trends or patterns.
 Make recommendations, persuade or give an opinion.
 End with a conclusion.
 The structure of a report is usually as follows:
 Title page: Topic of the report, author’s name and date of writing the report.
 Table of Contents
 Introduction: Outline the task definition and the reason for the investigation.
 Body paragraphs: Use main headings and subheadings to organise the themes.
 Recommendations or findings: Say how the problem may be solved or how the
situation may be improved.
 Conclusion: Draw all the main points together to present an overview.
 Bibliography or list of references: use the Harvard or APA (American Psychological
Association) method.

5 Spreadsheets and databases in formal reports

 After gathering your data and information, organise and interpret the data you have
collected.
 Spreadsheets and databases will help you process the responses from the questionnaire.
 You can create graphs in spreadsheets to show trends and patterns.
 You can also record the responses to your questionnaire in a database and then generate
queries and reports to place in your formal written report.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 108

Unit 2 Process and analyse information
(Term 2)

1 Recap information management skills

 The PAT involves gathering data and information by asking questions.
 Use different types of questionnaire (closed, qualitative and quantitative) or a combination
to obtain information from respondents.
 Check the authority, accuracy, currency, objectivity and coverage of the information.
 A formal report is an organised document. It outlines a problem statement, shows the
relevant sources, describes your conclusions, gives general trends and patterns,
describes your recommendations and contains a conclusion.
 It has a cover page, table of contents, introduction, body, findings or recommendations,
conclusion, and finally a bibliography where you acknowledge your references.

2 Spreadsheets and databases in formal reports

2.1 Process data: spreadsheets and databases
 Study the data and identify the relationships between them.
 The information in your report must show your audience how your proposals will improve
matters and solve the problems.

2.1.1 Process data using a spreadsheet

 The first stage in manipulating data is to get it sorted and grouped.
 Spreadsheets help you to:
 Analyse data and use calculations to extract meaningful information.
 Summarise the information and add your own insights.
 Use formatting features such as borders, word wrap and font styles.
 Create charts and tables to make the material more understandable.
 The questionnaire results are analysed in a spreadsheet.
 Ask questions such as: How many? What occurs most often? What is the most popular?
What is least common? How many more than? What is the average?
 Use spreadsheet functions such as COUNT and IF functions, such as COUNTA,
COUNTIF, IF and SUMIF.
 Other functions are CONCATENATE, LOOKUP, AND, NOT, MIN, MAX and
AVERAGE.

2.1.2 Process data using a database

 Create a database with the information you have gathered so that you can generate queries
and provide database reports.
 Use suitable field names and data types.
 Use the information from your database queries and reports in your word processing
report, and the slide show or web page.

2.2 Practical application of skills and concepts

 Use spreadsheet formulas and functions and prepare a chart from the statistics.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 109

Unit 3 Present information (Term 3)

In the last phase of the PAT, you bring all your findings and supporting documents together in
a report) and a presentation.

1 Practical Assessment Task: Final phase

The final phase of the PAT is to present your work to your target audience.

1.1 Create a presentation or web page

 The slide presentation or web page that you must create for the PAT covers the same
information you covered in your report.
 However, the presentation or web page deals with the information much more briefly than
the report does.
 Select only the main points.

1.1.1 Declaration of authenticity

 Hand in a declaration of authenticity to confirm that this is your work and that you have
not plagiarised any points included in your presentation.
 Before you hand in your work, check everything.
 Proofread your work carefully.
 Correct any spelling and grammar errors.
 Check the visual appeal of your documents, including the layout, font styles, colours,
pictures and charts.
 Check that you have acknowledged all sources correctly.

1.1.2 Copyright and plagiarism

 Acknowledge the source of information that you have used from others.

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 110

 Questions

1 What does 'managing information' entail? (2)

2 Why is it necessary to write a task definition when doing the PAT? (2)
3 List two aspects you will write in a task definition. (2)
4 Name two sources of information that you could use when doing the PAT. (2)
5 List two criteria would you use when evaluating information? (2)
TOTAL [10]

Answers

1 (3)
Managing information:
gather 
select, organise and interpret information 
and present that information 

2 (2)
Reason for task definition:
demonstrate that you are familiar with what you need to do 
guide you in your research and planning 

3 (2)
Task definition:
use your own words to describe what you have to do 
what you already know about the topic 
what information you need to find
where and how you will find that information (any two)

4 (2)
Sources of information:
publications 
electronic media 
people: interviews and surveys (any two)
5 (2)
Evaluate information:
Check the:
authority 
accuracy 
currency
objectivity
coverage of the source or website (any two)

TOTAL [10]

© Copyright Via Afrika Publishers, Computer Applications Technology Grade 12 111

 Via Afrika
Business Studies

Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide

If I’m passionate about the subject, my learners
are going to be passionate too. And that means
we’re going to have a passionate future – Grade 12 Study Guide
a passionate generation!

C. Chaplin, E. Llewellyn, P. bEan, M. Kleyn, A. Marx T.D.

— Llewellyn Scholtz, Teacher Kotze, T.R. Maliehe

Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we

Via Afrika Business Studies

realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make
your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things
we have done to assist you in this brand-new course:

1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 16 to see how CAPS requirements are met.
2. A possible Annual Teaching Plan has been included. See page 5 to see how much time this could save you.
3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 18 to find out how this will
help with your planning.
4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 18 shows you how this
is done.
5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 19 for an example.
6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 20 for an example.
7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover.

The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master.
The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you.

We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at businessstudies@[Link]?
Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at [Link].

Language: English

[Link]
Business Studies
Grade 12

ISBN: 978-1-41546-302-4
Term 1 Topic 1 Macro environment: impact
of recent legislation on business
Overview

This chapter covers the effects of the following legislation on South African businesses:

• Skills Development Act No. 97 of 1998

• Labour Relations Act No. 66 of 1995
• Employment Equity Act No. 55 of 1998
• Basic Conditions of Employment Act No.75 of
1997
• Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act
No. 53 of 2003
• National Credit Act No.34 of 2005
• Consumer Protection Act No.68 of 2008

1 Introduction

Recap what you learnt in grades 10 and 11 about the different macro environmental factors
that affect a business. The macro environment includes external and uncontrollable factors
that influence a business decision making, and affect its performance. These factors include
economic factors; demographics; legal, political, and social conditions; technological
changes; and natural forces.

Laws are an important part of the business world. The legal system is very complicated and
people who run businesses need to have a good understanding of it.

During the apartheid era, apartheid legislation determined where people were allowed to live and
work. Foreign countries who had invested in South Africa disinvested in protest against apartheid
policies and legislation.

© Via Afrika Publishers

Disinvestment is when businesses or countries remove all of their investments from a country to
create an economic incentive for that country to change its policies. Disinvestment in South Africa
resulted in capital flight. Capital flight happens when money flows out of a country’s economy very
quickly as a response to a political event.

After 1994, many of South Africa’s laws, especially in the field of labour and the consumer,
were revised to create fair employment and trade conditions for all South Africans.

The responsibility for compliance with any of the Acts rests with management alone. Failure
to comply with the law can have serious consequences such as:

• Criminal or financial penalties

• Make members of a close corporation or directors of a company personally liable for
the businesses actions
• Give the business a bad reputation.

2 The Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 and the Skills Development Levies
Act of 1999

2.1 Nature and purpose

The Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act were passed in 1998 and
1999 respectively.

The reason behind this was that South Africa was not equipped with the skills it needed for
economic growth, social development and sustainable employment growth.

The National Skills Authority was established in terms of the Skills Development Act of 1998
and was made up of representatives from business, labour, government and other bodies
that reflected community and South African society.

The National Skills Development Strategy aims to:

• Develop the skills and learning capacity of employees
• Make it possible for employers to become more productive and competitive
• Reverse apartheid imbalances
• Create a more inclusive and cohesive society.

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Basic Guide to Skills Development Levies

Employers must pay 1% of their workers’ pay to the skills development levy. The money
goes to Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) and the Skills Development Fund
to pay for training.

The Skills Development Levies Act applies to all employers except:

• The public service

• Religious or charity organisations
• Public entities that get more than 80% of their money from Parliament; and
• Employers –
o Whose total pay to all its workers is less than R 250 000 per year; and
o Who do not have to register according to the Income Tax Act.

SETAs:

• Develop sector skills plans in line with the National Skills Development Strategy
• Approve the workplace skills plans submitted by businesses in their sectors
• Promote and establish learnerships.
• Pay grants to participating businesses, provided that those businesses have
submitted workplace skills plans and implementation reports to their SETA.

2.2 Implications for small and large businesses

• All business can benefit from the skills development initiatives
• A motivated and well-trained work force adds value to the business
• HR managers, line managers and staff managers must know the requirements and
implications of the legislation
• The 1% Skills Development Levy must be paid within seven days after the end of the month
• To create a learnership a formal learnership agreement has to be entered into by both parties
• The employer has the following responsibilities: to employ the learner for the period specified in
the agreement, to provide the learner with practical experience, and to give the learner time to
attend the education and training specified in the agreement
• Employers can be fined or even imprisoned (for a period not exceeding one year) if they commit
an offence under the Skills Levy Act
• The Income Tax Act (also applicable to SLA), requires all employers to keep a record of all the
remuneration paid to every employee, as well as the Employees’ Tax deducted from the
employees’ remuneration and levies paid.

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2.3 National Skills Development Strategy and the Human Resources Development Strategy

The aim of the National Skills Development Strategy is:

• To improve the skills development system so as to be more responsive to labour market

needs and social equity requirements.
• To integrate workplace training and theoretical learning
• To improve the skills level of graduates of secondary and tertiary education
• To address skills shortages in artisanal, technical and professional fields
• To reduce the over-emphasis on NQF level 1-3 learnerships
• To equip those in the workforce with sufficient technological skills
• To improve co-operation between universities, further education and training colleges and
sector education and training authorities (SETA)
• To support economic growth and development through viable skills development
• To develop sufficient skills for rural development.

Co-operation and co-ordination from key stakeholders, such as government, the SETAs and
employers, is essential for the realisation of the NSDS III goals. The Department of Higher
Education and Training (DHET), the SETAs and the National Skills Fund are the key drivers of
NSDS III. DHET.

3 Labour Relations Act (LRA) 66 of 1995

3.1 Nature and purpose

The Labour Relations Act (LRA), Act 66 of 1995 aims to promote economic development,
social justice, labour peace and democracy in the workplace.

The Labour Relations Act applies to all employers, workers, trade unions and employers’
organisations, but does not apply to members of the:

• National Defence Force

• National Intelligence Agency
• South African Secret Service.

Trade unions are recognized under the 1996 Constitution of South Africa, which provides for
the right to join trade unions, and for unions to collectively bargain and strike.

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Three institutions have been created to reduce industrial relations conflict, and eliminate
unfair discrimination and redress past discrimination in the workplace: the National
Economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC), the Labour Court, and the Council for
Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA).

For most businesses the fact that the LRA prescribes rules on how to dismiss employees
makes it a very important. However, the purpose of the act covers more than that – it
promotes economic development, social justice, labour peace and the democratisation of
the workplace through:

3.1.1 Freedom of association

Freedom of association means the right to come together with other individuals and
collectively express, promote, pursue and defend common interests. This includes the right
to join a union.

3.1.2 Organisational rights

The Act allows trade unions to gain access to the business’ premises to recruit members and
hold meetings.

3.1.3 Bargaining and statutory councils

Bargaining councils are formed by registered trade unions and employers’ organisations.
They deal with collective agreements, attempt to solve labour disputes, and make proposals
on labour policies and laws. As well, they may administer pension funds, sick pay,
unemployment and training schemes, and other such benefits for their members.

3.1.4 Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration

The Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) is a dispute resolution
body established in terms of the Labour Relations Act, 66 of 1995 (LRA). It is an independent
body, does not belong to and is not controlled by any political party, trade union or
business.

The LRA makes provision for disputes that cannot be solved in the workplace.

If this process fails the dispute is referred to the Labour Court.

3.1.5 The Labour Court and the Labour Appeal Court

The Labour Court has the same status as a high court. The Labour Court adjudicates
matters relating to labour disputes. Appeals are made to the Labour Appeal Court.

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3.1.6 Strikes and lock-outs

If a strike does not comply with the provisions of the LRA, the Labour Court can grant an
order to restrain any person from participating in such action. The Labour Court may also
order payment to the employer for losses sustained as a result of the illegal strike or lock-
out.

3.1.7 Workplace forums

The main aim of workplace forums is to solve labour-related problems by establishing co-
operative relationships between all workers (also non-trade union workers) and the
employer. A workplace forum may be established in a business with more than 100
employees. Only registered trade unions may apply to the CCMA for the establishment of a
workplace forum.

3.1.8 Unfair dismissal

Dismissal is unfair if:

• A worker intended to or did take part in or supported a strike or protest

• A worker refused to do the work of a striking or locked out co-worker, unless his
refusal will endanger life or health
• A worker is forced to accept a demand
• A worker intended to or did take action against an employer by –
o Exercising a right; or
o Taking part in proceedings; or
• A worker is pregnant or intends to be pregnant
• An employer discriminated against a worker because of race, gender, sex, ethnic or
social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief,
political opinion, culture, language, marital status or family responsibility
• An employer cannot prove -
o A worker’s misconduct or inability
o That the employer’s operational needs are valid
o That the dismissal procedure was fair.

