INDEX

[Link] TOPIC NAME PAGE NO

1 Reflection of light at curved surfaces 1-11

2 Chemical Equations 12-15

3 Acids, Bases and Salts 16-31

4 Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces 32-39

5 Human Eye and Colourful world 40-56

6 Structure of Atom 57-72

7 Classification of Elements- The Periodic Table 73-82

8 Chemical Bonding 83-91

9 Electric Current 92-106

10 Electromagnetism 107-122

11 Principles of Metallurgy 123-133

12 Carbon and its Compounds 134-144

10TH CLASS PHYSICAL SCIENCE

[Link] OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES

IMPORTANT POINTS
• OPTICS: It is a branch of physics deals with properties of light.
• Light is a form of energy which causes sensation of sight.
• Light travels in a straight line in homogeneous medium.
• REFLECTION: The property of light coming back into the same medium from a
boundary separating two media is called reflection.
• LAWS OF REFLECTION:
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.

• PLANE OF REFLECTION: The plane in which the incident ray , reflected ray and
normal lie in the same plane is called plane of reflection.
• PROPERTIES OF PLANE MIRRORS: (1) In the formation of an image by a plane
mirror the size of the image is equal to the size of the object
(2) Plane mirrors always produce virtual images which are upright and located
behind the mirror.
(3) Plane mirrors produces lateral inversion i.e., left becomes right and right
becomes left.

(4) Magnification of plane mirrors is always positive.

* ANGLE OF INCIDENCE: The angle made by the incident ray with normal to the
surface is called angle of incidence.

* ANGLE OF REFLECTION: The angle made by the reflected ray with normal to the
surface is called angle of reflection.

• SPHERICAL MIRROR: A spherical mirror is a small part cut from a hollow sphere of
glass.

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This cut part has two surfaces. One is bulged surface is called convex surface and
hollow surface is called concave surface.
• CONVEX MIRROR: If the concave surface is silvered then the convex surface acts as
reflecting surface, such a mirror is called convex mirror.
• CONCAVE MIRROR: If the convex surface is silvered then the concave surface acts
as reflecting surface , such a mirror is called concave mirror.

REFLECTION BY SPHERICAL MIRROR:

• Laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including

spherical surfaces.
• Convex and concave mirrors are collectively known as spherical mirrors.
• TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS:
POLE(P): The mid point (geometrical centre) of the mirror is called pole of the
mirror.
PRINCIPAL AXIS: The line which passes through the centre of curvature and pole is
called principal axis of mirror.
CENTRE OF CURVATURE(C): The centre of the sphere , from which the mirror is
assumed to be made is called centre of curvature.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE(R): The distance between pole (p) and centre of
curvature(c) is called radius of curvature.
FOCUS (OR) FOCAL POINT(F): The rays coming parallel to principal axis , after
reflection meets at a point are seems to be coming from a point on the principal
axis. This point is known as Focus (or) focal point.
FOCAL LENGTH(f): The distance between pole and focus of the mirror is known as
focal length of the mirror.
• The relation between radius of curvature(R) and focal length(f) is R = 2f (or) f =
R/2.

• The distance of the object from the pole of a mirror is known as object distance(u).
• The distance of the image from the pole of a mirror is known as image distance(v).

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10TH CLASS PHYSICAL SCIENCE

• MAGNIFICATION: It is the ratio of height of the image to the height of the object .

Magnification(m) = Height of the image / Height of the object

= hi / ho

m = - [image distance / object distance]

= -[v/u]

• MIRROR FORMULA: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u

• REAL IMAGE: An image formed by the actual intersection of reflected rays (

converge) is called a real image. It can be caught on a screen.

• VIRTUAL IMAGE: If light rays after reflection diverge (appear to meeting at a

point) then it is called virtual image. It cannot be caught on a screen.

Sign convention to be followed while using mirror formula:

• All distances should be measured from the pole.

• The distances measured in the direction of incident light to be taken as positive and
measured in the opposite direction of incident light to be taken as negative.

• Height of object and height of image are positive if measured upward from the axis
and negative if measured downward.

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10TH CLASS PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Rules for image tracing (concave mirror):

1. All the rays that are parallel to the axis get reflected such that they pass through
the focal point of the mirror.

2. An incident ray that goes through the focal point of the

mirror will, when reflected, travel parallel to the axis.

3. An incident ray that is normal to the surfaces (passing through centre of curvature),
on reflection will travel along the same ray but in the opposite direction.

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10TH CLASS PHYSICAL SCIENCE

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’S:
1. Write any two uses of spherical mirrors.
A. (1) Concave mirror is used by dentists to observe the magnified Image of tooth.
(2) Convex mirror is used as a rear view or wing mirror in vehicles.
2. State Fermat's Principle.
A. Light travels between two points along the path that requires the least time as
compared to the other near by paths. It is known as Fermat's principle

3. Distinguish between real and virtual images.

A.

Real Image Virtual Image

1) The image which is caught by is 1) The image which could not

called real image. caught by screen is called virtual
image.
2) In this the rays actually meet at 2) In this the rays appear to
the image point. diverge from the image point.

3) It is always inverted. 3) It is always erect.

4) It is formed by concave mirror 4) It is formed by convex

/convex lens. Mirror/ plane mirror/

5) Image formed by actual 5) Image formed by meeting

intersection is virtual image. the extended reflected
Rays.

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4) Write Uses of the concave mirrors.

A) i. Dentists use this mirror to check the teeth
ii. In the microscopes iii. As shaving mirror
iv. In the preparation of solar cooker.
5) What happens if concave mirror is used as a rear view mirror?
A) Concave mirrors cannot be used as a rear view mirror because
(a) the image formed in concave mirrors are inverted.
(b) they do not give the wide view of the vehicles on the road behind.

SAQ’S:
1) State the differences between convex and concave mirrors.
A)

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2) Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in the vehicles?

A) i) Convex mirror always gives an erect and diminished image.
ii) The Image distance will be smaller than the object distance.
iii) A convex mirror has a wider field of view than a plane mirror. Hence we prefer
convex mirror as rear-view mirror in the observe the vehicles which are at the back
of our vehicle.

LAQ’S:

1) Find the nature and position of images, when an object is pled at different
places on the principal axis of a concave mirror.
A) Aim: Observing the types of images and measuring object distance and image
distance from the mirror.
Material required:
A candle, paper, concave mirror of known focal length. V-stand,
measuring tape or meter scale.

Procedure
1) Place the concave mirror on V-stand, arrange a candle and meter scale as shown
in the figure.

2) Keep the candle at different distances from the mirror (10 cm to 80 cm) along
the axis by moving the paper I screen).
3) Find the position of image each time where we get a sharp image on paper.
4) Measure object and image distances each time and note the observations in the
table.

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O Dist of Dist of Enlarged/ Inverte

b candle paper diminishe d/
N from from d erect
o: mirror( mirror(
u) v)
1. 60cm
2. 50cm
3. 40cm
4. 30cm
5. 20cm
6. 10cm
7. >60cm

5) Group the observations based on the type of image.

6) Since we know the focal point and centre of curvature, we can conclude the
observations as the following table.

Position Position Enlarged/ Inverted/ Real

of the of the diminished erect or
candle image Virtual
(object)

Between In the Enlarged Erected Virtual

mirror & mirror
F
At focal At ---------- ---------- ---------
point infinity -

Between Beyond Enlarged Inverted Real

F and C C

At centre At C Same size Inverted Real

of
curvature
Beyond C Between Diminished Inverted Real
F and C

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2) Explain the nature of images formed with the help of ray diagrams, when an
object is placed at different points before a concave mirror.
A) i) When object is at infinity: When object is at infinity beyond Cl. the Image in
formed at focal point (F) of the mirror. The image to real and point sized

ii) When the object is between infinity and centre of curvature: When the object
in between Influity and centre of curvature (C), the tage is formed between Fand C.
This amal, inverted and smaller image

iii) When the object is at C: When the object is at C, the image also forms at C. This
is a real. inverted and same sized Image

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iv) When the object is in between C and F: When the object in betwen F and C, the
Image is formed beyond C. This is a real, inverted and bigger image.

v) When the object is at F: When the object is at F. the image is formed at infinity.
We cannot conclude the characteristics of image.

vi) When the object is between F and pole: When the object is between F and
pole, the image forms in the mirror. This is a virtual, enlarged and erect image.

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CLASS 10TH PHYSICAL SCIENCE

2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
IMORTANT POINTS
• Chemical changes are caused by chemical reactions.
• Change in state, colour, temperature, evolution of a gas and formation of precipitate, these
observations helps us to determine whether a chemical reaction has taken place or not.
• A chemical reaction represents the change of the species (atoms, molecules) taking part in the
reaction into new species.
• The reacting species are known as the reactants and those formed as a result of the reaction are
called products.
• A brief representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of the substances
involved is called chemical equation.
• A compound is represented by chemical formula. One formula unit of NaCl for example is one Na+
ion and one Cl ion; one formula unit of MgBr₂ is one Mg2+ ion and two Br- ions and one formula
unit of water is one H₂O molecule.
• The chemical equations are of two types:
• Word equation,
• Symbol equation
• Word equations represent simple change of reactants into products. A word equation links
together the names of the reactants with those of the products.
• For example, the word equation, when Magnesium ribbon burns in oxygen to form a white
powder of Magnesium oxide is: Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
• An unbalanced equation is called skeletal equation.
• In a balanced equation, the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation
are equal. Example: 2Mg + O2 2MgO
• Chemical equations can be made more informative by expressing following characteristics of the
reactants and products.
• Physical state
• Heat changes (exothermic or endothermic change
• Gas evolved (if any)
• Precipitate formed (if any)
• If a gas is evolved in a chemical reaction, it is denoted by an upward arrow '↑' or (g)
• Eg: Zn + H₂SO4→ ZnSO4 + Hg ↑
• If a precipitate is formed in the reactions it is denoted by a downward arrow ↓.
• Eg: AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl ↓ + NaNO3(aq)
• Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products are called exothermic
chemical reactions.
• Reactions in which heat is absorbed by reactants are called endothermic reactions.
• Na(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) - Q (endothermic reaction)
• Exothermic reactions are generally more common than the endothermic reactions.
• C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Q (exothermic reaction)

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• QUESTION & ANSWERS:

1) What information do you get from a balanced chemical equation. (Reflection of concept)
A chemical equation gives information about the reactants and products through their symbols
and formulae.
• It obeys law of conservation of mass.
• The relative masses of reactants and products are known from the balanced chemical equation.
• If the masses are expressed in grams then the equation also gives the molar ratios of reactants and
products.
• Using molar mass and Avagadro's number we can calculate the number of molecules and at-oms
of different substances from the equation. It gives information about relative masses of reactants
and products from the equation we get,
mass - mass relationship
mass - volume relationship
volume - volume relationship
mass - volume - number of molecules relationship etc.
2) What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be balanced?
A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of different elements on the reactants side
(left side) are same as those on product side (right side) is called a balanced chemical equation.
Ex : Zn + 2HCl →ZnCl2 + H₂ ↑
o According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the substances that are taking part
in chemical reaction must be the same before and after the reaction.
o The number of atoms of each element before and after reaction must be same.
o All the chemical equations must balance, because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
chemical reactions. And no element should miss from the chemical reaction. So a chemical
equation must be balanced.
3) Balance the following chemical equations.
• NaOH + H₂SO₄ → Na2SO4 + H₂O
• Hg(NO3)2 + KI → HgI₂ + KNO3
• KClO3 → KCl + O2
• C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H₂O
a) 2NaOH + H₂SO₄ → Na2SO4 + 2H2O b) Hg(NO3)2 + 2KI → HgI2 + 2KNO3
c)2KClO3→ 2KCl + 3O2 d)C3H8 + 5O2→3CO2 + 4H2O

4) Mention the physical states of the reactants and products of the following chemical reactions
and balance the equations.
1) CH₁₂O → C₂H₂OH + CO2
2) Fe + O2 →Fe2O3
3) NH3 + Cl2 → N₂H₄ + NH4Cl
4) Na + H2O → NaOH + H₂

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1) CH12O6(s) → 2C₂H₂OH(l) + 2CO2(g)

2) Fe(s) +3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3
3) 4NH3(g) + Cl2(g) → N₂H₄(1) + 2NH4Cl(s)
4) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)↑

5) Balance the following chemical equation after writing the symbolic representation.
• Calcium hydroxide (s) + Nitric acid (aq) → Water (I) + Calcium Nitrate (aq)
• Magnesium (s) + Iodine (s) → Magnesium Iodide (s)
a) Calcium hydroxide (s) + Nitric acid (aq) → Water (1) + Calcium Nitrate (aq)
• Symbolic representation is
• Ca(OH)2(aq) + HNO3(aq) → H₂O (1) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
• By balancing the above equation
• Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → 2H2O(l) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
• Magnesium (s) + Iodine (s) → Magnesium Iodide(s)
• Symbolic representation is
• Mg(s) +I2(s)→ MgI2(s)
• Chemical equation is already balanced.