3.2 Implications for businesses

The LRA follows the principle of collective bargaining and puts structures in place with which
disputes in the workplace can be settled. This has advantages for both employers and
employees and promotes a healthy relationship between them. Non-compliance with LRA
rules and regulations also poses a very real risk to employers because there is an effective
and inexpensive (free) option to employees in the form of the CCMA and the
Department of Labour.

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CCMA fees and costs
When asked by employees, employers, or other interested parties for advice or training te
CCMA will assist. In 2012 the fee was between R1 650,00 and R1 835,00 for each day or part
of a day.

4 Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997

4.1 Nature and purpose

The 1996 South African Constitution (section 23) gives every worker and employer the right to fair
labour practices. The Act applies to all workers and employers except members of the National
Defence Force, National Intelligence Agency, South African Secret Service and unpaid volunteers
working for charities.

4.1.1 Working time

A worker must NOT work more than:

• 45 hours in any week

• Nine hours a day if a worker works five days or less a week
• Eight hours a day if a worker works more than five days a week.

Overtime

If overtime is needed, workers must agree to do it and they may not work for more than
three hours overtime a day or ten hours overtime a week.

Overtime must be paid at 1.5 times the workers' normal pay or, by agreement, get paid time
off.

4.1.2 Leave

• Annual leave

A worker can take up to 21 continuous days' annual leave or by agreement, one day for
every 17 days worked or one hour for every 17 hours worked.

Leave must be taken not later than six months after the end of the leave cycle.

An employer can only pay a worker instead of giving leave if that worker leaves the job.

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 • Sick leave

A worker can take up to six weeks paid sick leave during a 36-month cycle.

During the first six months, a worker can take one day's paid sick leave for every 26 days
worked.

An employer may want a medical certificate before paying a worker who is sick for more
than two days at a time or more than twice in eight weeks.

• Maternity leave

A pregnant worker can take up to four continuous months of maternity leave. She can start
leave any time from four weeks before the expected date of birth OR on a date a doctor or
midwife says is necessary for her health or that of her unborn child. She also may not work
for six weeks after the birth of her child unless declared fit to do so by a doctor or midwife.

A pregnant or breastfeeding worker is not allowed to perform work that is dangerous to her
or her child.

• Family responsibility leave

Full-time workers employed longer than four months can take three days' paid family
responsibility leave per year on request when the worker's child is born or sick or for the
death of the worker's spouse or life partner, parent, adoptive parent, grandparent, child,
adopted child, grandchild or sibling.

An employer may want proof that this leave was needed.

4.1.3 Remuneration, deductions and notice of termination

The employee must be paid according to the agreement with the employer and deductions
must be agreed to by the worker in writing or if the employer is required to do so by law
(e.g. Income tax and UIF).

Notices must be given in writing.

The employer may pay for the notice period instead of giving notice.
The worker still has the right to challenge the fairness of the dismissal.
The worker must be paid for any accrued annual leave.
If the termination of employment is because of a change in business operations
(retrenchment) then severance pay (one week for every full year worked) has to be paid to
the worker.

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4.2.4 Administrative obligations

Amongst other things employers must keep a record of at least:

• The worker's name and job

• Time worked
• Money paid
• Date of birth for workers under 18 years old.

4.3 Implications for businesses

Employers should have a good understanding of their obligations. It has become essential
for all companies to have access to a specialist who is familiar with this legislation and its
principles. Failure to comply with this Act can lead to fines or criminal prosecution.

5 Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases (COIDA) Act 61

fo1997

5.1 Nature and purpose

The purpose of the Act is to provide compensation for disablement caused by occupational injuries
or diseases sustained or contracted by employees in the course of their employment, or for death
resulting from such injuries or diseases, and to provide for matters connected therewith.

Businesses have the following responsibilities in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act of
1993:

• The working environment must be made safe for workers and there must be no risks to their
safety
• Workers must receive information, instructions, training and supervision to ensure the
health and safety of all employees.

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5.2 Implications for businesses
• All businesses must register their business with the commissioner of the
Compensation Fund
• Each year the business must provide the commissioner with information on the
workers employed, the wages paid to them and the time they have worked
• These records must also be kept safely by the business for a period of four years.

6 The Employment Equity Act (EEA) of 1998

6.1 Nature and purpose

The overall aim of the Employment Equity Act (EEA) is to achieve equity in the workplace
through:

• The prevention of discrimination, which applies to all employers

• The implementation of affirmative-action measures.

The Act states that no person may unfairly discriminate (directly or indirectly) against an
employee on one or more of the following grounds: race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital
status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, disability, HIV status, culture or
birth.

6.2 Implications for the employer

• Employers must prepare employment equity plans in accordance with the Act
• These plans must be submitted to the Department of Labour for assessment
• Failure to comply with the Act may result in fines ranging from R1/2 million to R1
million.

7 Black Economic Empowerment Act of 2003 and the Broad-based Black

Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) Act

7.1 Nature and purpose

The Act seeks to correct the disparities caused by Apartheid by promoting new
opportunities for, and increasing the levels of participation of, previously disadvantaged
individuals and companies in the ownership, management and control of the South African
economy.

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7.2 Implications for businesses
BBBEE compliance is measured in the seven key BBBEE areas of the business. These are:

• Ownership: points are earned by selling shares to black people

• Management Control: points are earned by appointing black top managers and
directors
• Employment Equity: points are earned by employing junior/middle/senior
managers and for smaller businesses black workers
• Skills Development: points are earned by training employees through on the job
training or formal training
• Preferential Procurement: points are earned by purchasing goods and services from
other businesses with a good BEE Scorecard
• Enterprise Development: points are earned by assisting smaller black owned
businesses to grow
• Socio economic Development: points are earned by supporting black social causes.

8 National Credit Act of 2005

8.1 Nature and purpose

The National Credit Act has put into place protection measures that aim to improve
consumer rights as well as protect and streamline credit transactions.

8.2 Implications for business

Credit providers must do an affordability assessment to ensure that the consumer has the
ability to meet their obligations in a timely manner.

Some of the requirements of the Act are:

• All credit contracts must be in a language and form which are easily understandable
and should be in at least two languages
• All credit providers are obliged to do an analysis of the consumer’s profile, to ensure
that the provider can afford the credit applied for
• One of the main purposes of the Act is to prevent discrimination in the credit market
and to ensure that credit is available to all South African citizens
• The Act gives a consumer, whose application for credit was refused, the right to
written reasons for the decision
• A cooling off period is compulsory for all credit agreements
• Consumers under credit agreements have the right to return the purchased goods,
at any given time during the contract, to the provider to be resold.

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9 Consumer Protection Act of 2009

9.1 Nature and purpose

This Act has been brought into law to promote and advance the social and economic
welfare of all consumers.

9.2 Impact of the Act on different aspects of business

Examples of the impact the Act may have on different aspects of doing business are:
• The Act prohibits discriminatory marketing

• The Act gives the consumer the right to select suppliers; to be given estimates; the
right to choose or examine goods; the right to return goods and so-called unwanted
goods.

• Consumers are entitled to information in plain and understandable language

• The Act prohibits unacceptable conduct; false or misleading representations.

Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
1.1 The Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act were passed in ____ and
_______respectively:
A 1985, 1986
B 1998,1999
C 2000, 2010
D 1976, 1978(2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 The Labour Relations Act applies to all employers, workers, trade unions and
employers’ organisations, but does not apply to:
A National Defence Force
B Accountants
C Lawyers
D Teachers(2)

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Question 3: Multiple choice
Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
3.1 The Labour Court has the same status as a ________:
A Magistrates Court
B Supreme Court
C High Court
D Constitutional Court(2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

4.1 A worker must NOT work more than:

A 45 hours in any week

B 10 hours in any week
C 35 hours in any week
D 60 hours in any week(2)

Question 5: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
5.1 The Consumer Protection Act of 2009 was bought into existence to:
A promote and advance the prosperity of manufacturers
B promote economic sustainability
C promote and advance the economic welfare of the wealthy
D promote and advance the social and economic welfare of all consumers. (2)

Question 6: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
6.1 The Black Economic Empowerment Act was passed in ________:
A 1994
B 2002
C 2003
D 1995 (2)

Question 7: Why is contemporary legislation a challenge to businesses? (2)

Question 8: Why do consumer rights have implications for businesses? (4)

Question 9: According to the COIDA, what are the obligations of employers? (12)

Question 10: What is industrial action, and what are the two kinds of industrial
action? (6)

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 Term 1 Topic 2 Human resources function
Overview

The human resources function is a very important part of any business because it deals with people
and with complying with laws. People working in the HR department must be able to answer
questions such as:

• What is the best way to go about hiring new employees?

• What is the correct way to pay salaries and wages?
• What laws must be complied with?

Legislation affecting human resources:

Recruitment procedures
• Labour Relations Act (LRA) No.66 of
• job specification 1995,
• job description • Basic Conditions of Employment Act
• selection & screening (BCEA) No.75 of 1997,
• induction • Employment Equity Act (EEA) ) No.55
of 1998,
• Compensation for Occupational
Injuries and Diseases Act (COIDA)
Salary determination No.61 of 1997

• piecemeal and time-related),

including personal tax; link to
basic conditions of employment
Human resources training
• employee benefits: pension,
• Skills Development Act (SDA) No.97 of
medical, other
1998 and the link with SETAs,
learnerships, skills programmes,
qualifications, National Qualifications

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1 Analysis of human resources activities

Recruitment is the process by which a business seeks to hire the right person for a vacancy.

Recruitment is an ongoing process and possible reasons for recruitment within a business include:

• Expansion of the business

• Existing employees leave
• Business needs employees with new/advanced skills
• The business may be relocating
• Employees retire
• Employees may be dismissed.

Internal recruitment involves appointing existing staff from within the organisation.
External recruitment involves hiring staff from outside the organisation.
Once the most suitable candidate has been selected, s/he must be offered the position and a
contract of employment must be signed by both the employer and the employee.
Induction is the process of introducing new employees to the business, fellow employees, the
specific job and the corporate culture of the organisation.
Good induction practices include:
• Having clear performance standards
• Allowing for "settling-in time"
• Providing support and a mentor to assist the new employee
• Ensuring the new employee feels part of the team

• Giving initial tasks that provide success.

A salary is regular payment for employment which has been agreed upon and signed by
employer and employee. Usually a salary is paid on monthly not on hourly, daily, weekly or
piece-work basis.

Other benefits such as pensions, retirement annuity and car allowance may also be part of an
employment contract with an employee and must be dealt with by the HR department.

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2 HR procedures

Recruitment

The business writes a job description and job specification for the vacancy and then either selects
someone internally or sources externally. This can be done by:
• Placing advertisements in newspapers or notice boards
• Recruiting at special events e.g. during a university’s open day
• Vacation work, e.g. when an enterprise decides to recruit a student who has worked
permanently at the enterprise during the holidays
• Using a computer database, e.g. by storing all the information of candidates who have
previously applied for jobs
• Making use of recruitment agencies.

Internal recruitment involves appointing existing staff from within the organisation
External recruitment involves hiring staff from outside the organisation

Job description

A job description refers to the content of the job itself and sets out the duties and responsibilities
required of the person employed to do the job and needs to outline:
• The title of the job
• The location of the job
• The duties of the job.

Job specification

A job specification indicates the specific qualifications, skills and experience required of the person
who will fill the job. It will need to set out:
• Qualifications required
• Personal qualities needed
• Work experience required.

Selection

Selection means identifying and hiring the most appropriate candidate to fill a post. HR often
receives many applications when a job is advertised.

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The process of selecting involves:
• Advertising, either internally or externally
• Short-listing suitable candidates
• Checking on CV's and references
• Interviewing the shortlisted candidates
• Selecting the correct candidate for the job.

Interviewing

The purpose of the interview is to meet the applicant personally and to make sure he or she will fit
into the company and is capable of fulfilling the advertised position.

3 Human resources legalities

Labour Relations Act (LRA) No. 66 of 1995

This Act sets out the laws that govern labour in South Africa. It is guided by Section 27 of the
Constitution, which entrenches the rights of workers and employers to form organisations for
collective bargaining. Together with the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, it also ensures social
justice by establishing the rights and duties of employers and employees. It also regulates the
organisational rights of trade unions deals with strikes and lockouts, workplace forums and other
ways of resolving disputes. It provides a framework for the resolution of labour disputes through the
Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA), Labour Court and Labour Appeal
Court.

Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA) No. 75 of 1997

The BCEA is designed to protect employees against unfair labour practices and exploitation. It states
the minimum conditions of employment that must be adhered to by both employers and employees.
It is up to the employer to offer better conditions of employment than stated in the BCEA.

Employment Equity Act (EEA) no.55 of 1998

The purpose of the Act is to achieve equity in the workplace by:

• Promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the

elimination of unfair discrimination
• Implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages in
employment experienced by designated groups, to ensure their equitable
representation in all occupational categories and levels in the workforce.

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Occupational Injuries and Disease Act (COIDA) No. 61 of 1997

The objective of Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act no 61 of 1997 (COIDA) is
to pay compensation out to an employee or his dependents, where, as a result of his activities in the
work situation, he died or was partially or totally disabled or contracted an occupational disease.
COIDA thus acts as insurance in order to safeguarded the employer from any claims by an employee
in this regard, as long as the employer has complied with the provisions of the Act.

3.5 Employment contracts

The contract of employment is a legal document signed between employer and employee. The
contract:
• Regulates the terms and conditions of employment between the employer and the
employee.
• Stipulates what the employer will provide in terms of benefits, and in terms of labour
legislation
• Regulates the behaviour of the employee in the workplace - because all company policies
and procedures, as well as the disciplinary code, form a part of the employment contract.

3.6 Interviewing, selection and induction procedures

The HR department must follow the process of recruitment, interviewing, selection and induction to
ensure effective hiring and also to ensure all procedures comply with policies, such as

Salary Determination
The wage board sets minimum rates and other conditions of employment for all trades. Different
jobs are paid different amounts of money because some jobs, such as top management
positions, require a higher level of skill and responsibility, and also some jobs have a higher risk
or require relocation.
Employee benefits

Depending on the policy of the business, the employee may receive benefits other than payment for
doing his/her job. Such benefits may include:

• Contributing towards the employee's pension fund, or medical aid

• Travel allowance
• Housing subsidy
• Mobile phone allowance
• Annual bonus
• Death and funeral benefits
• Shares issues by employer to employee's.

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The Skills Development Act (SDA) No.97 of 1998

The SDA and SAQA provide for the training and development of all people in South Africa and are
intended to help overcome a serious shortage of trained and skilled people in the country.
The aims of the SDA are to:
• Develop the skills of all workers
• Encourage employers to use their workplace as a learning environment
• Encourage employees to participate in training programmes
• Provide opportunities to learn new skills
• Assist people from previously disadvantaged backgrounds by offering training and education.

The aims of the Skills Development Act are carried out by the following institutions:
• The National Skills Authority
• The South African Qualifications Authority(SAQA)
• Sector Training Authorities(SETAs).

South Africa Qualifications Authority (SAQA)

The SAQA is an official body appointed by the Ministers of Education and Labour to oversee the
development of the National Qualification Framework (NQF) in South Africa. SAQA is responsible for
developing and maintaining learner's records and providing information on registered qualifications,
minimum standards, moderating bodies and learner's achievements.

Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
1.1 Which of the following is not a valid reason for employing someone:
A To fill a vacancy
B Because they are related to you
C The business is expanding
D The business is relocating (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 Which of the following is not considered an employee benefit:
A Salary
B Pension
C Travel allowance
D Housing subsidy (2)

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Question 3: Multiple choice
Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
3.1 A good induction process does not include:
A Intimidating the newcomer
B Making them feel part of a team
C Allowing for “settling in” time
D Providing support (2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
4.1 The SDA and SAQA provide for the training and development of all people in South Africa and are
intended to:
A help prevent qualified people leaving the country to work overseas
B help overcome a surplus of trained and skilled people in the country
C help overcome a serious shortage of trained and skilled people in the country
D help SARS collect more revenue (2)

Question 5: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
5.1 The Labour Relations Act together with the _____ provide for justice in the work place:
A Skills Development Act
B Pensions Reform Act
C Income Tax Act
D Basic Conditions of Employment Act (2)

Question 6: List up to 4 disadvantages of choosing either internal or external recruitment. (16)

Question 7: Give a reason for retrenchment. (2)

Question 8: What should a business consider when retrenching an employee? (2)

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Term 1 Topic 3 Ethics and Professionalism
Overview

This chapter deals with how professional, responsible, ethical and effective business
practice should be conducted in changing and challenging business environments

Ethical behaviour Professional business practices

• e.g. fair and unfair • e.g. effective use of work time

advertisements • Corporate governance - Kings
Code

• Ways in which professional, • Issues that could challenge ethical

responsible, ethical and effective and professional behaviour (e.g.
business practice should be taxation, sexual harassment, pricing
conducted (e.g. not starting a of goods in rural areas, unfair
venture at the expense of advertising, unauthorised use of
someone else, payment of fair funds, abusing work time, etc.) and
wages, regular payment of tax, strategies that could be used to
etc.) address these issues

1 How professional, responsible, ethical and effective business practice

should be conducted in changing and challenging business environments

When we talk ethical behaviour and ethical business practices we mean that the highest legal and
moral standards need to be upheld when dealing with any stakeholder of the business.

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1.2 Ethical and unethical business practice

People who choose to engage in unethical business practices may find themselves guilty of a
criminal offence or at the very least end up with a bad business reputation.

Examples of unethical business behaviour may include:

• Dishonesty, deception and lack of transparency
• Deliberately trying to mislead or confuse consumers
• Being greedy to produce maximum profit at the expense of the consumer
• Falsifying documentation
• Harming the environment and ignoring environmental legislation
• Invasion of privacy
• Sexual discrimination
• Nepotism
• Industrial espionage.

1.3 Professional and unprofessional business practices

Professionalism covers issues like appearance, communication, attitude, responsibility,

knowledge, skills, integrity, respect and loyalty linked to a specific profession. Different
professions often have their own sets of rules governing how their members are required to
conduct themselves. An example is that of lawyers who are members of the Law Society.

1.4 The relationship between ethical and professional behaviour

Ethical behaviour involves following the principles of right and wrong in business practice, whilst
professional behaviour is a broader concept.

1.5 Ways in which professional, responsible, ethical and effective business practice
should be conducted

Corporate governance refers to the way in which a business is managed (governed). This also
includes ethical business practice. A Former Judge of the High Court, Mervyn King, and other
delegates, known as the King Commission, developed a code for businesses to follow.

If you want to list your company on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), you have to make sure
that your business complies with the King Code. Big companies such as KPMG, Deloitte, Ernst &
Young, Webber Wentzel and PricewaterhouseCoopers endorse the Code, and important business
bodies such as the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, Ethics Institute of South Africa, South African
Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants
support it.

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The Code focuses on transparency, responsibility, accountability, fairness, sustainable development,
leadership and values. Striving towards professional, responsible, ethical and effective business practices,
the business needs to consider the following when dealing with stakeholders:

• Investors/owners: unnecessary risks should not be taken when using the money of investors or
owners. Transparency in all business dealings is essential

• Employees: remuneration and working conditions should comply with those set by the Basic
Conditions of Employment Act for the particular industry

• Customers: information regarding the product or service needs to be made clear to the customer so
that they can make an informed decision

• Competition: industrial espionage must be avoided as well as other activities where competitors are
unfairly placed in a disadvantaged position to gain the competitive advantage

• Community: the business should be involved with social responsibility and sustainable development
programmes

• Government: rules and regulations, such as tax legislation should be adhered to, for example by
making full disclosure of assets and profits

• Environment: businesses should strive to enforce sustainable environmental practices, such as

recycling programmes.

2 Reflection on the business environment in relation to ethical and

professional behaviour

Business Unity South Africa’s Charter for Ethical Business Practices describes ethical business
practices as business practices that involve:

• responsibility (businesses must be accountable for their acts);

• integrity (businesses must do what they say);
• respect (businesses must respect other people’s human rights and dignity); and
• fairness (businesses must balance the interests of all parties).
2.1 Issues that could challenge ethical and professional behaviour

• Taxation
• Sexual harassment
• Pricing of goods in rural areas
• Unfair advertising
• Unauthorised use of funds
• Abuse of work time.

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2.2 Strategies to address these issues

Taxation

The business needs to be familiar with the latest changes in tax legislation to comply with the law.

Sexual harassment

The business needs to ensure that all employees are familiar with the businesses code of ethics.

Pricing of goods in rural areas

Businesses should try to obtain their supplies from cheaper suppliers to keep prices as low as
possible.

Unfair advertising

Customers can send complaints to ASA if the conduct of the business is not in line with the
expectations of ASA.

Unauthorised use of funds

Accountants should be accountable for business funds and the necessary checks and balances put in
place to ensure that no unauthorised use of funds occurs.

Abusing of work time

Employees should consider the implications of their actions on the profitability and success of the
business.

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
Which of the following is not an example of unethical business behaviour:
A omitting facts to mislead or confuse consumers
B creating false documentation
C Being polite to customers and staff
D industrial espionage (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
Which of the following is not a tax applicable to South African businesses:
A Income tax
B Inheritence tax
C VAT
D Corporate tax (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
Which of the following does corporate governance not refer to:
A Sustainable development
B Accountability
C Profitablity
D Fairness (2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
Which of the following is not an issue that could challenge professional behaviour:
A Tax
B Sexual discrimination
C Abuse of work time
D Your religion (2)

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Question 5: True/false
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.
5.1 The Former Judge of the High Court, Donald King, and other delegates, known as the King
Commission, developed a code for businesses to follow.(2)
5.2 The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) regulates advertising in South Africa and protects
the customer and competitors from unfair advertising practices. (2)

Question 6: True/false
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.
6.1 Tax evasion such as not disclosing all income on tax returns is a criminal act, which could be
punishable by law.
6.2 In order to help avoid sexual harassment businesses need to ensure that all employees are
familiar with the code of ethics of the business.

Question 7: Define good corporate governance. (5)

Question 8: What is sexual harassment, and how does it challenge ethical and professional
behaviour in the business environment? (10)

Question 9: What is tax evasion and why is it unethical and unprofessional? (6)

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 Term 1 Topic 4 Creative thinking
Overview

This topic deals with the application of creative thinking to respond to challenges in dynamic and
complex business contexts.

• Acquiring advanced problem- • Applying creative thinking to solve

solving skills complex business problems
• Techniques for problem
solving

1 Acquiring advanced problem-solving skills

Being able to think creatively and solve problems that businesses and business people face is crucial
to their success. These problems may arise in the micro environment, the macro business
environment or in the market environment.

1.1 Techniques to define a challenge

A solution to a problem that worked in the past may not work now and business leaders may need
to come up with new solutions to problems by thinking laterally.

Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that
is not immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional
step-by-step logic.

Challenges need to be clearly defined before you can try to come up with a solution.

Different techniques used to define a challenge may include:

1.1.1 Progressive abstraction technique

This technique is used to develop an alternative definition of the challenge. It involves moving from
one level of challenge to another until a satisfactory definition is reached – in other words,
expanding the definition of the challenge. Once a suitable level of abstraction is
achieved, it is easier to identify possible solutions.

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1.1.2 Boundary examination technique

This technique redesigns the boundaries of thinking about a challenge. It also helps managers find
new ways of looking at challenges.

1.1.3 Wishful thinking technique

This approach can free you from unnecessary but unrecognized assumptions that you are making
about the scenario of concern.
Generally, the steps to follow in applying the technique are as follows:
1. State the question, goal, situation, or problem.
2. Assume anything is possible.
3. Using fantasy, make statements such as: ‘What I really want to do is…’ or If I could choose any
answer to this question, it would be….’
4. Examine each fantasy and their statements and, using this as a stimulation, return to reality and
make statements such as: ‘Although I really cannot do that, I can do…’ or ‘It seems impractical to do
that, but I believe we can accomplish the same thing by….’

1.2Gather relevant information

Once the problem or challenge has been defined the next step is to gather as much information
about it as possible. This information can be gathered in many different ways such as talking to
people, conducting research into the issue, etc…

1.3 Steps in solving a problem

Generally the problem solving process involves the following seven steps:

1. Define the problem

2. Find potential causes for the problem

3. Identify alternative ways to solve the problem

4. Choose a way to solve the problem

5. Plan and implement an action plan

6. Monitor the implementation of the plan

7. Check if the problem has been resolved.

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2 Application of creative thinking to solve business problems in case studies
and given scenarios

Creative thinking is important for solving business problems because it focuses on exploring
ideas, generating possibilities, looking for many right answers rather than just one. There
are many different tools you can use to be creative. For example you can discuss your
problem with other creative people.

2.1 Recap creative thinking

You should revise some creative thinking skills that you learnt in Grades 10 and 11.

2.1.1 Routine versus creative thinking

Routine thinking is when a person uses the skills they are most familiar with to solve a
problem.

2.1.2 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are made to find
a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by
its member(s).

2.1.3 E-brainstorming
This is a technique where people enter their ideas on their computers, before sharing,
elaborating and evaluating them.

2.1.4 Delphi technique

The Delphi technique is an intensive and fairly specialized group problem-solving method
used to harness and reconcile the knowledge and judgment of several experts.

2.1.5 Stepladder technique

This technique encourages individual participation in group decision-making, to get a
greater mix of ideas.

2.1.6 Force-field analysis

It provides a framework for looking at the factors (forces) that influence a situation,
originally social situations. It looks at forces that are either driving movement toward a goal
(helping forces) or blocking movement toward a goal (hindering forces).

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2.1.7 Fishbone analysis
This requires a group to identify the problem factors, then individuals work on solutions.

2.1.8 SWOT analysis

SWOT analysis (alternately SLOT analysis) is a strategic planning method used to evaluate
the Strengths, Weaknesses/Limitations, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or
in a business venture.

2.1.9 Six thinking hats

In Grade 10 you learnt about Edward de Bono’s idea of using Six thinking hats to encourage
creative thinking. The thinking hat tool provides a means for groups to think together more
effectively, and a means to plan thinking processes in a detailed and cohesive way.
2.1.10 PESTLE analysis
PEST analysis stands for "Political, Economic, Social, and Technological analysis" and
describes a framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning
component of strategic management.

• Political factors are how and to what degree a government intervenes in the
economy.

• Economic factors include economic growth, exchange rates etc… These factors have
major impacts on how businesses operate and make decisions.