6) Balance the chemical equation by including the physical states of the substances for the
following reactions.
• Barium chloride and Sodium sulphate aqueous solutions react to give insoluble Barium sulphate
and aqueous solution of Sodium chloride.
• Sodium hydroxide reacts with Hydrochloric acid to produce Sodium chloride and water.
• Zinc pieces react with dilute Hydrochloric acid to liberate hydrogen gas and forms Zine chloride.
a) BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
b) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
c) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) ↑

7) Potassium nitrate and Sodium Nitrate reacts separately with copper sulphate solution. Write
balanced chemical equations for the above reactions.
Case - I: When Potassium nitrate react with copper sulphate and exchange their ions mutually and
forms potassium sulphate and copper nitrate as KNO3(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
• By balancing the above equation
• 2KNO3(aq) + CuSO4 (aq) → K2SO4(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)

• Case II: When Sodium nitrate react with copper sulphate and exchange their ions mutually and
forms sodium sulphate and copper nitrate as
• NaNO3(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
• By balancing the above equation
• 2NaNO3(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)

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8) Name the reactions taking place in the presence of sunlight.

• A)1) The photochemical reaction takes place in presence of sunlight.
• 2) Photochemical reactions are (a) Photosynthesis (b) Decomposition of AgBr (or) AgCl.
• 3) Photosynthesis: In the presence of sunlight plants prepare their food by taking CO₂ from the air
and H₂O from the soil with their chloroplasts of the green leaves. This reaction is called
photosynthesis.

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[Link], BASES & SALTS

IMPORTANT POINTS

• Acids are sour to taste and turn blue litmus to red.

• Bases are soapy to touch and turn red litmus to blue.
• Acids and bases changes the colour of indicators as shown below.

INDICATOR ACID BASE

Blue litmus Red No change
Red litmus No change Blue
Phenolphthalein No change Pink
Solution

Methyl Orange Red Yellow

Solution

• The substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media are called olfactory indicators.
• When acids reacts with metal, H2, gas is evolved.
• When bases reacts with some metals, H2, gas is evolved.
• When acid reacts with metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates, it evolves carbon dioxide
gas.
Metal carbonate + acid Salt + CO2 + H2O
Metal hydrogen carbonate + acid Salt + CO2 + H2O
• The reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as neutralization reaction.
Base + Acid Salt + Water.
• Reaction of metal oxides with acids also produces salt and water.
Metal oxide + Acid Metal salt + Water.
• Metal oxides are basic in nature.
• Non-metal oxides with bases also produces salt and water. Non-metal oxides a acidic in nature.
• Hydrogen is the common element found in acids.
• Acids produces H' ions during electrolysis.
• The acidity of acids is attributed to the H' ions produced by them in a solutions Bases have OH ions
in common.
• Acids produce H3O+ ions only in aqueous solution.
• Hydrogen ion cannot exist as a base ion. It is found in the form of H3O+ (hydrated ion).
• When base is dissolved in water, hydroxide ion (OH-) is produced.
• Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
• Water should not be mixed to acid or base while diluting.
• The acid (or base) must be added slowly to water with constant stirring.
• The process of decreasing the concentration of ions (H3O+/OH-) by mixing an acid or base
with water is known as dilution.
• The strength of acid or base depends on the concentration of H3O+ ions or OH- ions produced in
the aqueous solution.

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Ex: If an acid produces more H3O+ ions, then it is a strong acid, if it produces less H3O+ ions then
it is a weak acid.
• Universal indicator is used to know the strength of acid or base.
• A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called 'pH scale.
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
pH value 0 to <7- Acid pH value 7-neutral
pH value> 7 to 14 Base.
• pH in everyday life:
Living organisms live only in a narrow range of pH change.
pH of acid rain is less than 5.6. If pH of the mouth is below 5.5, then tooth decay starts.
Stomach produces acid which is useful in digesting food without harming the stomach. Antacids
are used to overcome pain and irritation due to acid produced in the stomach pH of soil is useful
to know the nature of land and accordingly crops and fertilizers can be changed.
pH of salts:
Salts of strong acid and strong base neutral
strong acid and weak base- → acidic
Weak acid and strong base basic
Weak acid and weak base depends on relative strength of acid & base.
• Sodium chloride is the most common salt.
• Sodium hydroxide, Bleaching powder, Baking soda, Washing soda are some of the salts obtained
from common salt.
• The fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt is known as water of
crystallization.
• Plaster of Paris is obtained from gypsum.
• Acids are sour to taste and turn blue litmus to red, bases are soapy to touch and d litmus to blue.
• Reactions of acids and bases with different indicators:
Chemical Properties of acids and bases
• Acids and bases react with metals and release Hydrogen gas.
Ex: 1) 2HCI+Zn → ZnCl2+H2

Substanc Blue Red Methyl Phenolphthale

e litmus litmus orange in
indicat indicator
or
Acid Turns No Turns No change in
to chang to colour
red e in red
colour
Bases No Turns Turns Turns to
chang to to pink
e blue yellow
In
colour

2) 2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 +H2

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• Acids reacts with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates and produce carbon dioxide gas.
Ex: 1) Na2CO3+ 2HCI 2NaCl + H2O+CO2
2) NaHCO3 + HCl -> NaCl + H2O + CO2

• Metal oxides react with Acids to give salt and water.

CuO + 2HCl → CuCI2 + H2Ọ

• Non-metal oxides react with bases to give salt and water.

Ca(OH)2+CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

• The reaction of acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as a neutralization reaction.
Acid Base Salt + Water.
Ex: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + HO

• Acids have H ions in them and Bases have OH ions in them.

• Acids produce H' ions only in aqueous solutions.

• Making dilute acids: The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is an exothermic process.
• Indicators:
• To identify the nature of the substance we use Indicators.
• Indicators are the substances that show different colour in acidic and basic mediums.
• A very common indicator is the litmus solution
• Litmus solution is a purple coloured dye. It is a natural indicator which is extracted from a plant
called Lichen.
• Other common indicators are
a) Synthetic indicators:
i) Phenolphthalein, which is colourless in acidic medium but pink in basic medium is red in
acidic medium and yellow is basic medium.
ii) Methyl Orange, which is red in acidic medium and yellow in basic medium.
iii) Methyl Red.
b) Natural indicators: Litmus, turmeric, red cabbage leaves, coloured petals of some flowers are
natural indicators.
c) Olfactory indicators: are the substances whose odour change in acidic or basic medium (eg.
onion).

i) Olfactory indicator tells us whether a substance is acidic or basic by change in odour, for
example, Onion, Vanilla extract etc...
ii) Olfactory indicators, smell is detected in acidic medium.
iii) Olfactory indicators, smell is destroyed in basic medium.

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iv) Colour of red cabbage juice in acidic medium is red.

v) Colour of red cabbage juice in basic medium is green.

d) Universal indicator: is a mixture of several indicators, which gives different colours different pH
values. It shows different colours at different concentration of H ions in the solution.

i) On the p" scale we can measure p" from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline)
ii) pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicated the acidic or basic nature of a
solution.
iii) Higher the hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration, lower is the pH value.

Neutralisation reaction: The reaction between an acid and a base to give salt and water is known
as neutralisation reaction. HCI+ NaOH→ NaCl+H2O
Neutralisation reactions are double displacement, non-redox and exothermic reactions.
Types of salts: Normal salt is formed by the complete neutralisation of an acid by a base.
i) Neutral salts (salts formed by neutralisation of strong acid and strong base). The pH of an
aqueous solution of these salts is 7.0, e.g. NaCl, K₂SO4

ii) Acidic salts (formed by strong acid and weak base). The solution of these salts in water will,
have a pH less than 7.0 e.g. NH4CI. Acidic salts contains some replaceable H+ ions.
iii) Basic salts (formed by weak acid and strong base). The aqueous solution of these salts will have
pH greater than 7.0. CH3COONa , NaHCO3

• Basic salts contain some replaceable hydroxyl groups

Some important compounds from Sodium chloride:

• Common salt is NaCl, (sodium chloride). It is a neutral salt as it has been derived from strong acid
and strong base.
• The main source of common salt is sea water.
• The electrolysis of brine solution (10% [Link]) gives.
i) H2 at cathode
ii) Cl2 at anode
iii) NaOH (alkali) near the cathode.
• The process is called chlor-alkali because of the products formed-[chlor for chlorine and alkali for
NaOH].
• Strength of Acids and Bases : The strength of acids or bases depends on the concentration of H3
O' ions or OH ions product solution. This can be measured by pH value.
• pH Scale: A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called pH scale. This is
simply a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a solution
• ph scale ranges from 0 to 14. If pH <7, then the solution is acidic
• If pH >7, then the solution is basic
• If pH-7, then the solution is neutral
• As pH value increases from 0 to 7, the strength of acid decreases As pH value increases from 7 to
14, the strength of base increases.

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• Plants and animals are pH sensitive: Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH
changes. When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows in to
the rivers the pH of the river water is lowered. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes
difficult.
• pH in stopping tooth decay: The tooth decay starts when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5. We
use toothpaste, which is a base to neutralize the excess acid to prevent tooth decay.
• pH in digestive system: Our stomach produces HCl acid, which helps in digestion of food without
harming the stomach During indigestion, we use bases called antacids. These antacids neutralize
the excess acid in the stomach.
• pH of the soil: Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. It is necessary to find
out the pH of the soil to use required fertilizers for the healthy growth of the plants.
• Salts: Salts of strong acid and strong base are neutral. The salts of a strong acid and weak base
are acidic. The salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature. Salts extracted from
common salt are Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Baking soda (NaHCO3), Washing soda (Na2CO3).