• Social factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness,
population growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safety.

• Technological factors include technological aspects such as automation, technology

incentives and the rate of technological change.

• Environmental factors include ecological and environmental aspects such as

weather, climate, and climate change, which may especially affect industries such as
tourism, farming, and insurance.

• Legal factors include discrimination law, consumer law, antitrust law, employment
law, and health and safety law.

2.1.11 Value chain analysis

Rather than looking at departments or accounting cost types, Porter's Value Chain focuses
on systems, and how inputs are changed into the outputs purchased by consumers. Using
this viewpoint, Porter described a chain of activities common to all
businesses. The main aim is to gain the competitive edge over its
competitors.

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2.1.12 DRIVE technique
The full name of ‘DRIVE’ is ‘Define-Review-Identify-Verify-Execute’. Using this methodology
requires following steps:

D – Define – You should define – (i) the scope of your problem, (ii) the success criteria
measurements – including deliverables and success factors that you agree

R – Review – Review the current situation of the problem, understand the background of the
problem, determine and collect information – performance data, problem areas, improvement
options

I – Identify (determine) – Identify (determine) improvement options or solutions to the problem

– What changes you need to improve your process so as to enable to rectify the problem

V- Verify – Verify (check) – Whether determined improvement options or solutions will bring
those results that we defined as the success criteria measurements

E – Execute (implement) for solutions and improvement – Plan and execute improvement
options or solutions, check the results.

Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 Which of the following is not a creative tool for problem solving:
A The Chapman process
B Value chain analysis
C PESTLE analysis
D Force-field analysis (2)

Question 2: True/false
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down the
correct statement.
2.1 DRIVE’ is ‘Define-Review-Identify-Verify- Execute. (2)
2.2 Generally the problem solving process involves eight steps (2)

Question 3: True/false
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down the
correct statement.
3.1 The thinking hat tool provides a means for groups to think together more effectively, and a
means to plan thinking processes in a detailed and cohesive way. (2)
3.2 The Delphi technique is an intensive and fairly specialized group
problem-solving method used to harness and reconcile the knowledge and
judgment of several experts. (2)

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Question 4: Answer the following question
Write down the steps that can be taken to solve a problem. (14)

Question 5: Answer the following question

Explain what the term lateral thinking means. (4)

Question 6: Answer the following question

Explain how the Wishful thinking technique works. (10)

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 Term1 Topic 5 Macro environment: Business
Strategies
Overview

This topic looks at strategies businesses can use to counteract threats in the macro
environment

Developing strategies in response to Types of business strategies

challenges in business • Integration strategies
environments: • Forward integration, backward
• SWOT analysis of the business integration and horizontal
environments (including PESTLE) integration
• Formulation of strategies • Intensive strategies
• Implementation of strategies • Market penetration, market
Evaluating strategies development and product
development
• Diversification strategies
• Concentric diversification, horizontal
Strategic evaluation & recommendations diversification and conglomerate
for improvement diversification
Three activities of strategy evaluation: • Defensive strategies
o examination of the business
• Retrenchment, divestiture and
strategy
liquidation

comparison of expected
• Other strategies
performance

taking corrective action where
necessary

1 Introduction

In Term 1 Topic 1 you studied the three business environments and the challenges they hold for a
business.

Management has to consider both the internal and external environments in order to identify the
opportunities and threats, as well as strengths and weaknesses for the business.

Once this has been done management are then able to draw up plans to solve these problems.

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Top management usually develop corporate strategies which focus on the need for the business to
adapt to and foresee changes in the business environment. Managers at middle and lower
management levels then devise operational strategies, which are specific to their section but still in
line with the corporate strategy developed at top management level.

Strategic planning can be defined as a businesses process of defining its strategy, or direction, and
making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy. In order to determine the
direction of the business, it is necessary to understand its current position and the possible avenues
through which it can pursue a particular course of action.

2. The strategic management process

Strategic management is a process aimed at achieving a business goal using the four management
elements of planning, organising, leading and control.

The following three areas of the strategic management process will be discussed in the rest of the topic:

• Formulation of strategies
• Implementation of strategies
• Evaluation of strategies.

3 Formulation of strategies

There are four phases in formulating strategies:

3.1 Establish a strategic direction

The strategic direction of a business usually consists of a vision statement and a mission statement.

3.2 Develop strategic goals

From the vision and mission statements a set of strategic goals (also called action plans) will usually be
developed. It is important that these action plans be SMARTER:

• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Realistic
• Time-bound
• Ethical
• Recordable.

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3.3 Analyse the external and internal environments for challenges

The next step in the formulation of strategies is to analyse the external and internal environments of the
business.

Business environment Industry analysis tools

Micro SWOT analysis
Market SWOT analysis and
Porter’s Five Forces
Macro SWOT analysis and
PESTLE analysis

A SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the Strengths,

Weaknesses/Limitations, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a business venture. It involves
specifying the objective of the business venture or project and identifying the internal and external
factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieve that objective.

Pestel Analysis

PESTEL is an acronym that stands for Political, Economical, Social, Technological,

Environmental and Legal. It is used to describe an analysis that is used for determining the
opportunities and risks of global expansion.

Political, Economical, Social, Techonological, Environmental and Legal issues often differ
locally and even more so internationally. As a company looks to leverage the advantages
that the democratization of technology, information and finance, and grow beyond the
national borders that previously confined them, it is important that they consider a PESTEL
analysis to accompany their SWOT analysis.

Porters Analysis

The Porter's Five Forces tool is a simple but powerful tool for understanding where power
lies in a business situation.

With a clear understanding of where power lies, you can take fair advantage of a situation
of strength, improve a situation of weakness, and avoid taking wrong steps. This makes it an
important part of your planning toolkit.

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Conventionally, the tool is used to identify whether new products, services or businesses
have the potential to be profitable. However it can be very illuminating when used to
understand the balance of power in other situations.

Five Forces Analysis assumes that there are five important forces that determine
competitive power in a business situation. These are:

1. Supplier Power
2. Buyer Power
3. Competitive Rivalry
4. Threat of Substitution
5. Threat of New Entry.

3.4 Develop strategies in response to the challenges

The final step is to develop a set of strategies that can be used to solve the problems that surfaced
from the data collected.

Problem-solving skills and creative thinking can be used to create business ideas in the following ways:
• Looking beyond the first good idea that comes up and consider various options
• Being prepared to continuously look for more and better ideas
• Using indigenous knowledge, which is part of African philosophical thought and social practices that
have developed over thousands of years.

Problem-solving techniques

• Chair Technique
Two people sit opposite each other to try and solve a problem. The one identifies the advantages and the
other the disadvantages of a possible decision.

• Empty Chair Technique

Arrange several chairs in a circle with a chair in the middle. One person then moves from chair to chair,
addressing the empty chair in the middle on different aspects of a problem.

• Delphi Technique
Ask decision-makers for their opinion without talking face-to-face through the use of questionnaires,
email surveys, etc…

• Nominal Group Technique

Individual members consider a problem on their own and generate ideas. Each member then contributes
one idea that gets recorded. Each idea is then discussed by the group. All the ideas are placed in order of
importance.

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 • Brainstorming
Have a non-critical discussion where all ideas are considered and members can build on each other’s
ideas.

• Forced Combinations
This technique is often used after a brainstorming session. Members are provided with random words,
pictures or objects. They must then create connections between the problem being discussed and the
word/picture/object allocated to them. This can be achieved by asking: ‘How does this picture provide a
solution to the problem?’

• SCAMPER
Answer a set of questions using the letters from the word SCAMPER to come up with a new idea.

• What can be Substituted?

• What can be Combined?
• What can be Adapted?
• What can be Modified/Magnified?
• How can it be Put to other uses?
• Can the product be Eliminated?
• Look form a different angle – Reverse the problem.

• Six Thinking Hats

This is a technique which helps managers to look at important decisions and problems from a number of
different perspectives.
In meetings it has the benefit of blocking confrontations that happen when people with different thinking
styles discuss the same problem.

4. Implementation of strategies

4.1 Types of business strategies

4.1.1 Integration strategies

Integration strategies are usually used when a business sees an opportunity to solve a problem by
shortening the distribution channel of the product by combining two or more links in the channel.

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Examples may include:

• Horizontal integration

• Vertical integration

• Backward integration

• Forward integration.

4.1.2 Intensive strategies

Intensive strategies are aimed at increasing sales and therefore the market share by making use of
existing products and resources. Examples may include:

• Market penetration

• Market development

• Product development.

4.1.3 Diversification strategies

Diversification strategies involve developing new products and then selling them in new markets. Some
examples include:

• Concentric diversification

• Horizontal diversification

• Conglomerate diversification.

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4.1.4 Defensive strategies

Defensive strategies are often used when a business is under pressure. Examples include:

• Retrenchment

• performance incentives
• Divestiture

• Liquidation.

4.2 Requirements for successful strategy implementation

Strategy implementation is the ‘action’ part of the strategy. The strategy needs to be correctly
implemented in order to be successful.

• Strategies must be managed according to the results

• Strategy implementation must focus on all the people involved in executing the strategy

• Strategies need to be resourced properly.

5. Evaluation of strategies

Strategic management is a complex and ongoing process and needs to be evaluated throughout and after
the implementation stage.

Information about the external environment is gathered by environmental scanning and is often referred
to as the gathering of competitive intelligence. Internal information systems, referred to as business
intelligence systems provide information on the business’ performance.

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
1.1 Which one of the following is not one of the four management elements used in strategic
management:
A planning
B organising
C delegating
D leading (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 PESTEL is an acronym that stands for.
A Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal
B Political, Equal, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal
C Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental and Late
D Political, Economical, Social, Teaching, Environmental and Legal (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
3.1 Which of the following is not an example of a diversification strategy:
A Concentric diversification
B Horizontal diversification
C Upward diversification
D Conglomerate diversfication (2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
4.1 Which of the following is not an example of a defensive strategy:
A Liquidation
B Rentrenchment
C Giving up
D Performance incentives (2)

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Question 5: Multiple choice
Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
5.1 is Horizontal integration an example of:
A Integration strategy
B Defensive strategy
C Attacking strategy
D Intensive strategy (2)

Question 6: What are the possible benefits of forward integration? (8)

Question7:Use your own words to explain backward integration. Use examples in your explanation. (10)

Question 8: What is a defensive strategy? Identify and briefly explain three defensive strategies that a
business might use. (40)

Question 9: Explain how you think market penetration can be achieved. Provide your own examples. (10)

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Term 2 Topic 1 Social responsibility and
corporate citizenship/CSR
Overview

• This topic deals with the concept of social responsibility and its implications for both business
and communities

Corporate Social Responsibility

Nature and process of Corporate Social Responsibility

Benefits to business and community

Problems/challenges: business and community

Components of Corporate Social Responsibility, e.g.
environment, ethical corporate social investment,
health and safety, etc.

Corporate Social Investment

Definition

Nature of Corporate Social Investment

Corporate Social Investment projects, (including
human rights issues)

Responsible business practice

Challenges to the business:

A challenge to meet the longer term needs of the
society within which they operate

Legislative requirements,
-Employment Equity Act,
-Skills Development Act
-The National Skills Development Strategy
and Human Resources Development
Strategy

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1 The concept of social responsibility and its implications for both business
and communities

Social responsibility is a theory that a business or individual has an obligation to act to benefit of
society. Social responsibility is a duty every individual or business has to perform so as to maintain a
balance between the economy and the ecosystem.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) means that a business takes responsibility for the social and
environmental resources it uses, and puts something back into society and the environment

A shift in thinking in recent years has led to businesses aiming to not only make a profit but to be
socially responsible and to be environmentally sustainable.

2 Meaningful contributions of time and effort

2.1 Definition of Social Responsibility

Social responsibility means that a business or individual has an obligation to act in a way that
benefits society. Social responsibility is a duty every individual or business has to perform so as to
maintain a balance between the economy and the ecosystem.

2.2 Meaningful (as an individual) contribution of time and effort to advancing the well-
being of others in a business context

Although it would be naïve to think that we can change the world by ourselves we still have
an obligation and a duty to try and do the right thing.

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2.3 Ways in which a business project can contribute towards the community
This can be done in several ways such as:
• Contributions to NGOs
• Employees giving up their time to contribute to the community
• Involvement in issues that concern the community.

2.4 Corporate Social Responsibility

2.4.1 Definition

CSR is a form of corporate self-regulation whereby a business monitors and ensures its
compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and international norms. The goal of
CSR is to embrace responsibility for the company's actions and encourage a positive impact
through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities,
stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere.

CSR can be divided into two main categories: primary social responsibility and broad social
responsibility. The primary responsibility refers to those connected directly to the business
whilst the broad social responsibility refers to the community as a whole.

2.4.2 Nature and process of Corporate Social Responsibility

Businesses are encouraged to be more socially responsible both by government, business

stakeholders and the community as a whole.

In order that the CSR activities of a business are meaningful and make a positive
contribution the following processes must be put in place:

• A CSR programme or activity must be planned

• Employees have to be put in charge and divided into teams to drive the planned CSR
activity
• The activity must have identifiable and measureable impacts on the community
• The CSR programme must be monitored and evaluated for improvements.