1) Common salt (or) Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the chemical name of
common salt or table salt. It can be extracted from sea water. These crystals are often brown due
to impurities. This is called rock salt.
2) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride, it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. This process is called chloro-alkali process.
3) Uses of sodium hydroxide:
i) used to de-greasing
ii) preparation of soaps and detergents.
iii) paper making
iv) artifical fiber

• Bleaching Powder (CaOCI) : Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked
lime.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O

Uses of Bleaching powder.

• It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry. It is used for bleaching wood pulp in
paper industry.
• It is used for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
• It is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries. It is used for disinfecting drinking
water to make it free of germs.
• It is used as a reagent in the preparation of chloroform.

• Baking soda (NaHCO): Baking soda is added for faster cooking. Its chemical name is Sodium
Hydrogen Carbonate. It is prepared as follows

Na2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO3.10H2O.

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Uses of Baking soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate):

• Baking soda produces CO, which rises through bubbling dough into cake or bread. This results in
making the cake and bread smooth and spongy.
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids.
• It is also used as soda-acid in fire extinguishers.
• It acts as mild antiseptic.

• Washing Soda (or) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO): Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating
baking soda. Recrystallisaion of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.
Na2CO3+10 H2O Na2CO3.10H20
Uses of washing soda:
• Sodium carbonate is used in glass, soap and paper industries.

• It is used in the manufacture of Sodium compounds such as borax.

• Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.

• It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.

Water of crystallization: Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present
in one formula unit of a salt.
Ex: CuSO4, 5H20, Na2CO3,10H20, CaSO4, 2H20, etc.
Plaster of Paris (CaSO. 1/2H₂O): On careful heating of gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) at 373K, it loses
water molecules partially to become calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO2 H2O). This is called
plaster of paris. It is a white powder and on mixing with water, it sets into hard solid mass due to
the formation of gypsum.

CaSO4 . 1/2 HO + 1/2 H2O CaSO2 .2H20

Uses of Plaster of paris:

• It is used by doctors for supporting fractured bones in the right position.

• It is used for making toys.
• It is used for making materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.

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QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’S:
1) What is a neutralization reaction? Give two examples.
A. The reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as neutralization
reaction. Generally a neutralization can be written as Base + Acid → Salt + Water
Ex. NaOH +HCI→ NaCl + H₂O

Ca(OH)2 + H₂SO4 → CaSO4+H2O.

2) Write the required material in the experiment 'acids react with metals"?
A. The materials required in the experiment 'acids react with metals' are test tube, glass trough,
candle, soap, water, dil. HCl, zinc granules, cork, delivery tube.
3) How will you test for the gas which is liberated when hydrochloric acid reacts with a metal.
A. When burning candle is brought near to the test tube filled with hydrogen gas, candle puts
off with a pop sound.
4) Mention the precautions to take while conducting an experiment to prove acids produce
ions only in aqueous solutions?
A. i) Whenever you work with concentrated solutions or acids, it is very important to use ions
only in aqueous solutions tube holder. It is very dangerous to work with bare hands in the
laboratory.
ii) Acids are corrosive in nature and should be handled with great care. So, that chemic containers
of acids should not be touched without gloves.
5) How many molecules of water of crystallization are there in copper sulphate and washing
soda crystals?

A. The number of molecules of water of crystallization in copper sulphate [CuSO4. 5H2O) are
5 and in washing soda [Na2CO3 .10H2O] are 10.
6) Define universal indicator.
A. Universal indicator is a combination of various indicators which shows different colours for
different pH values.
7) A few drops of sulphuric acid is added to water before electrolysis, why?

A. Water is a poor conductor of electricity. Thus, by adding few drops of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
makes water conducting in nature because the acid ionises in water to release H+ ions and HSO4
ions. These released ions conduct electricity.

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8) Why should curd and sour substances not be kept in Brass and Copper vessels?
A) Curd and sour substances contain acids, which can react with metals present in the brass and
copper of the vessels to form poisonous metal compounds which can cause food poisonous and
damage health. So we cannot keep curd and sour substances in brass and copper vessels.
9) Dry ammonia gas has no action on litmus paper, but a solution of ammonia in water turns
red litmus blue.
A) Only aqueous ammonia is basic, because when it is dissolved in water it forms NH OH and on
dissociation it produce OH-ions. These will turn red litmus paper to blue colour.
10) Why does tooth decay occur?
A) Tooth enamel is made up of calcium phosphate. It decays in acidic medium if the mouth pH
falls below 5.5
11) What is efflorescence?
A) Some crystal lose their water of crystallization when exposed to dry air, the phenomenon is
called efflorescence
eg. Na2CO3. 10H2O Na2CO3.H2O + 9H20.
12) Why the soil of agricultural land get tested for pH?
A) Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. To find the pH required for the
healthy. A growth of a plant, you can collect the soil samples from various places and check the
pH of the soil.
13) A farmer identified his field is not giving proper crop yield. What type of suggestions and
remedies will you give?
A) i) The field may have excessive basic or acidic substances.
ii) Farmer should check the soil pH of his field
iii) He should apply organic manure or dung, if he identified excessive basic substances and
should apply quick lime or calcium carbonate if his field contains excessive acidic substances.
14) Is the substance present in antacid tablet acidic or basic?
A) The substance present in antacid tablet is basic.
15) What type of reaction takes place in stomach when an antacid tablet is consumed?
A) Neutralisation reaction takes place in stomach.
16) While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to water and
water to the acid?
A) i) When water is added to acid, there is sudden rise in temperature with explosion due to
exothermic nature and the acid being present in bulk, it gets spill on your body and clothes.

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ii) When an acid is added to water, the water is in bulk and the acid being heavier settles down
and the heat evolved is dissipated in the water itself and hence, the sporting of the liquid is
minimised
iii) For this reason, it is recommended that acid should be added to water in small amounts with
stirring to dilute the concentrated acid.

SAQ’S:
1) Distilled water does not conduct electricity. Why?
A) i) Distilled water do not have ions.
ii) It consists of H2O. OH-- ions only when an acid or base is added to it, and it consists other
tons only when a salt is added to it.
iii) As there is no flow of tons, distilled water do not conduct electricity.
2) Why the flow of acid rain into a river make the survival of aquatic life in a river difficult?
A) i) Acid rains are combination of carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid with rain water.
ii) The pH of acid rain is less than 5.6.
iii) Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change.

iv) When acid rain with pH value less than 5.6. flows into rivers, it lowers the pH of river water.
v) Due to less pH, the river water becomes acidic and hence the aquatic life in such rivers
becomes difficult.
3) How does baking powder make the cake soft and spongy?
A) i) Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda (NaHCO3) and a mild edible acid such as tartaric
acid. COOH (CHOH)2 COOH.
ii) When baking powder is heated or bond in water, the following reaction takes place
NaHCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid.
iii) Carbon dioxide produced darting the reaction causes bread or cake to rise making them all
soft and spongy.
4) Why does tooth decay start when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5? (OR)
Is the pH changes tooth decay? Explain
(OR)

What value of pH in the mouth leads to tooth decay? Why?

A) i) Tooth decay starts when the PH of the mouth is lower than 5.5
ii) Tooth enamel, made of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body.
iii) It does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.

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iv) Bacteria present in the mouth produces acids by degradation of sugar and food particles
remaining in the mouth.
Preventions:
i) Clean the mouth after eating food. ii) Using tooth pastes, which are generally basic neutralize
the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
5) A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk. Write reasons for the
following.
a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from acidic nature to slightly alkaline?
A) i) Adding a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk. Increases its thickness and also
makes it alkaline.
ii) It neutralise the lactic acid produced in the milk by the action of bacteria.
iii) By doing like this milk takes more time to set as curd, become gone off.
b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd?
A) i) Curd form from the milk by the action of Lactic acid produced by bacteria in the milk.
ii) If milk man add Baking soda (NaHCO3) to the milk it neutralise acid, which is produced by
the bacteria.
iii) Excess acid is required to change the milk as curd.
iv) So it takes long time.
6) Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Explain why.
A) i) Plaster of Parts should be stored in a moisture-proof container because the presence of
moisture or water can cause its slow setting by bringing about its hydration.
ii) This will make the Plaster of Paris useless after sometime.
7) Fresh milk has a pH of 6.6. Explain why the pH changes as it turns into curd.
A) i) Fresh milk has a pH of 6.6. Hence it is a weak acid.
ii) To turn the milk as curd we have to add yeast in the form of some curd fermentation takes
place during this process and lactose changes in lactic acid and the pH decreases as milk sets as
curd.
8) How do you prepare an indicator using beetroot? Explain.
A) i) Crush beetroot in a mortar.
ii) Boil the contents for few minutes.
iii) Filter the extract: collect the filtrate and use it as Indicator to test acids and bases
iv) You can prepare indicators by using other natural materials like coloured petals of some
flowers such as Petunia in water. Hydrangea and Geranium.

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9) What are the Uses of Baking soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate)

i) Baking soda produces CO2 which rises through bubbling dough into cake or bread. This results
in making the cake and bread smooth and spongy.
ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids.
iii) It is also used as soda-acid in fire extinguishers. iv) It acts as mild antiseptic.
10) What are the Uses of washing soda?
i) Sodium carbonate is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
ii) It is used in the manufacture of Sodium compounds such as borax.
iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
11) What are the Uses of Bleaching powder?
i) It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry. It is used for bleaching wood pulp
in paper industry.
ii) It is used for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
iii) It is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries. It is used for disinfecting drinking
water to make it free of germs.
iv) It is used as a reagent in the preparation of chloroform.
12) What are the Uses of Plaster of paris?
i) It is used by doctors for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
ii) It is used for making toys.
iii) It is used for making materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.

LAQ’S:
1) How pH is useful for daily life?
A) Plants and animals are pH sensitive: Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range
of pH changes. When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows
in to the rivers the pH of the river water is lowered. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers
becomes difficult.
pH in stopping tooth decay: The tooth decay starts when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5.
We use toothpaste, which is a base to neutralize the excess acid to prevent tooth decay.
pH in digestive system: Our stomach produces HCl acid, which helps in digestion of food
without harming the stomach During indigestion, we use bases called antacids. These antacids
neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
pH of the soil: Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. It is necessary to
find out the pH of the soil to use required fertilizers for the healthy growth of the plants.

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2) Write the experiment on Reaction of acids and bases with metals?

A) Aim: To observe the reaction of acids and bases with metals.

Materials required: Test tube. Delivery tube, glass trough, candle, soap water, stand [Link],
and zinc granules, cork etc.

Precautions:
1. The first end of the delivery tube should not be immersed in the reactance
2. Fix the cork tightly
3. Care must be taken while handling with glass items.
4. Should not touch the chemicals with hands.
5. Keep a bucket of soap water or ordinary water at the working place.
Procedure:
i) Setup the apparatus as shown in the figure.
ii) Take about 10ml of dilute HCI in a test tube and add a few .
iii) A gas is evolved from the top of the test tube.
iv) Pass the gas being evolved through the soap water.
v) Bring a burning candle near the gas filled bubbles.
Observations:
i) We observe a gas is evolved in side the test tube.
ii) If we pass this gas through the soap water, bubbles are formed.
iii) When we bring a burning candle near the gas bubbles, we hear a "POP' sound.
iv) This 'POP' sound indicates that the gas evolved is hydrogen.

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Conclusion:
i) When acids react with metals hydrogen gas is evolved.

ii) 2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2

3) Write the experiment on Reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonate?
A) Aim: To observe the reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates
Materials required: Two jest tubes, Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO3) HCL, lime water, delivery tube, thissel fame, Stand.