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2.4.3 Benefits: business and community

CSR can have the following benefits for businesses:

• Win new business

• Increase customer retention
• Develop and enhance relationships with customers, suppliers and networks
• Attract, retain and maintain a happy workforce and be an Employer of Choice
• Save money on energy and operating costs and manage risk
• Differentiate yourself from your competitors
• Generate innovation and learning and enhance your influence
• Improve your business reputation and standing
• Provide access to investment and funding opportunities
• Generate positive publicity and media opportunities due to media interest in ethical
business activities.

2.4.4 Problems/challenges for the business and community

• Increased costs of production leading to higher prices or reduced profits and so decreased
competitiveness
• The sums of money spent by firms on CSR are often dictated by few directors and may not
reflect how shareholders want their money spent
• Consumers of CSR products often have to pay higher prices, reducing their ability to consume
• Acting in a CSR manner can mean that workers in less developed economies are sometimes
further disadvantaged
• Smaller organisations that do not have significant resources to undertake extended CSR
programmes may find themself at a competitive disadvantage
• Loss of tax revenue for the Government as CSR some activities can be ‘written off’ against tax.

2.4.5 Components of Corporate Social Responsibility

The components of CSR include:
• Using sustainable practices that take care of the environment
• Using ethical corporate social investment and showing a real concern for all stakeholders in the
business
• Taking into account the health and safety of all stakeholders in the business.

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2.5 Corporate Social Investment

2.5.1 Definition
CSI is about how a business spends its money. CSI is primarily about money, time, skills and expertise
that are invested to help communities or the environment.
Social development in a community is the development of services such as healthcare, sanitation,
education, housing and water supply.

Economic development is the development of a community’s economy through jobs, skills and
infrastructure.

2.5.2 Nature of Corporate Social Investment

The nature of CSI depends on the business in question. Businesses are to link their Corporate Social
Investment initiative with their business practices, especially when making use of the skills, expertise
and equipment available within the business.

2.5.3 Corporate Social Investment projects

Corporate Social Investment projects are aimed at improving social and environmental conditions.
Some businesses finance NGOs as part of their CSI programmes.

2.5.4 Responsible business practice

Responsible business practice towards stakeholders such as employees, suppliers and customers is
important. Examples are following appropriate employee dismissal procedures, fair treatment, and
fair remuneration.

2.5.5 Challenges to the business

Challenges to meet the longer-term needs of the society within which they operate

Legislation changes in South Africa and businesses need to take into account the following (this was
covered in term 1):

• Employment Equity Act (EEA)

• Skills Development Act (SDA)

• BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) and compliance

• The National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS).

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Another challenge is that businesses need to draw up and submit skills plans to SETAs for
permission for training to take place. If it fails to meet the requirements, the training plan
will not be approved.

Human Resource Development Strategy (HRDSSA)

The following eight commitments have been made by HRDSSA II and will need to be reflected in
SETA and NSF training plans:

1. Overcome shortages in the skills needed for the successful implementation of current
strategies to achieve economic growth.
2. Increase the number of skilled people to meet the demands of our current and emerging
economic and social development priorities.
3. Implement skills development programmes that are aimed at equipping recipients/citizens
with skills to overcome related poverty and unemployment.

4. Ensure that young people have access to education and training that enhances opportunities
and increases their chances of success in further vocational training and sustainable
employment.

5. Improve technological and innovation capability and outcomes within the public and private
sectors.

6. Ensure that the public sector has the capability to meet the strategic priorities of the South
African developmental state.

7. Establish effective and efficient planning capabilities in the relevant departments and
entities for the successful implementation of the HRDSSA.

Questions

Question 1: Answer the following question

List legislation that needs to be considered when implementing CSR. (8)
Question 2: Answer the following question
List three components of corporate social responsibility. (6)
Question 3: Answer the following question
Define the term social responsibility. (6)
Question 4: Answer the following question
Define the term corporate social responsibility. (6)

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Question 5: Answer the following question
Define the term corporate social investment. (4)

Question 6: What are the challenges to businesses and communities of corporate social
responsibility? Name and briefly describe two challenges for businesses and two challenges for the
community. (8)

Question 7: Explain the importance of corporate social responsibility programmes in making a

meaningful contribution to communities. (10)

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Term 2 Topic 2 Human rights, inclusivity and
environmental issues
Overview

This topic examines the extent to which a business venture addresses issues such as human rights,
inclusivity and environmental issues

Assessing a business venture against criteria to measure human rights,

inclusivity, and environmental issues
• Human rights issues as defined in the Constitution of the Republic of South
Africa
• Diversity in the business – issues of diversity such as poverty, inequality,
race, gender, language, age, disability and other factors
• Environmental protection and human health
• Issues of equality, respect, and dignity
• Other economic, social, and cultural rights

1 The extent to which a business venture addresses issues such as human

rights, inclusivity and environmental issues

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence,
sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. We are all equally
entitled to our human rights without discrimination. Human rights are inalienable. They should not
be taken away, except in specific situations and according to a legal process.

1.1 Human rights issues as defined in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa

The Bill of Rights is the cornerstone of South African democracy and is found in Chapter 2 of the
National Constitution.

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It enshrines the rights of all people in our country and affirms the democratic values of human
dignity, equality and freedom.

Some of the more important points include:

• Equality: everyone has the right to be treated equally in the workplace and may not be
discriminated against on grounds of race, gender, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic origin,
colour, age, disability, religion, culture, sexual orientation and birth

• Human dignity: everyone has dignity and the right to have their dignity respected and
protected

• Freedom of expression: this includes the right to have the freedom of the press and other
media, to receive or impact information or ideas

• Environment: everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health.

1.2 Diversity in the business

Employees may come from different cultures, genders, religious orientations, race groups, and age
groups. These factors may impact on how they interact with one another and other stakeholders in
the business. Here are some issues that contribute to the diversity of the workforce:

• Poverty
• Inequality
• Race
• Gender
• Language
• Age Disability
• Disabilities
• Personalities
• Culture
• Religious orientation.

1.3 Environmental protection and human health

We have the right to live in an environment that is safe from harm. Environmental issues can cause
health and other problems that could threaten the survival of the human race.

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Things that you can do to help the environment include:

• Pay attention to how you use water

• Walk or ride your bike to work, school and anywhere you can because this helps reduce
greenhouse gases
• Providing sanitation facilities to improve household hygiene
• Recycle
• Reuse
• Calculating the carbon footprint of the business and putting measures in place to reduce it.
1.4 Issues of equality, respect and dignity

People of different races, languages, genders, etc., as mentioned in the Bill of Rights, are regarded as
equal in the eyes of the law and have the right to equal opportunities in the workplace.

Respect is defined as ‘due regard for the feelings, wishes, rights or traditions of others’.

Dignity means that one has the right to respect and ethical treatment because we are equal.

1.5 Other economic, social, and cultural rights

Other rights may include:

• Economic rights
• Social rights
• Cultural rights.

1.6 Criteria for measuring human rights within a business

Criteria for measuring human rights issues

1. Does the business uphold affirmative action policies, employment equity and
black economic empowerment?

2. Does the business support the development of women into leadership

positions?

3. Does the business recognise women’s abilities to do jobs that were traditionally
considered men’s work, such as engineering and construction?

4. Does the business uphold the rights of women in pregnancy, as detailed in

Chapter 3 of the Basic Conditions of Employment Act?

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5. Does the business offer equal opportunities to employees, regardless of their
marital status?

6. Does the business offer equal opportunities to employees, regardless of their

ethnicity or social origin?

7. Does the business discriminate against employees or potential employees on

the basis of sexual orientation? For example, does it refuse to employ homosexual
people, or prevent homosexual employees from advancing to positions of
leadership?

8. Does the business discriminate against employees or potential employees on

the basis of age? For example, does it refuse to employ older people, or force
older employees to leave?

9. Does the business discriminate against employees or potential employees with

disabilities? For example, does it refuse to employ such people, or refuse to
accommodate the needs of the people with disabilities whom it does employ?

10. Does the business discriminate against employees or potential employees on

the basis of their religion? For example, does a business run by a Muslim owner
refuse to employ Jewish or Christian people?

11. Would the business treat employees differently if it found out about issues of
conscience (for example, if employees were anti-war) or belief?

12. Does the business discriminate against employees or potential employees on

the basis of culture?

13. Does the business discriminate against employees or potential employees on

the basis of language, to the extent that fluency in a particular language is not a
requirement for doing the job properly?

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

1.1 The Bill of Rights is found in this chapter of the Constitution:

A 2

B 4

C Not at all

D 8 (2)

Question 2: True/false

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.

2.1 Environmental issues can cause health and other problems that could threaten the survival
of the human race. (2)

2.2 Everyone has dignity and the right to have their dignity respected and protected. (2)

Question 3: True/false

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.

3.1 Employees are not allowed to come from different cultures, genders, religious orientations,
race groups, and age groups. (2)

3.2 Everyone has the right to be treated equally in the workplace and may not be discriminated
against on grounds of race, gender, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic (2)

Question 4: True/false

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.

4.1 Freedom of expression: This includes the right to have the freedom of the press and other
media, to receive or impact information or ideas. (2)

4.2 There is nothing you can do to help the environment. (2)

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Question 5: What is the link between South Africa’s Constitution and human rights? (4)

Question 6. Why should businesses address issues of human rights, inclusivity, environmental
protection and socio-economic rights? (4)

Question 7: Name four Acts that protect the oceans and the animals that live in them. (4)

Question 8: Describe socio-economic rights, giving three examples from the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. (5)

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Term 2 Topic 3 Team performance
assessment, conflict management and
problem solving
Overview

This topic deals with collaboration with others to contribute towards the achievement of specific
objectives

Collaboration
Problem solving and management of
• Criteria for successful team problems
performance.
• Self-assessment and team
performance assessment
according to team criteria, e.g.
interpersonal attitudes and
behaviour, shared values,
communication, etc.
• How to effectively perform a
• Procedures to deal with grievances.
specific role within a team.
• Dealing with difficult people.

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1 Collaboration with others to contribute towards the achievement of
specific objectives

It is very important that people in a business work in collaboration with one another to help achieve
the businesses objectives. The word collaboration means very simply working together to achieve a
goal.

1.1 Criteria for successful team performance (recap)

In grade 10 you learnt about the criteria that need to be met in order for a team to be successful:

• Clear objectives

• Openness

• Mutual respect

• Support and mutual trust

• Commitment

• Interpersonal relationships

• Individual development opportunities

• Reviewing the team’s progress.

1.2Self-assessment and team performance assessment according to team criteria

The following guidelines can be used to effectively perform a specific role within a team:

• Identify each individuals behavioural strengths and weaknesses so that they can be given a
suitable role in the team

• Clearly define each member in the teams role with clear boundaries and instructions, in order to
minimise conflict related to role ambiguity

• Role and work overload needs to be avoided to ensure effective performance. When
circumstances call for it members should take on more than one team role to
accomplish shared objectives.

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1.3 The characteristics of successful teams:

• The team has a clear sense of purpose with a clearly defined mission and objectives that
every team member understands.
• The objectives of the team are broken down into clear goals for each team member to
achieve and fulfil.
• The team must have a clear set of processes and procedures for their work. This will allow
work to be co-ordinated and organised.
• The team members must have a sense of individual responsibility towards the values, goals
and objectives of the team. This creates an important sense of belonging and value within
the team.
• The team must have a balance of the necessary skills, knowledge, experience and expertise
to achieve the objectives.

2 Problem solving and conflict management

2.1Problem solving and the management of problems that arise from working with others or in
teams

Grievance and disciplinary procedures along with other in house company procedures can be used
to deal with problems that arise.

In Grade 11 you learnt about The Thomas-Kilnmann model for conflict management. This can be
used when problems arise or to allow third-party intervention where the parties involved express
their concerns in the presence of a conciliator (no judgement is formed) or a mediator (suggestions
are made that are non-binding).

2.2Correct procedures to deal with grievances

If a member of a team is unable or unwilling to cooperate to resolve a problem then the correct
grievance procedure needs to be followed.

Stage 1:

• The employee should approach their immediate superior to report the grievance

• The grievance should be addressed as soon as possible – no later than three working days after
it is reported. If not resolved, the aggrieved employee should proceed to the next stage.

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Stage 2:

• A meeting should be requested with the immediate superior and a grievance form drawn up to
indicate the nature of the grievance

• The superior may respond in writing or set up a meeting. If a meeting is held, the employees
involved are allowed to bring representatives and witnesses

• The responsible person (supervisor) who deals with the grievance must attempt to resolve the
grievance in ten working days. The decision of the arbitrator is final

• If the aggrieved employee finds it necessary they may resort to an external dispute resolution
mechanism such as the CCMA.

2. 3 Different ways of dealing with difficult people (personalities)

You can try the following:

• Be calm and in control of the situation

• Try to understand the person's intentions and why they have reacted In this way

• Get input from others

• Let the person know what your intentions are and the reasons for your actions

• Build rapport by re-establishing personal connection with colleagues instead of relying on

emails, messaging and computers

• Treat the person with respect

• Ask someone in authority for their input into the situation

• If you have already tried everything above and the person is still not responding, ignore them.

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

2.1 Which of the following is a model for conflict management:

A The Angus model

B The Thomas-Kilnmann model

C The Muppet model

D The Andrew-Kilmann model (2)

Question 2: True/false

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.

2.1 If the aggrieved employee finds it necessary they may resort to an external dispute
resolution mechanism such as the CCMA (Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and
Arbitration. (2)

2.2 If a member of a team is unable or unwilling to co operate to resolve a problem then the
correct grievance procedure needs to be followed. (2)

Question 3: Identify and describe the steps that are used to resolve team conflict. (15)

Question 4: Describe the characteristics of an effective team. (10)

Question 5: Explain why a team’s performance must be assessed. (4)

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Term 2 Topic 4 Business sector and its
environments
Overview

This topic describes the three environments related to the different business sectors and the extent
to which a business can control these environments

1 Economic sectors and business environments

The primary sector (agriculture, fishing, and extraction such as mining) makes direct use of natural
resources, the secondary sector (roughly the same as manufacturing) and the tertiary sector (also
known as the service sector) are the different economic sectors in which businesses operate.

Try to remember the following points about the business environment:

• The business environment is multifaceted

• The components of the business environment are interdependent
• The business environment is very uncertain
• The business environment is dynamic
• Changes that occur in the business environment have both short-term and
long-term effects, which can be either positive or negative.

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2 The control businesses from the different economic sectors have over the
business environment

Although businesses have very limited control over the environments within which they operate
they can try and exert some control.

2.1Control over the micro environment

The micro environment includes all the internal factors of the business. Via an internal control
system management of a business should have full control over all the elements of its micro
environment. The micro environment of a business is divided in to 8 business functions. It is the role
of management and entrepreneurs of a business to ensure the full and effective operation of these
functions. In this way, the micro environment can be fully controlled. These 8 functions are
described below:

Business Function Descriptions

Purchasing is the process whereby raw materials are obtained in order to

make the product or deliver a service.

Human Resource Management involves the managing of current staff and the employing of
new staff in a business.

Production is the process whereby the product is made or the service is

delivered.

General Management determines the direction of the business.

Finance ensures all resources are available for the operation of the
business.

Marketing means understanding and satisfying the needs of the

customers

Public Relations involves maintaining a favourable public image by, and of the
business.

Administration needs efficient and organised systems to ensure the smooth

running of the business.

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Internal control consists of five inter-related components:

• Control environment
• Risk assessment
• Control activities

• Information and communication

• Monitoring.

2.2Control over the market environment

The market environment exists just outside of the business and includes elements like customers,
suppliers, etc… An individual business has limited control over the elements of the market
environment and can at best try to influence the market environment in order to benefit from
opportunities and limit the impact of the threats.

Management need to look at:

• Suppliers
• Competitors
• Intermediaries
• Customers
• Civil society.

Within the three businesses sectors, primary, secondary and tertiary, each business will have to be
aware of its market environment and ways to deal with it.

2.3Control over the macro environment

The macro environment is the environment directly outside the market environment. The macro
environment consists of all the external elements that exist outside of a company's control that can
significantly impact its performance and ability to compete in its marketplace. Examples of macro
environment elements are the economy, government policy-making, technology, social conditions,
and nature. For companies with a global foot-print, their exposure to macro environment elements
is magnified.

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Although a business cannot control the macro environment it can try to have some involvement or
input into it in order to benefit the business. Examples may include lobbying political groups, social
responsibility initiatives, etc…

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Macro economic factors Description

Physical Climate change(s) can affect the success of the

primary sector and therefore, all the business
sectors.

Political Political events worldwide can threaten a

business

Economic The economic environment changes all the

time, and it is vital that businesses watch
key economic indicators.

International International trade, (for example, imports and

exports),and competition are factors affecting
the success of businesses worldwide.

Technological Changes in technology can have a great affect on

the micro and market environments of a
business.

Social The business location, its accessibility, its

suitability to customers is important.

Indicators in the macro environment, such as economic indicators, may provide the opportunity
to make changes in a business, but many changes that occur are unpredictable. Natural
disasters are definitely unpredictable events. A business must try to

• participate in identifying new opportunities and reducing risk

• more accurately predict future events
• contribute to a healthier, protected, more skilled and more productive workforce
• protect natural resources and meet consumer needs in a sustainable way

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3. Globalization and competitiveness

• Business networks are becoming increasingly globalized as more and more companies
compete internationally.
• Globalized markets intensify competitive pressures and causing the center of economic
gravity to shift to new regions.
• South Africa needs to ensure our global competitiveness by capturing long-term, leading
positions in tomorrow's markets.
• To succeed in today's global economy, companies must think and act internationally.

Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

1.1 The primary sector makes use of:

A unnatural resources

B intellectual capital

C natural resources

D is about manufacturing. (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

2.1 For companies with a global foot-print, their exposure to macro environment elements is:

A non-existent

B magnified

C smaller

D less. (2)

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Question 3: True/false

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write down
the correct statement.

3.1 The tertiary sector is sometimes referred to as the service sector. (2)

3.2 The macro environment is the environment directly outside the market environment. (2)

Question 4: What is an ‘environment’? (2 )

Question 5: Give three examples of physical/environment challenges faced by a business

and their possible effects. (6)

Question 6: What do you think are the main social challenges faced by a developing country such as
South Africa? (3)

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Term 2 Topic 5 Management and leadership
Overview

This topic deals with differences in management and leadership styles.

• The difference between leadership and management.

• Leadership styles, e.g. democratic, autocratic, etc.
• Theories of management and leadership, e.g. leaders and followers, situational leadership,
transitional and transformational leadership, etc.
• The role of personal attitude in success and leadership.

1 The differences between leadership and management

Effective leadership and effective management are needed for a business to be successful. Let’s look
at the characteristics of leadership and management.

1.1 Leadership

Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs
the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.

A leader should:

• Be visionary, giving orders, inspire people and provide them with direction

• Look for opportunities and encouraging change and innovation

• Communicate effectively and have good listening skills

• Motivate people and have good people skills

• Set an example for others to follow

• Encourage effective team work.

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1.2 Management

You previously learnt that the main tasks of a manager are planning, organising, leading and
control.

1.3 Differences between leadership and management

• Leadership is setting a new direction or vision for a group that they follow, ie: a leader is the
spearhead for that new direction
• Management controls or directs people/resources in a group according to principles or
values that have already been established.

Leadership Management

Is about inspiring, helping, listening, developing Managing through planning, organising,

and communicating. commanding, controlling and disciplining.

Is a process. Is a position.

Natural authority and influence. Delegated authority and influence.

Interdependent decision-making. Independent decision-making.

Collaborative and cooperative. Competitive.

Manages people by managing emotions, Manages things like processes, procedures and
relationships and communication. resources.

Embraces change as an opportunity for growth Perceives change as a threat to productivity and
and development. planned objectives.

Develops trust, encouraging growth through Emphasis on doing things right. Rules and
experience and listening to the ideas of others. processes are used to achieve objectives.

Strategic focus includes long-term change, Focus towards short term productivity, goals and
developing others and taking risks. objectives.

Seeks freedom to explore new ideas and to Seeks to control and create consistency and
encourage more personal and organisational predictability through effective processes and
flexibility. procedures.

Is rewarded for the success of others. Is rewarded for personal performance and
achievement.

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2 Leadership styles

There are many different leadership styles. We are going to focus on four.

2.1 Democratic/Participative style

This leadership style takes into consideration the needs and input of followers and encourages group
involvement. This type of leader includes employees in decision making but has the authority to
make the final decision.

2.2 Autocratic style

This leadership style involves telling employees what to do and how they should carry out their tasks
without asking them for input or ideas. These leaders have all the authority and make all the
decisions themselves.

2.3 Bureaucratic style

This leadership style involves relying on organisational rules and policies.

2.4 Laissez faire/delegative style

This leadership style involves telling employees what to do but giving them leeway to decide how to
carry out their tasks.

3 Theories of management and leadership

Leaders may have to change their approach and style from time to time. As such it is important for
them to be aware of some of the different leadership theories.

3.1 The leader follower theory

This is a leadership theory that focuses on the interactions between leaders and followers.
The interaction between leaders and followers helps to shape the success or failure of an
organization. The very concept of a team-oriented workplace, commonality toward goals
and a productive work environment stem from the leader-follower interaction.

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3.2 Situational leadership

This involves using a combination of leadership styles to suit a particular situation. They are
able to look at a situation and consider various factors, such as time limits, relationship with
subordinates and the skills and capability of subordinates when choosing a particular
leadership style.

3.3 Transitional and transformational leadership

This is where the leader inspires followers with a shared vision, and motivates and
empowers them to do more than they would usually do or thought they could do.

3.4 Charismatic leadership

In many ways this is similar to transformational leaders, in that they are also enthusiastic
and inspire and transform (change) the people they lead. They guide people by using charm
and self-confidence and their personality attracts attention.

3.5 Transactional leadership

This approach is where the leader creates clear structures, roles and responsibilities so that
subordinates know exactly what is expected of them and what rewards they will get for
following orders.

3.6 Servant leadership

The servant leader focuses more on his followers than on him- or herself and argues that
the most effective leaders are servants of their followers.

4 Personal attitude in success and leadership

Attitude can be defined as being A settled way of thinking or feeling, typically reflected in a
person's behaviour. Success in leadership will depend on your personal attitude. Positive
attitudes that are important for successful leadership include:

• Enthusiasm
• Belief
• Drive
• Courage/persistence.

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

1.1 Which of the following is not a personal attribute necessary for success as a leader:

A Belief

B Negativity

C Courage/persistence

D Drive. (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

2.1 Which of the following is not a recognised leadership style:

A Bureaucratic style

B Autocratic style

C Democratic style

D Narcissistic style. (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

3.1 Which of the following is a characteristic of a good leader:

A Inspires people

B Negative

C Alcoholic

D Criticises people. (2)

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Question 4: Tabulate SIX differences between leadership and management. (12)

Question 5: Identify and discuss three leadership styles. Describe the characteristics of the style and
when it is appropriate to use. (3 × 6)

Question 6: Identify and explain FIVE attributes of a positive attitude. (5 × 4)

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Term 2 Topic 6 Quality of Performance
Overview

This topic deals with quality of performance and how quality affects the success of a business.

The relationship between quality and the

various business functions including TQM
The concept of quality and the
relationship between quality and
business success
The impact of quality on different business
structures

1 The concept of quality

Quality is important to businesses but can be quite hard to define. A good definition of quality is:

“Quality is about meeting the needs and expectations of customers”

Customers want quality that is appropriate to the price that they are prepared to pay and the level
of competition in the market.

Key aspects of quality for the customer include:

• Good design
• Good functionality
• Reliable
• Consistency
• Durability
• Good after sales service
• Value for money.

When managers manage a business well, they control the following functions:
purchasing, production, marketing, finance, administration, personnel (also known
as Human resources), public relations and general management.

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Some of the advantages of good quality are:

• customer loyalty

• strong brand reputation for quality

• as the product is perceived to be better value for money, it may attract a higher price

• fewer returns and replacements lead to reduced costs

• attracting and retaining good staff.

1.1 SABS

The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) is a South African body that was established by the
government in 1945 to promote and maintain quality and standardisation of goods and services.
Having their logo on products such as electrical appliances ensures that certain regulations
regarding safety have been met.

2 The relationship between quality and the various business functions

2.1Quality in the human resources function

A healthy working relationship between employer and employees, good working conditions and
proper discipline and motivation will improve the performance of employees.

Some tasks of the Human Resources function that will ensure continuous quality improvement:

• Setting up an effective organisational structure

• Organise training programmes and continuous skills development

• Promote employee motivation to ensure job satisfaction and improve performance levels

• Implement an employee and management performance management system (PMS).

2.2Quality in the purchasing and production functions

Purchasing and production functions coincide because the production department

needs materials to work with. The materials are purchased by the purchasing dept.
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They need to know each other's timelines and deadlines, e.g. prod. needs to know how much lead
time to give purchasing to get the materials.

The principal procedures in a purchasing department can be listed as follows:

1. Receive purchase requisitions

2. Review and evaluate requisitions
3. Aggregate and place orders
4. Follow-up and expediting
5. Payment authorization
6. Record-keeping.

2.3Quality in the financial function

Finance is critical to any business. All areas of the business need to have up-to-date information
about its financial health. Financial reporting is a major part of this function.

Financial accounting

This is the process of summarising historical financial data taken from the accounting records of the
business.

Management accounting

Management accounting provides accounting information relating to the future, which helps
managers make decisions that will affect the future of the business.

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2.4Quality in the marketing and public relations function

A business needs to co-ordinate and combine all seven marketing policies in order to maximise their
impact:

• Product

• Price

• Place

• Promotion

• People

• Processes

• Physical environment.

2.5Quality in the administration function

Effective systems will help ensure the smooth running of the business.. Quality information is
information that is accurate, complete, meaningful, easily understood and available when needed by
users.

2.6Quality in the general management function

Strategic planning, which is the responsibility of top management, is crucial to ensure quality
performance. The management function is involved in all the other business functions and is
ultimately responsible for the overall performance of the business.

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3 The impact of quality on different business structures

3.1 Small businesses

In small businesses (e.g. sole trader), most, if not all, of the business functions can be combined.

Factors that might affect the quality of the product or service of a small business include:

• One business function is ignored due to time constraints

• Inability to negotiate good prices when buying trading stock or raw materials

• While quality systems and quality control in small businesses could be effective, they are not
always documented. This means that errors or deviations could re-occur

• Failure to keep sufficient stock levels as a result of lack of storage facilities or lack of funds

• Limited funds to spend on marketing

• There is limited budget for human resources

• Lack of expertise in any other function will affect the overall quality of performance of the small
business

• High cost to outsource certain functions to experts.