Precautions:
1. Thissel funnel should be immersed into the reactants 2 Delivery tube first end should not be
immersed into the reactants and immersed in limewater
Procedure:
i) Take two test tubes and label them as A and B.
ii) Take about 0.5gm of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in test tube A
iii) Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
iv) Pass the gas produced gas through lime water and in the test tube B record your observations.
Observations:
i) We observe that the lime water turns into milky white after passing the gas evolved during the
reaction
ii) This indicates that the gas evolved during reaction is Carbon dioxide (CO2)
iii) Repeat the experiment replacing Na2CO3 instead of NaCO3 in test tube Awe get same result.

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Conclusion:
When acids react with carbonates and metal carbonates, carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is evolved.
Na2CO3+2HCl 2NaCI + H2O+CO2

NaHCO3+HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2

ii) When the evolved gas is passed through lime water, the reaction taken place is Ca(OH)2 +CO2
CaCO3 + H2O.

4) Write the experiment on Acids show electrical conductivity?

A) Aim: Investigate that all compounds containing hydrogen are not acids.
Materials required: Different aqueous solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid and
sulphuric acid etc. beaker, two different coloured wires, bulb, switch, 230V AC power supply
socket, graphite rods.

Precautions:
1. Graphite rods should not touch each other inside the beaker
2. Make sure that the electrical switch is in off position while changing the solutions in the beaker.
Procedure:
i) Connect two different coloured electrical wires to graphite rods separately in a 100ml beaker as
shown in the figure.

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ii) Connect free ends of the wire to a 230V AC plug and complete the circuit as shown in the figure
by connecting a bulb to one of the wires. Now pour some dilute HCI in the beaker and switch on
the current. Record your observations.
iii) Repeat this activity with dilute sulphuric acid, and glucose and alcohol solutions separately and
record your observations.

Observations :
i) We observe that the bulb glows in acid solutions but not in glucose or alcohol solutions.
ii) Glowing of bulb indicates that there is flow of electric current through the solution.
Conclusion:
i) Acids have H' ions and the moment of these ions in solution helps for flow of electric current.
ii) The positive ion present in all acid solutions is H ions or H2O+ ions.
5) Write the experiment on Removing water of crystallization?
A) Aim: To observe water of crystallization and to remove the water of crystallization.
Materials required: Copper sulphate crystals, test tube, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, white
paper, water etc.

Precautions:
i) The test tube will be slantend in the experiment to maintain the distance to the eye.
Procedure:
i) Take a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry test tube.
ii) Heat the test tube on the Bunsen burner or spirit lamp.

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Observations:
i) We observe that the blue colour of copper sulphate crystals will change into white.
ii) We hear a crackling sound while heating.
iii) We also observe small water droplets on the sides of the test tube.

Conclusion:
i) Copper sulphate crystals contain water of crystallization, when these crystals are heated water
present in crystals is evaporated and the salt turns white.
ii) When the crystals are moistened with water, the blue colour re-appears.

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[Link] OF LIGHT AT
CURVED SURFACES
IMPORTANT POINTS
Lens: A lens is formed when a transparent material is bounded by two surfaces of which one (or)
both are spherical.
Focal Length (f): The distance between optic centre (P) and focus (F) of the lens is known as focal
length of the lens.

Focus: A parallel beam of light incident on the lens, converges to a point or seems to emanate
from a point on principal axis. This point is called focus of the lens.
Optic centre or pole (p): The midpoint of a lens is called optic centre of the lens (P)
Principal axis: The line joining the two centres of curvature and the pole is called principal axis.
Radius of curvature (R): The distance between the centre of curvature and the pole is known as
radius of curvature.

Centre of curvature (C): The centre of the sphere which contains the part of the curved surface is
called centre of curvature.
Focal plane: A plane which is perpendicular to principal axis at the focus is called focal plane.
Double convex lens: A lens may have two spherical surfaces bulging outwards, such a lens is called
double convex lens. It is thick at the middle as compared to edges.

Double concave lens: A double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces curved inwards.
It is thin at the middle. and thicker at the edges.
Lens formula: 1/f = 1/v – 1/u.
Curved surface formula: n2/v – n1/u = n2-n1/R
Lens Maker's formula: 1/f = (n-1) [1/R1 – 1/R2]

Refractive Index: The ability of the material to bend the light.

μ = Velocity of light in vaccum
Velocity of light in medium
Relative Refractive Index: It is the ratio of refractive Index of 1st medium to 2nd medium
RR= Refractive Index of 1" medium
Refractive Index of 2 medium

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Curved Surface: A transparent material bounded by two surfaces such that it has same thickness
throughout the surface.
Laws of refraction:

1st law of refraction: Incident ray, Normal line, Refracted ray and point of incidence lies in same
plane.
2nd law of refraction: For the given pair of media the ratio of sine of Incident angle to sine of
refracted angle is constant.
n1/n2 = sin α2/sin α1.

Rarer Medium: The medium in which velocity of light is more compared to another medium is
called rarer medium.
Denser Medium: The medium in which velocity of light is less compared to another medium is
called denser medium.
* A lens is formed when a transparent material is bounded by two surfaces of which one for) both
surfaces are spherical.

* A lens may have two spherical surfaces bulging outwards. Such lens is called Double convex lens
(or) bi-convex lens.
* A double concave lens (or) biconcave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces curved inward.
* The point of converge (or) the point from which rays seems emanating is called focal point or
focus (F).
* Every lens has two focal points.

* The distance between the focal point and pole is called focal length of lens denoted by f.
* Any ray passing through the principal axis is undeviated.
* Any ray passing through at the optic centre is also undeviated.
* The rays passing parallel to the principal axis converge at focus or seems to diverge from the
focus.
* The ray passing through focus will take a path parallel to principal axis after refraction.

* When parallel rays fall on a lens making certain angle with principle axis, the rays converge at a
point or appear to diverge from a point lying on a focal plane.
* Focal plane is the plane perpendicular to principal axis at the focus.

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* Rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses

For drawing a ray diagram to find position and size of the image formed by lens for any position of
object on the principal axis you need to follow the rules mentioned below:

* Image formed ty Concave lens for different positions of the object:

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* Image med ty Concave lens for different positions of the object:

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* When parallel rays, making an angle with principal axis, fall on a lens, as shown in below figures
the rays converge at a point or appear to diverge from a point lying on the focal plane. Focal plane
is the plane perpendicular to the principal axis at the focus.

* 1/f = 1/v – 1/uIs called Lens formula.

* The focal length of lens depend upon the surrounding medium in which it is kept.
* 1/f = (n-1) [1/R1 – 1/R2] Is called Lens makers formula. Here n is absolute refractive index.
* The convex lens behaves as a converging lens, if it is kept in a medium with less refractive index
than refractive index of lens.

* The convex lens behaves like a diverging lens when it is kept in medium with greater refractive
index than the lens.
* The air bubble in water behaves like diverging lens.

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QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’S:
1) Mention any two uses of Convex lenses.
A) Watch repairers, palmists use convex lens as a simple microscope. A convex lens can also be
used as a burning glass or reading glass.
2) What happens to the image, if a convex lens is made up of two different transparent
materials?
A) The lens offers two different refractive indices and it results in formation of two images.

3) Write the list of materials required for the experiment to find the focal length of a convex
Lens?

A) The list of materials required for the experiment to find the focal length of a convex lens are, V-
stand, Candle (object) ,Screen, Convex lens, Meter scale ,Match box.
4) Define refraction of light?
A) The phenomenon of change in direction of light when it travels from one medium to another
medium is known as refraction of light.
5) Give the sign conventions for lenses with regard to the object and image distance?
A) It is positive if the distance is measured in the direction of incident ray and it is negative if the
distance is measured against the direction of incident ray.
6) What is the relation between power and focal length of a lens?
A) Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length of a lens.
Power of lens = 1

Focal length of lens

7) Why the power of convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative?
A) Convex lens has positive focal length, so they have positive power and concave lens has
negative focal length, so they have negative power.
8) What happens to the light ray when a transparent material with two curved surfaces is
placed in its path?

A) The light rays undergoes refraction two times, when a transparent material with two curved
surfaces is placed in its path.

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SAQ’S:
1) Uses of Concave Lenses?
A) i) Concave lenses are used in spectacles to correct the defect for vision called myopia (short
sightedness)
ii) Concave lens is used as eye lens in Galilean telescope
iii) Concave lens is used in wide angle spyhole in doors.
2) Mention any four uses of lenses in day to day life?
A) i) Watch repairers, palmists use convex lens as a simple microscope.
ii) Convex and concave lenses are used to correct the defects of eye vision
iii) These lenses are also used in terrestrial telescope, astronomical telescope.
iv) A convex lens can also be used as a burning glass or reading glass.
3) On what factors does the focal length of the lens depends?
A) The focal length of the lens depend on the following factors,
1. Radius of curvature. 2 Refractive index of the material.
3. Refractive index of the surrounding medium.
4) Write the lens maker's formula and explain the terms in it?
A) Lens maker's formula is given as,

1/f = (n-1) [1/R1 – 1/R2]

Where, f: Focal length of the lens. n: Refractive index of the lens.
R1: Radius of curvature of first surface.
R2: Radius of curvature of second surface. For convex lens, R, is positive and R, is negative and is
vice versa for concave lens.

LAQ’S:
1) Explain the behaviour of light rays in any four situations of their incidence on a convex lens.
A) Ray Passing along the Principal Axis: Any ray passing along the principal axis remains
undeviated.
Ray Passing through the Optic Centre: Any ray passing through the optic centre remains
undeviated.

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Ray Passing Parallel to the Principal Axis: Rays passing parallel to the principal axis converge at
the focus.

Ray Passing through Focus: Any ray passing through the focus will take a path parallel to principal
axis after refraction.

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[Link] EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

IMPORTANT POINTS:
Human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organ. Human eye works on the
reflection of light through a natural convex lens made of transparent living material and
enables to see things around us.
The main parts of human eye are

1. Cornea: It is a transparent protective layer and maximum refraction of light entering the
eye occurs at the outer surface of cornea.

2. Pupil: The pupil appears black because any light falling on it goes into the eye and there
is almost no chance of light coming back to the outside.

3. Iris: It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil. It regulates and
controls the amount of light entering eye.

4. Ciliary muscles: These can alter the curvature and thickness of the eye lens.
5. Crystalline lens: It provides the finer adjustment of focal length required to focus
objects at different distances on the retina. It forms an inverted, real image of the object on
the retina.

6. Retina: It is a light sensitive screen of the eye on which a real and inverted image of the
object is formed.

7. Optic nerves: These are the nerves which send the electrical signals generated by the
illumination due to activation of light sensitive cells.

Least distance of distinct vision: To see an object comfortably and distinctly, we

must hold it at a distance about 25 cm from the eyes. This distance is called least distance of
distinct vision .Normally the value of least distance of distinct vision is about 25 cm.

Angle of vision: The maximum angle, at which we are able to see the whole object is
called angle of vision. The angle of vision for a healthy human being is about 60°. It varies
from person to person and with age.

Far point: The farthest point from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly is known
as far point of the eye. The far point of normal human eye is infinity.

Near point: The minimum distance at which objects can be seen most distinctly with out
strain is called the near point of the eye. The near point of the normal human eye is at a
distance of 25 cm from the eye. The range of vision of a normal human eye is from infinity to
about 25 cm.