3.2Large businesses

Large businesses may have individual departments with special skills and training that deal with the
different business functions. Other factors that may affect quality in a large business may include:

• Ability to afford specialised and skilled employees

• Ability to afford quality equipment and machinery and implement advance technological
processes and procedures to ensure quality products and services

• Ability to implement well-planned quality systems which describe the policies and procedures
for business performance and ensure quality products and services

• In large business with tall organisational structures, it often takes longer to detect problems or
respond to weaknesses.

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3.3 Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM is a management system that focuses on continuous quality improvement throughout the
whole business.

The three basic principles of TQM are to:

• focus on achieving customer satisfaction

• look for continuous improvement in all the business's processes, products and services

• ensure the full involvement and co-operation of the all employees in improving quality.

The elements of TQM include:

• Continuous skills development

• Teamwork

• Total client satisfaction

• Continuous improvements to processes and systems

• Organisational culture

Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

1.1 Key aspects of quality for the customer do not include:

A Reliability

B Durability

C Non existent after sales service

D Value for money (2)

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Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

2.1 Which of the following is not an advantage of good quality:

A Customer loyalty

B Brand loyalty

C More returns

D Product attracts a higher price (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

3.1 Which one of the following is not one of the three basic principles of TQM:

A focus on achieving customer satisfaction

B ensure the full involvement and co-operation of the all employees in improving quality

C Ensure management cover up for employee errors

D look for continuous improvement in all the business's processes, products and services (2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

4.1 Which of the following is one of the seven marketing policies:

A Product

B Year end functions

C Accounting

D IT systems (2)

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Question 5: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.

5.1 Financial accounting is:

A the process of summarising historical financial data taken from the accounting records of the
business.

B the process of adding up all income and deducting all expenditure

C the process of helping managers make decisions that will affect the future of the business.

D The process of tax avoidance (2)

Question 6: Explain what you understand by the term - quality of performance. Use an example to
help you. (6)

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Term 3 Topic 1 Investment securities
Overview

This topic explores what an investment is, the kinds of investments available to businesses and
individuals and the returns that an investor can expect.

Types of investment opportunities

Assurance vs Insurance

Returns of investments

• Yield/earnings
• Calculating simple and compound interest

1 A range of available business investment opportunities

1.1 Distinguish between assurance and insurance

The term insurance refers to cover for a possible event such as theft or a fire. Assurance is cover for
an event that is certain to happen such as retirement or death. Pension and provident funds are
forms of assurance.

1.2 Compulsory and non-compulsory insurance

Non-compulsory insurance is any insurance that is not compulsory to have. Compulsory insurance is
any form of insurance required by law such as U.I.F, unemployment insurance.

1.3 Viability and relevance to both individuals and businesses

It is important that businesses and individuals have protection against possible risks and losses.
Insurance companies sell protection in the case of loss or damage in the form of an insurance policy.

1.3.1 Viability and relevance for individuals

Insurance and assurance products offer many benefits for individuals. They can be forms of saving,
protect people and their dependants against loss of income and restore them back to the same
financial position they were in before an unexpected event occurred. In some cases individuals can
borrow against policies.

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1.3.2 Viability and relevance to businesses

Insurance and assurance products offer many benefits for businesses. They can be forms of saving,
protection for the firm and its employees against loss of income and can restore it back to the same
financial position it was in before an unexpected event occurred. In some cases businesses can
borrow against policies. Insurance can protect the business from claims made by members of the
public.

2 Types of investments

An investment is an asset or item that is purchased with the hope that it will generate income or
appreciate in the future.

Investments can be categorised as low risk, moderate risk or high risk. The rule of investing is that
the bigger the risk you take, the greater the possible reward.

Examples may include:

• Shares
• Property
• Savings
• Stock options.

2.1 Business investments

You can invest in an existing business by buying shares or by starting a new business.

2.1.1 The Johannesburg Stock/Security Exchange

The Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) is a world class securities exchange. It has operated
as a market place for the trading of financial products for more than 120 years to connect
buyers and sellers in four different markets: equities, equity derivatives, commodity
derivatives and interest rate products.

The JSE is one of the top 20 exchanges in the world and is a member of the World
Federation of Exchanges (WFE).

The JSE also provides companies with the opportunity to raise capital through its boards:
Main Board, Africa Board and AltX. In addition the JSE is a major provider of financial
information. The JSE is a fully electronic, efficient, secure market.

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2.1.2 Types of shares
The basic types of shares are:

• Preference shares
These shares are more expensive because the owner is entitled to preferential dividends. In
the first instance the shareholder is guaranteed a fixed dividend based on the par value of
the share. In the second instance, preferential shareholders receive dividends first.
• Ordinary shares
Ordinary shares are less expensive than preferential shares. Shareholders of ordinary shares
receive dividends after preferential dividends have been paid.
• Founding shares
These shares are assigned to the founding members and promoters of the company. They
will only receive dividends after everyone else is paid.
• Bonus shares
Sometimes a company will decide to retain the profits for expansion of the business. In this
situation they will not pay shareholders a dividend, but they may issue bonus shares in place
of the dividend. This means that shareholders own more shares and will collect more
dividends in the future.

2.1.3 Unit trusts

Unit trusts offer a simple, and effective way of saving money. Unit trusts are collective funds that
allow private investors to pool their money in a single fund, thus spreading their risk across a range
of investments, getting the benefit of professional fund management, and reducing their dealing
costs. Unit trusts are open-ended in contrast to investment trusts, which are closed funds. Different
trusts have different investment objectives: investing for income or growth, in small companies or
large, and in different geographical regions.

Reasons for investing in unit trusts include:

• They are already well-diversified : Unit Trusts buy into a good variety of shares and
bonds thus, risks are well diversified
• Less Stress : They are managed by professional Fund Managers.
• You can invest all over the world. unit trusts are invested all over the world in various
business sectors, giving more opportunities
• You only need a small amount of investment to start with
• Redemption is immediate. If you sell your stocks, it joins the queue awaiting to be
bought by other investors.
• It is relatively safe. Because they are well diversified, thus risks are smaller. Fixed
Income unit trusts are very safe and in the long run, these still perform better than
your fixed deposits.
• Good returns. Over the long term, unit trust investment can reap very handsome
returns.

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2.2 Government retail bonds
Investing in government retail bonds means the investor lends money to the government for a
number of years, and the government promises to pay the money back at a certain interest rate on a
specific date. Fixed interest rates are offered on these bonds. These interest rates are usually higher
than the interest rates offered on fixed deposits and money market accounts.

3 Returns

Return on investment (ROI) measures the profitability of an investment.

3.1 Dividends
Dividends are a taxable payment declared by a company’s board of directors and given to its
shareholders out of the company's current or retained earnings. Dividends are usually given as
money, but they can also take the form of shares or other property. Dividends provide an incentive
to own shares in companies even if they are not experiencing much growth. Companies are not
required to pay dividends.
3.2 Interest
Interest is a charge (at a particular rate) for the use of borrowed money. If you borrow money, it
comes at a cost. Similarly, you can make investments and receive interest.

3.3 Capital gain

An increase in the value of a capital asset (investment or real estate) that gives it a higher
worth than the purchase price. The gain is not realized until the asset is sold. A capital gain
may be short term (a year or less) or long term (more than one year). A capital loss is
incurred when there is a decrease in the capital asset value compared to an asset's purchase
price.

4 Calculations (interest, etc.)

4.1 Interest

Compound vs simple interest

Simple interest is calculated as a simple percentage of the principal amount over an agreed
period of time. Once this time has elapsed the calculation is reset to the principal amount.

Interest is calculated as follows:

Capital amount x Interest rate (p.a.)
1 100

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Compound interest is interest calculated on interest already earned. Therefore when compound
interest is calculated the principal changes all the time as interest is added to it.
Interest can be compounded annually, monthly or even continuously (daily or hourly).

4.2 Dividends

4.2.1 Dividend yield (DY)

A financial ratio that shows how much a company pays out in dividends each year relative to
its share price. In the absence of any capital gains, the dividend yield is the return on
investment for a stock. Dividend yield is calculated as follows:

Annual dividends per share

Share price

4.2.2 Earnings yield (EY)

The earnings per share for the most recent 12-month period divided by the current market
price per share. The earnings yield (which is the inverse of the P/E ratio) shows the
percentage of each Rand invested in the share that was earned by the company.

Earnings per share

Share price

5 The difference between compound interest and simple interest

5.1 Simple interest

Simple interest is defined as interest paid on the original amount only, and not on the interest
accrued.

5.2 Compound interest

Compound interest is the interest earned not only on the original capital (principal) amount invested, but
also on all interests earned previously.

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
1.1 Which of the following is not a type of share:
A Bonus share
B Preference share
C Interest payment
D Preference share (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 Which of the following is not a board on the JSE:
A AltX
B The Main Board
C Africa Board
D Shipping Board (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
3.1 Which of the following is a form of an investment:
A Buying property
B Spending money on CDs
C Spending money on alcohol
D Gambling (2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
4.1 Which of the following statements is incorrect:
A The term insurance refers to cover for a possible event
B Assurance is cover for an event that is never going to happen.
C Unit trusts are collective funds that allow private investors to pool their money in a single fund
D The earnings yield shows the percentage of each Rand invested in the share that was
earned by the company (2)

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Question 5: Multiple choice
Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
5.1 Which of the following statements is incorrect:
A Simple interest is defined as interest not paid on the original amount only, and on the interest
accrued
B Interest is a charge (at a particular rate) for the use of borrowed money.
C Compound interest is the interest earned not only on the original capital (principal) amount
invested, but also on all interests earned previously
D A dividend yield is a financial ratio that shows how much a company pays out in
dividends each year relative to its share price. (2)

Question 6: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
6.1 Which of the following statements is not correct:
A Investing in government retail bonds means the investor lends money to the government for a
number of years
B It is not important that businesses and individuals have protection against possible risks and
losses
C You only need a small amount of investment to start with unit trusts
D Return on investment (ROI) measures the profitability of an investment. (2)

Question 7: List and briefly explain three types of shares traded on the stock exchange. (9)

Question 8: Explain the following terms:

a) Interest. (2)
b) Interest period.(2)
c) Principal.(2)

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 Term 3 Topic 2 Investment:
insurance
Overview

This topic continues from the previous one and examines some of the basics about business and
individual investment opportunities. It explains insurance and assurance as important life
investments .

• Compulsory and non-compulsory insurance

o Understanding life insurance and retirement
annuities
o Insurance of goods (compulsory and non-
compulsory)
o Calculation of over-insurance and under-
insurance
o Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF)
o Road Accident Fund (RAF)

1 Introduction

Insurance is a form of risk management used to hedge against the risk of a possible future,
uncertain loss. Insurance is defined as the transfer of the risk of a loss, from one entity to
another, in exchange for payment. An insurer is a company selling the insurance; the
insured, or policyholder, is the person or entity buying the insurance policy. The amount to
be charged for a certain amount of insurance coverage is called the premium. Risk
management, the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a field of study
and practice.

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An insurance contract can decline a risk because of:
• a unsatisfactory claim history
• a policy having been cancelled by other insurers
• a history of unpaid debit orders
• the potential client being a moral risk
• non-disclosure of information that would affect the risk.

The following are important terms used with regard to insurance:

Cession - cession is the transfer of a policy from one person to another. A policy can be
ceded in two ways:

• Outright cession

In this case, all rights in terms of the policy are transferred to the new owner
(cessionary). The proceeds of the policy are paid directly to the cessionary and
not to the previous owner or his/her estate.

• Collateral security cession

In this type of cession, the policy serves as security for a loan, for example. The
cessionary's claim to the policy is limited to the amount of the cedent's liability.

Excess - An excess is the first amount payable by you in the event of a loss, and is the
uninsured portion of your loss.

Subrogation - A term denoting a legal right that is reserved by most insurance carriers.
Subrogation is the right for an insurer to pursue a third party that caused an insurance loss
to the insured.

Surrender - The early termination of an insurance product by the policyholder.

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2 Understanding life insurance and retirement annuities

2.1 Life insurance

This is a contract between the insured (policy holder) and the insurer, where the insurer
promises to pay the beneficiary a sum of money upon the death of the insured person.
Depending on the contract, other events such as a terminal illness may also trigger
payment. The policy holder pays a premium, either regularly or as a lump sum. Other
expenses (such as funeral expenses) are also sometimes included in the benefits.

Life insurance is sometimes called long-term insurance because it covers long-term risks.

Other forms of long-term insurance:

Endowment assurance is a life insurance contract designed to pay a lump sum after a
specified term (on its 'maturity') or on death. Typical maturities are ten, fifteen or twenty
years up to a certain age limit. Some policies also pay out in the case of critical illness.
Endowments can be cashed in early (surrendered) and the holder then receives the
surrender value.

Term assurance is life insurance which provides coverage at a fixed rate of payments for a
limited period of time, the relevant term. After that period expires, coverage at the previous
rate of premiums is no longer guaranteed and the client must either forgo coverage or
potentially obtain further coverage with different payments or conditions. If the insured
dies during the term, the death benefit will be paid to the beneficiary.