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Accommodation of lens: The ability of eye - lens to change its focal length is called
"accommodation of lens".
If the position of an object is between infinity and the point of least distance of distinct
vision, then the eye lens adjusts it's focal length in between 2.5 cm to 2.27cm to form a clear
image on the retina. Some times the eye may gradually lose its ability for accommodation. In
such conditions the person cannot see an object clearly and comfortably. The vision
becomes blurred due to defects of the eye lens. There are mainly three common defects of
vision.
They are:
i) Myopia
ii) Hypermetropia
iii) Presbyopia

Common defects of vision:

i) Myopia: Some people cannot see objects at long distances but can see near by objects
clearly. This type of defect in vision is called 'Myopia'. It is also called 'near sightedness".
For these people the maximum focal length is less than 2.5 cm.
In such cases the rays coming from distant objects, after refraction through the eye lens,
form an image before the retina.

Correction: Myopia can be corrected by using a biconcave lens. The focal length of this bi-
concave lens, if object distance (u) is infinity and image distance (v) is equal to the distance
of the far point then f=-D
Here 'f' is negative showing that it is a concave lens.

ii) Hypermetropia: Hypermetropia is also known as "far sightedness". A person with

hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see objects at near distances,
because the minimum focal length of eye lens for the person of hypermetropia is greater
than 2.27 cm. In such cases, the rays coming from a near by object, after refraction at eye
lens, forms an image beyond the retina.

Correction: Hypermetropia can be corrected by using biconvex lens. If the focal length of
the biconvex lens is f, distance of near point is (u = d) then image distance should be equal to
d = 25 cm.
f=25d/(d-25) [f is measured in centimeters.]

We know that if d > 25 cm, then 'f' becomes + ve i.e. we need to use biconvex lens to
correct defect of hypermetropia.

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iii) Presbyopia: Presbyopia is vision defect when the ability of accommodation of the eye
usually decreases with ageing. For most people the near point gradually recedes away. They
find it difficult to see near by objects clearly and distinctly.
To correct this type of defect of vision we need bi - focal lenses which are formed using both
concave and convex lenses. Its upper portion consists of the concave lens and lower portion
consists of the convex lens.

Power of lens: The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays that can be
achieved by a lens expressed in terms of its power. The reciprocal of focal length is called
power of lens. Let 'f' be the focal length of lens. Power of lens P=1/f(in m);P=100/f(in cm).
The unit of power is dioptre it is denoted by the letter ‘D’.

Prism: A prism is a transparent medium separated from the surrounding medium by at

least two plane surfaces which are inclined at a certain angle in such a way that, light
incident on one of the plane surfaces emerges from the other plane surface.

The angle between two lateral surfaces is called angle of the prism.
The angle between the emergent ray and normal is called angle of emergence (i₂).
The angle between the plane surfaces PQ and PR is called the angle of the prism or
refracting angle of prism A
The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation (d).
It is found that the angle of deviation d varies with the angle of incidence i of the ray
incident on the prism. At minimum deviation D the angle of emergence of the ray equals to
the angle of incidence i1.
We can have refractive index of glass n= sin(A+D/2)/sin(A/2).
According to wave theory, light can be thought of a wave propagating in all directions. Light
is an electromagnetic wave. Here no particle physically oscillates, but oscillating electric and
magnetic fields propagate in all directions with the speed of light.
We know that the relation between the speed of wave (v), wavelength (1) and frequency (f)
is v = f (frequency (f) may be denoted by u)

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For refraction at any interface, v is proportional to λ. Speed of the wave increases with
increase in wavelength of light and vice versa.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT: The splitting of white light into different colours (VIBGYOR) is
called dispersion.
White light is a collection of waves with different wavelengths. Violet colour is known to
have the shortest wavelength while red is of the longest wavelength.
During the separation of colours, producing a spectrum. It has been experimentally found
that refractive index decreases with an increase in wave length. The refractive index of red is
low hence it suffers low deviation.

RAIN BOW: The spectacular pattern of colours of light formed due to dispersion of sun
light passing through the tiny water droplets present in the atmosphere after rain fall is
called rain bow.

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If we look at an angle between 40° and 42°, we will observe the remaining colours of
VIBGYOR All the drops that disperse the light towards us lie in the shape of the cone a cone
of layers. The drops that disperse red colour to the eye are on the outer most layer of the In
this way the cone responsible for yellow lies beneath orange and so on it till the violet colour
innermost cone. Similarly the drops that disperse orange colour towards eye cone becomes
the in are on the layer of the cone beneath the red colour cone.
Two refractions and a reflection in water droplets produce light at all angle up to about 45
the intensity concentrate where we see the rainbow at 40° to 42° No light emerges from the
water droplets at angles greater than 42°.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT: Scattering of light is a complex phenomenon.

When light of certain frequency falls on an atom or molecule then atom or molecule
responds to the light whenever the size of the atom or molecule is comparable to the wave
length of light.
If this condition is satisfied the atom absorbs light and vibrates. Due to these vibrations, he
atom re-emits a certain fraction of absorbed energy in all directions with different
intensities.
The re - emitted light is called scattered light
The process of re-emission of light in all directions with different intensity is called scattering
light.

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It is experimentally observed that the intensity of scattered light is maximum at 90° i.e angle
of scattering.

Our atmosphere contains different types of molecules and atoms. The reason for blue sky is
due to the molecules N, and O,. The sizes of these molecules are comparable to the wave
length of blue light these molecules act as scattering centres for scattering of blue light.
The sky appears white sometimes when we view it in certain direction on hot days because
of presence of water molecules in the air which are causing all frequencies of light other
than blue to scatter.
The reason for appearance of red coloured sun during sunrise and at sunset is

Molecules having a size that is comparable to the wave length of red light are less in the
atmosphere.
Hence scattering of red light is less when compared to the other colours of light.

So in morning and evening times, during sunrise and sunset, except red light all colours
scatter more and vanish before they reach you.
The reason for why sun does not appear red during noon hours is
During noon hours, the distance to be travelled by the sun rays in the atmosphere is less
than that compared to morning and evening hours. Therefore all colours reach your eye
without much scattering. Hence the sun appears white during noon hours.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’S:
1) What are the materials required to show artificial rainbow in your class?
A) The materials required are
i) tray, ii )water, iii) plane mirror iv)A light source, v)A screen.
2) What would happen if ciliary muscles do not function properly?
A) i) If Ciliary muscles do not perform contraction and expansion, focal length
of eye lens do not change.
ii) Human eye can see the objects at specific distance only, eye cannot see the
object either nearer or far distance.

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3) Why is danger signals are red?

A) Among the colours of visible light, red has more wavelength and least
scattere Thus, red colour can easily go through for or mist or smoke with out
getting scattered. It can be seen from long distance. So red colour is used
universal danger signal.
4) Give two examples illustrating "Tyndall effect"?
A) (i) Sunlight passing through trees in forest
(ii) Tiny water droplets through trees in the forest.
5) Why does the sky appear dark to the passengers flying at very high
altitudes?
A) There is no scattering of light at higher altitudes so, the sky appears dark to
the passengers.
6) Why sun appears white during noon hours?

A) During noon hours, the distance travelled by the sun rays in the atmosphere
is less than that compared to morning and evening hours. Therefore all colours
reach your eye without much scattering. Hence sun appears white.
7) Why sun appears red in colour during morning and evening hours?
A) In the morning and evening times during sun rise and sunset, except red all
light colours scatter more and vanish before they reach us..
8) Why does it take sometimes to see objects in a dim room when we enter
the room from bright sunlight outside?
A) In bright light the size of the pupil is small to control the amount of light
entering the eye. When we enter a dim room, it takes sometimes so that the
pupil expands and allows more light to enter and helps to see things clearly.
9) What happens if the eye lens of a person cannot accommodate its focal
length more than 2.4 cm?
A) i)For a healthy human the maximum focal length of eye lens will be 2.5 cm.
If ciallary muscles cannot accommodate its focal length more than 2.4 cm, then
the person will get defect of viewing.

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ii) The person can able to see certain distance only, he cannot see distance
objects for correction he should use concave lens.
10) What happens if dispersion and scattering of light do not occur?
A) If dispersion and scattering donot occur we cannot get white light splitting
into 7 colour pattern that is spectrum. So all objects look either white in colour
or dark in colour.
11) What is the scattering of light? Explain with the help of an example?
A) The phenomenon of change in the direction of propagation of light caused
by the large number of particles present in the atmosphere is called scattering
of light.
Eg: The path of a beam of light becomes visible through a colloidal solution due
to scattering of light.
12) Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue for astronauts?
A) Due to the absence of atmosphere no scattering occurs and sky appears
dark.
13) Why is normal eye not able to see clearly the objects kept closer than 25cm
?
A) The maximum accommodation of a normal human eye is reached when the
object is at a distance of 25cm from the eyes. The focal length of the eye lens
cannot be decreased this minimum limit.
14) Glass is known to be transparent material. But ground glass is opaque and
white in colour. Why?
A) Glass is transparent because it allows the light to pass through it. But ground
glass is opaque and it reflects all the light which is falling on it. So, it appears
white.
15) If a white sheet of paper is stained with oil, the paper turns transparent.
Why?
A) A paper is made of cellulose. Also paper is porous. The paper have minute
holes in it.

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As the paper is stained with oil, the oil enters these holes and they will become
wider and which allow the light to pass through it, so the paper becomes
transparent.
16) "Smoke coming out of coal fired chimney appears blue on a misty day".
Why?
A) 1) On a misty day. the air has large amount of tiny particles of water smoke.
light passing
2) These tiny particles present in the air scatter blue colour of the white
through it.
3) When this scattered blue light reaches our eyes the smoke appears blue.

SAQ’S:
1) Explain the formation of an artificial rainbow with an activity.
A)

Activity:
Take a metal tray and fill it with water.
Place a mirror in water such that it makes an angle to the water surface.
Now focus white light on the mirror through the water
Keep a white cardboard sheet above the water

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Observations:
We may observe the colours VIBGYOR on the board.
The splitting of white light into different colours (VIBGYOR) is called dispersion.
2) A person is unable to see distant objects. Show the defect of vision of the
person with the help of ray diagram.
A) i) His vision defect is myopia.
ii) Ray diagram:

3) A prism with an angle A = 60° produces an angle of minimum deviation of

30°. Find the refractive index of material of the prism.
A)

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4) Doctor advised to use 2D lens. What is its focal length ?

A)

5) Explain two activities for the formation of artificial rainbow.

A) Activity-1:
1. Fill a glass with water.
2. Place the glass on a table in front of a sunny window.
3. Place a sheet of paper on the floor. It could be any light color. White might
be best, but try any colour you prefer.
4. Wet the window with hot water.
5. Adjust the glass and the paper until you see a rainbow
A) Activity-2
1. Take a CD. Wipe it to make sure it is not dusty so it will look better.
2. Place it on a flat surface, label side down, under a light or in front of a
window
3. Look at the CD, and see the rainbow.

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6) Explain briefly the reason for the blue colour of the sky?
A) The scattering of light in sky gives blue colour only but not other colours
because our atmosphere contains different types of molecules and atoms. The
reason for blue sky is due to the molecules N and O. The sizes of these
molecules act as scattering centres for scattering of blue light. It is
experimentally observed that the intensity of scattered light depends on angle
of scattering. The intensity is maximum at 90° angle of scattering. This is the
reason for the appearance of clear blue colour when we look at the sky in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the sun rays. If our angle of view is
changed, the intensity of blue colour also changes.

LAQ’S:
1) What is Myopia and How do you correct the eye defect Myopia?
A) Myopia:- Myopia is also called as shortsightedness. The defect in which
people cannot see objects beyond far point is called Myopia. for Myopic eye
maximum focal length is less than 2.5cm. To correct one's Myopia, we need to
select a lens which forms an image at the far point for an object at infinity. We
need to select bi-concave lens to achieve this.

Correction of Myopia:
1. A concave lens (diverging lens) L of suitable power is placed infront of the
myopic eye, the parallel rays are coming from the distance object (at infinity)
diverged by the concave lens.
M = far point, L = least distance of distinct vision.

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2. A concave lens forms a virtual images of the distant object at the far point
(M) of this myopic eye.
3. Since the rays of light now appear to be coming from the eye's far point (M),
they can be easily focussed by the eye - lens to form an image on retina.
4. It should be remembered that the purpose of using a concave lens is to
reduce the converging power of the eye-lens.
5. The concave lens used to decrease the converging power of the eye lens and
helps in forming the images of distant object on the retina of the myopic eye
2) Explain the correction of the eye defect Hypermetropia?
A) Hypermetropia:- Hypermetropia is also known as "far sightedness". A peron
with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but can not see objects at
near distances, because the minimum focal length of eye lens for the person is
greater than 2.27 cm. In such cases, the rays coming from a nearby object, after
refraction at eye lens, forms an image beyond the retina as shown in Fig

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Correction of hypermetropia:-

Hypermetropia can be corrected by using convex lens. Eye lens can form a clear
image on the retina when any object is placed beyond near point. To correct
the defect of hypermetropia, we need to use a lens which forms an image of an
object beyond near point, when the object is between near point H and least
distance of distinct vision (L). This is possible only when a double convex lens is
used.
3) How do you find experimentally the refractive index of material of a
prism?
A) Aim: To find the refractive index of the prism.
Apparaturs: Prism, piece of white chart of size 20x20 cm, pencil, pins, scale and
protractor.
Procedure:
i) Keep a prism on white chart
ii) Draw the triangular base of the prism with pencil
iii) Remove the prism
iv) The shape of the outline drawn prism is triangle and name its vertices as
P,Q,R.

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v) PQ and PR be the refracting surfaces

vi) Find the angle between PQ and PR. This is the angle of the prism (A) (or)
Refracting angle.
vii) Mark M on PQ and draw a perpendicular line to PQ at M.
viii) Place the centre of the protractor at M, along the normal and mark an
angle of 30° with normal. This is an angle of incidence.
ix) Place the prism in its position (Triangle) again
x) Draw the incident ray and keep the prism in original position.
xi) Now fix two pins vertically on the line at points A and B
xii) See the images of pins vertically on the line at points A and B
xiii) Fix another two pins at points C and D such that all the four pins appear to
lie along the same line
xiv) Remove the pins and prism, join the [Link] the incident and
emergent rays.
xv) The angle between the normal and the emergent ray at N is the angle of
emergence.
xvi) The line passing through the points A,B,M,N,C and D represents the path of
light when it suffers refraction through prism.

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xvii) Extend both incident and emergent rays till they meet at a point 'O'.
Measure the angle between these two rays. This is the angle of deviation. It is
denoted by a letter 'd'.
xviii) Repeat this procedure for various angles of incidence such as 40°,50° etc.
Find the corre sponding angles of deviation and angles of emergence.
xix) We notice that the angle of deviation decreases first and then increases
with increase in the angle of incidence.
xx) Take angle of incidence along X- axis and the angle of deviation along Y- axis.
Using a suitable scale, mark points on a graph paper for every pair of angles.
Finally join the points to obtain a graph (smooth curve).

xxi) Yes we can. Draw a tangent line to the curve, parallel to X- axis, at the
lowest point of the graph. The point where this line cuts the Y- axis gives the
angle of minimum deviation It is denoted by D.
xxii) Draw a parallel line to y-axis through the point where the tangent touches
the graph This line meets x-axis at a point showing the angle of incidence
corresponding to the Minimum deviation. If you do the experiment with this
angle of incidence you will get an angle of emergence equal to the angle of
incidence.
xxiii) In this way, we can find the refractive index of the prism as
n=sin(A+D/2) /sin(A/2). Where A is the angle prism and D is the angle of
minimum deviation.

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4) Explain the formation of rainbow?

A) Rain bow: The beautiful colours of rainbow are due to dispersion of

sunlight by millions of tiny water droplets.

1. Always a rainbow is formed in the direction opposite to the sun.

2. To see a rainbow, the sun must behind us and the water droplets falls infront
of us.
3. When a sunlight enters into a spherical raindrop, At the 1st refraction the
white light is dispersed into its spectrum of colours, violet being deviated the
most & red the least, it is refracted and dispersed. The different colours of light
bent in different angles.
4. When different colours of light fall on the back inner surface of drop, it
(water drop reflects (different colours of light) internally (total internal
reflection).
5. The water drops again refracts the different colours, when it comes out from
the raindrop.
6. After leaving this different colours from the raindrop as rainbow, reach our
eye. Thus we see a rainbow.

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[Link] OF ATOM
IMPORTANT POINTS
➤The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a continuous range of wavelengths of
gamma rays at the shorter wavelength to radio waves at the longer wavelength. But
our eyes are sensitive only to visible light.

➤Visible light is an electromagnetic wave and the speed of light (c) is 3 x 108 ms-1.

➤The familiar example of the visible spectrum in nature is the formation of a

rainbow.

➤ When you heat an iron rod, some of the heat energy is emitted as light. First it
turns red (lower energy corresponding to higher wavelength) and as the
temperature rises it glows orange, yellow, blue (higher energy and of lower
wavelength) or even white (all visible wavelengths) if the temperature is high
enough.

➤ The energy (E) for the red colour (higher wavelength or lower frequency) is
lower compared to the energy of blue colour (lower wavelength or higher
frequency). The energy emitted from a material body increases with increase in
heat energy.

➤Hence, emission or absorption of light spectrum is a collection of a group of

wavelengths.

➤ Scientists found that each element emits its own characteristic colour. These
colours correspond to certain discrete wavelengths of light and are called line
spectra.

➤ Cupric chloride produces a green colour flame while strontium chloride produces
a crimson red flame.

➤The lines in atomic spectra can be used to identify unknown atoms.

➤In an attempt to account for the structure of the spectra known as fine spectra.
Sommerfeld modified Bohr's atomic model by adding elliptical orbits.
Orbital : The three dimensional space around the nucleus in an atom where the
probability of finding an electron is maximum is called an orbital.

➤s-orbital is spherical. It has spherical symmetry.

➤Each p-orbital has a dumbell shape

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➤The probability of finding the electron at the nucleus is zero. At a certain distance
from the nucleus the probability is maximum.

➤A p-orbital has one nodal plane, and it consists of two lobes on either side as the
nodal plane extend-ing along the axis.

➤For the p, orbital the nodal plane is YZ plane.

➤There are five d-orbitals. They are shape. Each has four lobes. dxy, dyz, dxz dx2-y2,
dz2. The first four are of double dumb bell in dz2 is present along Z axis with a
dumbell shape. It contains a ring (torus, collar, ring or tyre) along XY plane.

➤Quantum Numbers : A The quantum numbers describe the space around the
nucleus where the electrons are found and also their energies.

➤A The principal quantum number is related to the size and energy of the main
shell.

➤Each value of 'l' is related to the shape of a particular sub-shell in the space
around the nucleus.

➤The three quantum numbers n, 1, and m, describe the size of shell and energy of
electron, shape of subshells and orientation of orbitals, respectively.

➤Magnetic quantum number was introduced by Lande.

➤It indicates spatial orientation of the orbital or presence of orbitals in a subshell.

➤Its values depend on the value of 'l' and it can take only integral values ranging -
1...0...+1.

➤A The total number of values of m indicates the number of spatial orientations of

the orbital i.e., (21+1)

➤A As you have observed in the case of street lights (sodium vapour lamp), yellow
light is emitted. This yellow light is comprised of a very closely wave length range is
5890-5896 A°.

➤ When n, l, and m₁ are same for two electrons then m, must be different. In the
helium atom the spins must be paired.
Electronic Configuration:

➤ The filling of electrons into the orbitals of different atoms takes place according
to the Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle, Hund's rule of maximum
multiplicity and the relative energies of the orbitals.

➤Electronic configuration is represented in the form of nlx.

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Denotes the number of electrons in orbital

1s¹ Denotes the angular momentum quantum number

Denotes the principal quantum number (n)

➤Electronic configuration also tells about cation, anion formation and nature of
chemical bond formed.

➤Aufbau principle: As far as possible electrons will go to the orbital with the
lowest energy. (or) Aufbau principle states that the electrons tend to occupy the
available orbitals of minimum energy in the ground state of an atom.

➤The order of increasing energy of atomic orbitals is 1s <2s <2p <3s <3p<4s <3d
<4p<5s <4d<5p<6s <4f <5d < 6p < 7s...

➤Pauli's exclusion principle: "It is impossible for two electrons with the same spin
quantum number to be in the same orbital". (or)"No two electrons in an atom can
have the same set of values for all the four quantum numbers".

➤Hund's Rule: According to this rule electron pairing in orbitals starts only when
all available empty orbitals of the same energy (degenerate orbitals) are singly
occupied.

VSAQ’S:
1) Write the formula for maximum number of electrons in a shell and sub - shell?
A) The maximum number of electrons in a shell is 2n2 and in a subshell 2(21 + 1).
Where 'n' is the principal quantum number and I is azimuthal quantum number.

2) Write the general rules that help us to predict the electronic configurations
A) i) Aufbau principle which says electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of
increasing value of (n + 1). For sub-shells with the same value of (n + 1), electrons
are assigned first to the sub-shell with lower 'n'.
ii) Pauli's exclusion principle states that in an orbital we can fill only 2 electrons.
iii) Hund's rule states that electron pairing starts only when all available empty
orbitals occupied with one electron.

3) What is the general electronic configuration of Noble gases?

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A) The general electronic configuration of noble gases is ns2 np6 expect Helium.
(Helium electronic configuration is 1s²).

4) Write the set of quantum number for the electrons in a 3p, orbital.
A) The four quantum numbers for 3p, orbital electron are:

Quantum n l ml ms
numbers
First 3 1 0 +1/2
electrons
Second 3 1 0 -1/2
electron

5) What is the speed of all electromagnetic waves?

A) All the Electro magnetic waves travel with velocity of light that is 3x10m/sec.

6) Write relation between c,v,λ ?

A) c = vλ (or) λα1/v.

7) What is emission spectrum?

A) Emission spectrum is the specturm of frequency of electromagnetic radiation

due to higher energy level to lower energy level.

8) How the colours come form fireworks?

A) Metal salts commonly used in fireworks displaye like strantium carbonate (red)
calcium chloride (orange), sodium nitrate (yellow), barium chloride (green) copper
chloride (blue) purple colour is a mixture of strantium (red) and copper (blue)
compounds.

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9) What is an orbital?
A) The region of space around the nucleus where the probability of finding the
electron is maximum is called an orbital.