Disability cover covers you against loss of income should an unforeseen event happen that
might cause you to become disabled and permanently unable to earn an income.

Trauma cover will pay you a lump sum in the event that you suffer from a number of
specified critical conditions, such as cancer or a heart attack.

Funeral cover will pay out a lump sum on the death of the person insured which helps to
pay for funeral costs. This may form part of a life insurance policy.

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2.2 Retirement annuity (RA)

A retirement annuity (RA) is a long-term method of saving for your retirement to ensure you
have enough income in retirement to enjoy a comfortable life.

A retirement annuity will convert the lump sum amount in an employer or individually
owned retirement plan into a regular monthly income stream. A retirement annuity may be
offered as part of a company's retirement plan as a possible payment option. Retirees can
also purchase a retirement or immediate annuity with their retirement funds from a life
insurance company.

Advantages of RAs are:

• Guaranteed income
• No market fluctuation
• Tax efficiency
• Disciplined way to save
• Creditors cannot touch RAs
• Survivor benefits.

3 Insurance of goods (compulsory and non-compulsory)

Goods and assets can be insured. In certain cases this may be compulsory and in other cases
non-compulsory.

3.1 Compulsory insurance

Compulsory insurance is required by law before individuals or businesses may engage in

certain activities.

Examples of compulsory insurance in South Africa include:

Road Accident Fund (RAF) is a state insurer established by statute. It provides insurance
cover to all drivers of motor vehicles in South Africa in respect of liability incurred or
damage caused as a result of a traffic collision.

Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF) as prescribed by the Unemployment Insurance Act

provides protection to workers who become unemployed. It prescribes claiming
unemployment benefits for unemployment, maternity benefits, illness benefits, adoption
benefits and dependents' benefits.

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Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act (COIDA) The Compensation for
Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act (COIDA) states that employers must pay a certain
amount of money into a central fund each month. The amount depends on how dangerous
it is to work in the particular industry, how many workers are employed in the company and
the wages paid to the workers. COIDA ensures that employers insure their employees
against death or disability due to accidents at work.

Public liability insurance protects businessmen (as owners or landlords) against loss due to
legal liability for injury or damage to the persons or property of the public.

3.2 Non-compulsory insurance

Although not required by law it can provide additional protection for you and your property
or business. Insurance companies need to determine the probability of the risk that needs
to be insured, also known as the insurable risk.

3.2.1 Insurable risks

Examples of insurable risks include:

Vehicle insurance is purchased for cars and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide
financial protection against physical damage and/or bodily injury resulting from traffic
collisions and against liability.

Fidelity insurance is a type of insurance which is designed to protect a firm from losses
caused by the dishonest acts of its employees.

Money in transit insurance is a policy in which the insurance company will pay if money is
stolen or lost when it is being moved between two places, for example between a shop and
a bank.

Theft insurance covers the insured for losses incurred during breakins and robberies.

Fire insurance is insurance against loss due to fire.

Storm damage insurance insurance indemnifies the insured against losses due to storms.

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3.2.2 Non-insurable risks

It is important to note that not all risks can be insured. A risk that cannot be insured, either
because the probability of a loss is too high, or because it cannot be measured actuarially.

Examples of non-insurable risks include:

• Nuclear war
• Changes in fashion
• Technological advances.

4 Calculation of over-insurance and under-insurance

The Average Clause in an insurance policy that restricts the amount payable to a sum not to exceed
the value of the property destroyed and that bears the same proportion to the loss as the face of the
policy does to the value of the property insured.

4.1 Under-insurance

Under insurance may result in economic losses to the policy holder, since the claim would
exceed the maximum amount that can be paid out by the insurance policy. While
underinsurance may result in lower premiums paid by the policy holder, the loss arising
from a claim may far exceed any marginal savings in insurance premiums.

For example if a business is insured for R50,000 but should have been insured for R100,000
then if the business makes a claim the insurance company will only pay out half of the claim
because the business is underinsured by 50%.

Claim: R10 000

Insured For: R50 000

Replacement Value: R100 000

Under-Insurance Calculation: R10 000 X R50 000

R100 000

Claim Payment: R5 000

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4.2 Over-insurance

Property or assets that are insured for more than their market value or book value then they are
over-insured.

5 Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF)

The Unemployment Insurance Act provides protection to workers who become

unemployed. It prescribes claiming unemployment benefits for unemployment, maternity
benefits, illness benefits, adoption benefits and dependents' benefits.

The Unemployment Insurance Act and Unemployment Insurance Contributions Act apply to
all employers and workers, but not to:

• workers working less than 24 hours a month for an employer;

• learners;
• public servants;
• foreigners working on contract;
• workers who get a monthly State (old age) pension; or
• workers who only earn commission.

Domestic employers and their workers are included under the Act since 1 April 2003.

Money is deducted from the employee’s remuneration (monthly salary or weekly wages)
and paid into the Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF). The contribution that employers
must deduct from a worker’s earnings is 1% of total gross remuneration or earnings. In
addition, the employer also contributes an equivalent 1% for every employee. The total
contributions are calculated at 2 percent of your gross earnings.

6 Road Accident Fund (RAF)

The Road Accident Fund is a state insurer established by statute. It provides insurance cover
to all drivers of motor vehicles in South Africa in respect of liability incurred or damage
caused as a result of a traffic collision. Liability incurred in relation to property damage (such
as damage to vehicles, buildings, vehicle contents) is excluded from cover.

The RAF provides compulsory cover to all users of South African roads,
citizens and foreigners, against injuries sustained or death arising from
accidents involving motor vehicles within the borders of South Africa. This
cover is in the form of indemnity insurance to persons who cause the

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accident, as well as personal injury and death insurance to victims of motor vehicle
accidents and their families.

Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
1.1 The following is not an advantage for investing in Retirement Annuities:
A Tax inefficient
B Creditors can’t touch them
C Guaranteed income
D Benefits accrue to survivors. (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 Is not an example of a non-insurable risk:
A Nuclear war
B Changes in fashion
C Cash in transit
D Advances in technology. (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
3.1 The following is not a form of long term insurance”
A Nuclear war cover
B Funeral cover
C Trauma cover
D Disability cover. (2)

Question 4: True/false
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write
down the correct statement.
4.1 The Road Accident Fund is a state insurer established by statute. (2)
4.2 Property or assets that are insured for more than their market value or book value
they are over-insured. (2)

Question 5: True/false
Indicate whether the following statements are True or False. If the statement is False, write
down the correct statement.
5.1 Under insurance will never result in economic losses to the policy
holder. (2)
5.2 Fire insurance is insurance against loss due to fire. (2)

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Term 3 Topic 3 Forms of
ownership
Overview

This topic considers the extent to which a particular form of ownership can contribute to the success
or failure of a business. You will need to recap the characteristics, advantages, disadvantages and
comparison of the different forms of ownership, from previous years .

By the end of your revision you should be able to:

• Determine the extent to which a particular form of ownership can contribute to the success or
failure of a business .
• Explain the characteristics, advantages, disadvantages and comparison of forms of ownership,
i.e. sole trader, partnership, close corporation, private company and public company – focus on
issues of capacity, taxation, management, capital, division of profits and legislation)
• Understand the forms of ownership (e.g. sole trader, company), and their impact on the success
of a business

1 Characteristics, advantages, disadvantages and comparison of forms of

ownership

1.1 Sole Traders

A sole trader is a business that is run and owned by one peorson.
Advantages of being a sole trader:

• Easiest and least expensive form of ownership to set up

• Quick and easy decision making
• Owner takes all the profits made by the business
• The business is fairly easy to dissolve, if desired
• Owner gains experience in all aspects of business
• Reporting of financial information easy and straight forward
• Sole traders offer a more personalised approach.

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Disadvantages of being a sole trader

• Owner has unlimited liability and is legally responsible for all debts of the business
• Capital is limited to the creditworthiness of the owner
• Business has no continuity
• Not always possible to pay high salaries
• Owner could concentrate on strong points and neglects other functions
• Limited capital limits possibility for growth and expansion.

1.2 Partnerships
A partnership is a type of business that is run and owned by 2-20 people.
Advantages of a partnership:

• Easy to establish
• Easier to raise funds because there is no limit on the number of partners allowed in a
partnership
• Partners are motivated to work hard, because they share in the profits of the business
• Prospective employees may be attracted to the business if given the incentive to become a
partner
• Partners share responsibilities and management of the business
• Partnerships are not forced by law to prepare audited financial statements.

Disadvantages of a partnership:

• Partners are jointly and individually liable for the actions of the other partners
• Profits must be shared
• Decision making process can be complicated
• Partners have unlimited liability for the businesses debts.

1.3 Close Corporations

A close corporation is a type of legally registered business that is run by 1-10 people.
Advantages of a close corporation:

• Registering is simple and inexpensive

• There are fewer legal and accounting requirements
• A CC is a legal entity and has continuity
• A CC can be converted to a private company
• More capital can be raised
• Members have limited liability
• Owners’ interest in the CC does not need to be in proportion to their capital contribution
• CC may be exempted by CIPC form auditing its financial statements.

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Disadvantages of a close corporation:

• Cannot be more than ten members

• A member of a CC can be held personally liable for the losses of a CC if the member acts
carelessly or is incompetent
• When applying for a loan, audited financial documents must be presented. Funds will not be
given until auditing has been completed
• A CC is taxed as if it were a company, which may be higher than personal tax rates
• Difficult for members to leave the CC or to pay a member their portion, as all members must
agree to dispose of a member’s interest
• Like a company, a CC is taxed on its income and Standard Tax of Company (STC) based on
member’s dividends.

1.4 Companies

We must differentiate between profit companies and non-profit companies. In this topic we are
looking at companies whose aim is to make a profit.

There are four types of profit companies:

• private company (Pty Ltd)
• personal liability company (Inc.)
• public company (Ltd)
• state-owned company (SOC Ltd).

Advantages of a private company:

• Unlimited number of shareholders.

• The company has continuity
• Shareholders have limited liability.
• Adaptable to small and large businesses.
• Private company is a legal person and can therefore sign contracts in its own name.
• The new act forces personal liability on directors who knowingly participate in carrying out
business in a reckless or fraudulent manner.
• A private company is not required to file its annual financial statements with the
commission.
• Financial statements are private and not available to the general public.
• Board of directors with expertise/experience can be appointed to take decisions and
delegate responsibility.

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Disadvantages of a private company:

• Subject to many legal requirements.

• Difficult and expensive to establish compared to close corporation and sole proprietorship.
• The MOI forbids a private company to transfer its shares to any member of the public
because the company is not listed on the JSE.
• A private company’s annual financial statements must be reviewed by a qualified person,
which is an extra expense to the company.
• Pays tax on the profits of the business and on declared dividends.
• Must prepare annual financial statements.

Advantages of a public company:

• Company has continuity of existence.

• Company is a separate legal person.
• Public company can be owned and managed by only one shareholder and three directors.
This allows individuals to start a public company.
• Shareholders have limited liability.
• Additional capital can be raised by issuing more shares or debentures.
• Shareholders can sell/transfer their shares freely.
• The public have access to the company’s information and this could motivate them to buys
shares from a company.

Disadvantages of a public company:

• Shareholder may be allowed little or no input into the affairs of the company.
• Due to legislation, decisions take longer and there may be disagreements.
• Huge expenses when setting up a company (legal, accountants, taxes, consultants, etc.)
• More people to share profits with (less income).
• Financial affairs must be made known publicly (this information could be used to
competitors’ advantage).

2 Types of ownership and their impact on the success of a business

As we have seen there are advantages and disadvantages to different forms of ownership. The
following factors need to be considered before choosing one:

• Formation procedures and costs involved

• Continuity and dependence of the business on its founders
• Legal liability and personality
• Taxation
• Management and control
• Capital requirements.

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Questions

Question 1: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
1.1 Which of the following is not an advantage for sole traders:
A Owner takes none or very little of the profits of the business
B Cheap to set up
C Owner gets experience in all aspects of the business
D Easy to dissolve. (2)

Question 2: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
2.1 Which of the following is not an advantage of a partnership:
A Relatively easy to establish
B Partners motivated to make money
C Easy to raise money as there are no limits on number of partners
D Partners can be jointly liable for debts. (2)

Question 3: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
3.1 The following is not a disadvantage of a private company:
A Company is a separate legal person
B Must prepare annual financial statements
C Must pay tax on profit and declared dividends
D Its annual financial statements must be reviewed by a qualified person. (2)

Question 4: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
4.1 Which of the following is a type of profit company:
A Partnership
B Sole trader
C Private company
D Close corporation (2)

Question 5: Multiple choice

Choose the correct answer. Only write the letter of the answer you select.
5.1 Which of the following is not an abbreviation for a profit company:
A Pty Ltd
B SOC Ltd
C Ltd
D CC(2)

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Question 6: Describe how the following aspects may be beneficial or not to a partnership (i.e. look
at :the advantages and disadvantages).

a) Capital (3x2 marks)

b) Taxation (4x2 marks)

c) Division of profits (3x2 marks)

Question 7: Lindiwe is a qualified hairdresser who has always wanted to set up a beauty parlour.
She has saved R5 500 and the bank is willing to give her a loan of R4 000. However, in order to start
the business she needs at least R15 000. She really needs your advice.

a) What type of business would you recommend she forms? (2)

b) Motivate your answer (give 3 reasons). (3)

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