10) On adding dilute HCl to CuO powder, the solution formed is blue green then
write the new compound formed.
A) CuCl (Cupric chloride) CuO + 2HCl → CuCl + H₂O.

11) Draw Electromagnetic wave with neat labeling?

A)

12) What is meant by electromagnetic spectrum and draw its spectrum?

A) Electromanetic waves can have a wide variety of frequencies. The entire range of
electromagnetic wave frequencies is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. (or)
Arrangement of all electromagnetic waves in increasing order of their wavelengths
or decreasing order of their frequencies is knwon as electromagnetic spectrum.

13) What happens when you Heat an Iron rod on a flame?

A) When you heat an Iron rod. Some of the heat energy is emitted as light. First it
turns red and as the temperature rises it glow's orange, yellow, blue or even white if
the temperature is high enough.

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14) Why does the electron enter the 4s orbital after filling the 3p orbital but not
the 3d?

A) ➤ As per the Aufbau principle, an electron enters into the orbital whose (n + 1)
value is less

➤The (n+1) values for 4s and 3d are

➤4s = 4+0 = 4; 3d = 3+2=5

➤Here the (n+1) value of 4s < 3d. Hence electron enters into the 4s orbital after
filling '3p' instead of '3.

15) Write the four quantum numbers for the differentiating electron of sodium
(Na)?
A) Electronic configuration of Na is 1s22s22p63s¹
The differentiating electron of sodium is present in "3s" subshell set of four
quantum numbers for the differentiating electron of sodium are

n l ml ms
3 0 0 +1/2 or -1/2.

16) An electron in an atom has the following set of four quantum numbers to
which orbital it belong to:

n l ml ms
2 0 0 +1/2
ii. Write the four quantum numbers for 1st electron.

A) i. 2s

ii. Set of four quantun numbers for 1s ^ 1 electron are

n l ml ms

1 0 0 +1/2 or -1/2.

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17) Name and draw the shape of s,p and 'd' orbitals?

A) 'S'- spherical in shape

‘P’-dumbell in shape

18) What is (n + 1) rule?

A) 1. Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n + 1).

2. For sub-shells with the same value of (n + 1), electrons are assigned first to the
subshell with lower 'n'

19) Write electronic configuration of Nitrogen, Magnesium, Calcium and Chlorine

[CI]?
A) N- 1s22s22p3
Mg-1s22s22p63s2

Ca-1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Cl-1s22s22p63s23p5

20) Write degenerate orbitals of p and d orbitals?

A) For 'p' orbital is: Px Py Pz

For 'd' orbital is: dxy, dyz, dxz, dx² - y². dz²

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SAQ’S:
1) What is the difference between orbit and orbital?

A) The region in space where there is finite probability of finding an electron around
the nucleus of an atom is called orbital.
Orbit Orbital
1) Orbits are proposed by Neils 1) Orbitals are proposed by
Bohr. Schrodinger.

2) Bohr's orbit is a well defined 2) The region in space where there

circular path around the nucleus in is finite probability of finding an
which the electron revolves. electron around the nucleus of an
atom
3) An orbit represents the
movement of electron in two 3) An orbital represents the
dimensional plane. movement of electron in three
dimensional space
4) Orbits are circular shaped.
4) Orbitals have different shapes 's'
5) An orbit can have a maximum orbital is spherical and p orbital is
number of electrons equal to 2n2. dumbell shaped.

6) Orbits are designated by K, L, M, 5) An orbital can accommodate a

N, O etc. maximum of two electrons.

6) Orbitals are designated by s, p, d

and f.

2) What is nlx method? How it is useful?

A) 1. The shorthand notation consists of the principal energy level (n value), the
letter representing sub-level (1 value), and the number of electrons (x) in the sub
shell is written as a superscript as shown below: nlx.

2. For the Hydrogen (H) atom having atomic number (Z) = 1 the number of elec-
trons is one, then the electronic configuration is 1s1
3. The electron configuration can also be represented by showing the spin of the
electron.

4. For the electron in H, as you have seen, the set of quantum numbers is; m =1, l =
0, ml = 0, ms = +1/2 or -1/2.

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3) Which rule is violated in the electronic configuration 1s°, 2s², 2p4?

A) 1. Aufbau's principle is violated in this electronic configuration because according
to Aufbau's principle, "In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in
order of their increasing energies". In other words electrons first occupy the lowest
energy orbital available to them and enter into higher energy orbitals only after the
lower energy orbitals are filled.
2. Among 1s, 2s and 2p, Is has least energy. So Is orbital must be filled before the
electron should enters into 2s.

4) Why are chromium and copper exceptions to electronic configuration?

A) The predicted electron configuration of chromium [Ar] 18 4s23d4 and copper [Ar]
18 4s²3d9 where as experimentally it has been showed that the actual elec-tron
configuration of chromium [Ar] 18 4s1 3d5 and copper [Ar]18 4s¹3d10
2. In chromium and copper the electrons in 4s and 3d re-distributes their ener-gies
to attain stability by acquiring half filled and completely filled d orbitals.
3. So Cr and Cu are having exceptional electronic configurations.

5) What information does the electronic configuration of an atom provide?

A) The distribution of electrons in shells, sub-shells and orbital in an atom is known
as electronic configuration.
i) The electronic configuration will provide the position of the electron in principal
energy level (n value) and sub-level (1 value) and the number of electrons in the
sub-shell.
ii) The distribution of electrons in various atomic orbitals provides an understanding
of the electronic behaviour of the atom and, its chemical reactivity.

iii) It also provides information regarding the valency, valence electrons and position
in the periodic table i.e group number, period number.
iv) Electronic configuration also provides information regarding physical properties
like atomic size, valency, number of valency electrons, metallic, non-metallic nature
and oxidation states of elements.
v) Electronic configuration is represented in the form of nlx.

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Denotes the number of electrons in orbital

1 s¹ Denotes the angular momentum quantum number

Denotes the principal quantum number (n)

vi) Electronic configuration also tells about cation, anion formation and nature of
chemical bond formed.
6) State and explain with one example the Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity.
A) Hund's rule: According to Hund's rule electron pairing in orbitals starts only
when all available empty orbitals of the same energy (degerate orbitals) are singly
occupied.
A) i) Consider carbon atom. It's atomic number is 6. It has six electrons.

ii) Its electronic configaration is 1s², 2s², 2p².

iii) The first electron goes into the Is orbital of K shell.
iv) The second electron will be paired up with the first in same Is orbital. The third
and fourth electrons occupy the 2s orbital of L shell.
v) The fifth electron goes into one of the three 2p orbitals of the L shell. Let it be
2p,. Since the three p orbitals [P, Py, P₂] are degenerate. Sixth electron goes into 2p,
(or) 2p, but not 2p, Thus
Here 2px¹, 2py' electrons should have same parallel spin.

7)Draw a neat diagram of moellers chart and write the ascending order of
energies of various atomic orbitals.
Ascending order of energy of orbitals
1s <2s <2p <3s <3p<4s <3d <4p<5s <4d <5p<6s <4f<5d<6p<7s<5f<6d <7p<8s...

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8)State and explain Aufbau principle with one example. (OR) Why electrons
enters into 4s orbital but not into 3d orbital after completing 3p. Explain.
A) Aufbau Principle: Aufbau principle states that, the electrons occupies the orbital
having least energy first. In terms of quantum numbers the incoming electron goes
to an orbital whose (n + 1) value is minimum. If two orbitals having same (n + 1)
value, the orbital having lower n value will be occupied first. The atomic number of
scandium is 21. Twenty electrons can be accommodated in 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p and 4s
orbitals. The last electron can enter into either 3d or 4p orbital. The (n + 1) value of
3d orbital is n = 3,1 = 23+2=5. The (n + 1) value of 4p orbital is n = 4,1 = 14+ 1 = 5.
3d and 4p orbitals are having same (n + 1) value. But for 3d orbital 'n' value is less
than the 'n' value of 4p orbital. So electron occupies 3d orbital. Thus the electronic
configuration is [Ar] 4s² 3d1.
Note: Two general rules help us to predict electronic configurations.
i) Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n + 1)
ii) For sub-shells with the same value of (n + 1), electrons are assigned first to the
sub-shell with lower 'n'.
9) Observe the information given in the table. Answer the questions given below

(i) Which of the given are s-block elements?

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(ii) Which of the given has least valency?

(iii) Which of the given is 15th Group element?(lv) Which of the given are of same
Period ?
A. i) Be, Mg ii) Ne iii) P iv) Be. Ne (or) Mg, P
10)Observe the information provided in the table about quantum numbers. Then
answer the questions given below.
n l ml
1 0 0
2 0,1 0
-1,0,1
3 0,1,2 0
-1,0,1
-2,-1,01,2

i) How many values that m, take for 1 = 2? What are they?

ii) Write the symbols of the orbitals for 1 = 1 subshell.
iii) What is the shape of the sub-shell for 1 = 27
iv) For subshell with n = 4, 1-3 write the m, values,
A) 1) 5, they are -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
2) For/ 1 subshells are p,, p,, and p,
3) Double dumbel.
4)-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3
11) Observe the following table.

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Now answer the following questions.

a) Which of the given electronic configuration of elements violates the Aufbau
principle?
b) Which of the given indicates Magnesium electronic configuration?
c) Mention the inert gas element from the given configuration.
d) Mention the valence of element "B"
A) a) A
b) D

c) C
d) 2

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LAQ’S:
1) Draw p & d orbitals
A) p-orbitals

d -orbitals

2) What is emission spectrum?

A) Emission spectrum:
1) The spectrum produced by the emitted radiation is known as emission spectrum.
2) This spectrum corresponds to liberation of energy when an excited electron
return back to ground state.
3) The emission spectrum contains bright lines on the dark back ground.

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Ex: The emission spectrum of sodium consists of two bright lines at 589 nm and
589.6 nm in the yellow region.
Emission spectrum is of two types:
1) Continuous spectrum: When white light passes through a prism it dissociate into
seven colours. This spectrum is called continuous spectrum. In which one wave
length merges into another wave length with out any gap.
2) Discontinuous spectrum: Discontinuous spectrum is of two types.
a) Line spectrum: The spectrum with sharp and distinct lines. Is given by gaseous
atoms.
b) Band spectrum: The spectrum with very closely spaced lines is known as band
spectrum. is given by molecule.
Note: When a substance is heated, the electrons in the atoms will be excited. As
these excited electrons return to their normal energy states, the substance gives off
light of a characteristic colour.
3) How are quantum numbers helpful in understanding the atomic structure?
Explain.

A. The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in
an atom are called quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers, namely,
principal, azimuthal, magnetic and spin quantum numbers.
1) Principal Quantum Number:

➤ Principal quantum number is introduced by Niels Bohr and denoted by the

symbol'n'.

➤ The principal quantum number is related to the size and energy of the main
shell.

➤'n' has positive integer values of 1, 2, 3,... As 'n' increases, the shells become
larger and the electrons in those shells are farther from the nucleus.

➤For each 'n' value there is one main shell.

Shell K L M N
n 1 2 3 4
2) The angular - momentum quantum number (1):

➤Arnold Sommerfeld proposed the angular-momentum quantum number and

denoted with /.

➤Each 'l value represents one sub-shell.

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➤Each value of 'l' is related to the shape of a particular sub-shell in the space
around the nucleus.

➤The value of '/' for a particular sub-shell is generally designated by the letters s, p,

➤The value of 'I for a particular sub-shell is generally designated by the letters s. p.
d... as follows:

l 0 1 2 3
Name
of the s p d f
sub-
shell

3) The magnetic quantum number (m):

➤The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of these orbitals are
determined by the magnetic quantum number.

➤It is proposed by Lande and denoted by the symbol 'm

➤For a given value of 1, the value of ranges between the interval -/to-L

➤For example, if n 4 and 1-3 in an atom, the possible values of the magnetic
quantum number are-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, and 3.

➤The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is given by the formula (21-1). For
example, if the '3d' subshell contains 5 orbitals(m values are, -2, -1.0. 1, 2, total = 5)
4) Spin Quantum Number (m):

➤The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values of n. 1, and ml.

➤The value of this number gives insight into the direction in which the electron is
spinning, and is denoted by the symbol m.

➤This quantum number refers to the two possible orientations of the spin of an
electron, one clockwise and the other anticlockwise spin. These are represented by
+1/2and-1/2.

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[Link] OF ELEMENTS
-THE PERIODIC TABLE
IMPORTANT POINTS

➤ Periodic table represents the classification of the elements based on similar

characteristics.

➤The elements combine among themselves giving rise to millions of compounds. It

is difficult to study the properties and uses of all the elements individually.

➤The elements have been classified into various groups to understand and predict
their properties.

➤The earliest attempt was made by Lavoiser to classify the elements into metals
and non-metals.

➤Early in the nineteenth century, Dobereiner (German chemist) pointed out that
many of the known elements could be arranged in groups of three similar elements.
This group of three elements is called triads. One of these triads was lithium,
sodium and potassium.

➤According to Dobereiner's triad, the atomic mass of the middle element was
almost the mean or average of the atomic masses of the first and third elements.

➤Dobereiner could identify only three triads of elements. These are: Li, Na, K, Ca,
Sr, Ba and Cl, Br, I.
(The elements placed in a group have same valence shell electronic configuration of
their atoms.)

➤In 1865, John Newlands suggested that when the elements were arranged in
order of their relative atomic masses, any one element had properties similar to
those of the elements eight places in front of it and eight places behind it in the list.
This is called law of octaves.

➤The periodic repetition of similar elements at regular intervals in Newlands'

octaves led to the name periodic table

➤In 1869, Mendeleev's arranged the then known 63 elements in order of

increasing relative atomic mass and showed that elements with similar properties
reocurred at regular intervals.

➤Mendeleev classified the elements into various groups and columns. The vertical
columns are called groups and the horizontal rows are called periods.

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➤Mendeleev's periodic law states that the "Properties of the elements are a
periodic function of their atomic masses"

➤Achievements of Mendeleev's periodic table

1) He left gaps for elements which were yet to be discovered.

2) He was able to predict the existence and properties of six yet to be discovered
elements.
3) He also proposed that periods 4, 5, 6 and 7 should contain more than seven
elements.

➤Limitations of Mendeleev's periodic table

Similar elements placed separately.

➤In 1913, Henry Moseley, an English physicist, found that atomic number and not
the atomic mass was the fundamental property of an element for classification of
elements.

➤Modern Periodic Law states that properties of the elements are the periodic
functions of their atomic number, that is, the number of protons or the number of
electrons present in the neutral atom of an element.

➤Modern Periodic Table consists of elements arranged in order of increasing

atomic number. It re-moves all anomalies of the Mendeleev's periodic table.

➤Position of elements in the Modern Periodic Table

1) Group number is equal to the number of valence electrons. For example, Na has
electronic configuration 2, 8, 1, one valence electron, therfore, Na belongs to group
1A.
2) Period number is equal to the number of shells containing one or more electrons.
In Na, there are three shells present (K, L and M) therefore Na belongs to the third
period.

➤Periodicity is the repetition in the similar characteristics of the elementary placed

in a group and separated by definite gap of atomic numbers 2, 8, 8. 18. 18.32.

➤The gaps of atomic numbers were earlier called magic numbers.

➤Atomic size refers to the radius of an atom. It may be defined as the distance
between the centre of nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom.

➤Periodic table can also be classified into metals and non-metals. Metals are on
the left hand side of the periodic table and non-metals are on the right-hand side.
➤Elements having properties intermediate between metals and non-metals are
called semi-metals or metalloids

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➤Metals have a tendency to lose electrons and form cations. They are
electropositive in nature.

➤Metallic character decreases along the period from left to right. Electropositive
character decreases along the period Metallic character and the electropositive
character increases down the group

➤Non-metallic character increases along the period. Non-metals have a tendency

to gain electrons and are electronegative in nature. The tendency to gain electrons
decreases down the group

➤Valency of an element may be defined as the combining capacity of an element.

The electrons present in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.

➤In a period, valency increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases from 4 to zero. In a
group all the elements have the same valency

➤Hydrogen with one electron in the Is orbital occupies unique position in the
periodic table

➤Metals comprise more than 78% of the known elements

➤Non-metals are less than 20 in number

➤The recurrence of similar properties of the elements after certain regular

intervals when they are arranged in the order of increasing atomic numbers is
called periodicity

➤The ions having same number of electrons are called isoelectronic ions. The size
decreases with increase in nuclear charge in an isoelectronic series. e.g
N³- > O²- > F -> Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+

➤The energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from the gaseous
isolated state of an atom is measured in terms of ionization enthalpy. The first
ionization enthalpy is the enthalpy change for the reaction:
X X++e-

➤In general, ionization enthalpy increases along a period and decreases down a
group. Be. Mg. N. P and noble gases have exceptionally high values of LE. due to
their stable half filled and completely filled electronic configurations

➤Electron gain enthalpy, in general, become more negative along a period and less
negative down the group.

➤Successive electron gain enthalpies become less negative or positive

➤Chlorine has highest electron affinity among all the elements.

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➤Be, Mg, N and P have exceptionally low values of electron gain enthalpies due to
their stable electronic configurations

➤Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of

electrons to itself in a bond

➤Elements having higher negative electron gain enthalpies are good oxidising
agents.

➤Fr is the largest element in the periodic table.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’S:
1) Define element.
A) Substance that cannot be decomposed into a further simple substance by a
physical or chemical change is defined as an element.
Ex: Carbon, Nitrogen, Sodium, Magnesium.
2) Give examples of two Dobereiner triads.
A) i) Cl, Br, I
ii) S, Se, Te

iii) Li, Na, K

iv) Fe, Co, Ni
3) Why VI A group elements are called as chalcogens?
A) Chalcogen means Ore products, as the elements in group 16 (VIA) forms ores
with metals. They are called as chalcogens family.
4) On which atomic property is the Mendeleev's periodic table based?
A) Mendeleev's periodic table is based on atomic weights of the elements.

5) State Mendeleev's periodic law?

A) Mendeleev's periodic law states that, "the physical and chemical properties of
elements are the peri-odic functions of their atomic weights".
6) What is Newland's concept of octaves?
A) If the elements are arranged sequentially in the increasing order of their atomic
weights, every eight element is having similar properties to that of the first element
like in the octave of music. This is called Newland's concept of octaves.

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7) Define Modern periodic law.

A) The modern periodic law is stated as "The physical and chemical properties of
elements are the peri-odic function of the electronic configurations or atomic
number.
8) Write the general electronic configuration of inert gases.
A) The general electronic configuration of inert gases is ns2 np6 except Helium is 1s2.
9) What are Lanthanoids and Actinoids?
A) The elements from atomic number 58 (Cerium) to 71 (Lutetium) are known as
lanthanoids. The elements from atomic number 90 (Thorium) to 103 (Lawrencium)
are known as actinoids.
10) What is the name given to I(A) group elements?
A. IA group elements are called Alkali metal family, It is derived from aliquili = plant
ashes. Na, K etc., were obtained from plant ash.

11) Why VII A group elements are called as halogens?

A) Halos-means sea salt, genus - means produced. So VII A (17) are obtained from
natural sea salt. So they are called as halogen family.

12) What are metalloids?

A) The properties of elements which are intermediate between the properties of
metals and non-metals are called metalloids. Ex: Ge, As, Sb, Bi.
13) Which group elements can be used as oxidising and reducing agents.
A) 1) Group-IA and II A elements can be used as reducing agents.
2) Group - VII A elements can be used as oxidising agents.
SAQ’S:
1) What are the limitations of Mendeleev's periodic table?

A) Limitations of Mendeleev's Periodic table:

1) Anomalous pair of elements: Certain elements of highest atomic mass precede
those with lower atomic mass. For example Tellurium (127.6) preceeds Iodine
(126.9) and Potassium (39) placed after Argon (40) and also Cobalt precedes Nickel.
2) Dissimilar elements placed together: Elements with dissimilar properties were
placed in the same group as sub group A and sub group B. For example alkali metal
like Li, Na, K etc. of IA have resemblence with coinage metals like Cu, Ag, Au of IB
group.

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Cl is non metal belongs to VII A group, Mn is a metal belongs to VII B group but kept
in the same VII column.
3) Lanthanoids and Actinoids: For both lanthanoids and actinoids no separate place
was given.

4) Position of Hydrogen: The position of hydrogen in Mendeleev's periodic table is

not certain, as it resembles both with alkali metals of IA group and halogens of VIIA
group.
2) What is your understanding about Ea2O3 EsO2 ?

A) Ea₂O3 is predicted formula of oxide of the predicted element in eka-Aluminium

group. This is similar to Ga2O3 the observed property of oxide of Galium, which was
discovered in 1875.

EsO2 is the predicted formula of oxide of predicted element is eka-silicon group.

This is similar to GeO2 the observed property of oxide of Germanium, which was
discovered in 1886.
3) Explain the sailent features and achievements of the Mendeleff's Periodic
table.
A) i) Mendeleef Periodic Law: The law states that the physical and chemical
properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic weights.

ii) Groups and Sub-Groups: The vertical columns in Mendeleff's Periodic table are
called groups. There are eight groups and elements in each group have similar
properties. Each group is divided into sub-groups A and B.
Sailent Features and achievements of the Mendeleeff's Periodic table:
1. Groups and Sub-Groups: There are eight veritical columns in Mendeleeff's
periodic table called as groups.
2. They are represented by Roman numerals I to VIII
3. Elements present in a given vertical column (group) have similar properties.
4. Each group is divided into two sub-groups 'A' and 'B'
5. The elements within any sub-group have same properties.
iii. Periods:
1. The horizontal rows in Mendeleeff's periodic table are called periods.

2. There are seven periods in the table which are denoted by arabic numerals 1 to
7.

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iv. Predicting the properties of missing elements: Based on the arrangement of

elements in table. Mendeleeff predicted that some elements were missing. They
are namely eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon. They were later discovered
as Scandium, Galium and Germanium.
v. Correction of atomic weights: Mendeleeff's corrected atomic masses of some
elements like Beryllium, Indium and Gold.
Ex: Atomic weight of Beryllium was found to be 9 based on the following formula.
Atomic Weight Equivalent Weight 9 4.5 X X Valency 2 Atomic weight of Beryllium is
9 so it is kept along with Mg. Ca in the second group.
Anomalous Series: Anamalous series arrangement of more atomic weight element
like Tellurium (Te) ([Link].127.6U) is placed before less atomic weight element like
lodine (I) ([Link]. 126.9U). It is observed in the Mendeleeff periodic table.
Note: Mendeleeff's accepted minor inversion in the order of increasing atomic
weight as these inversion resulted in elements being place in the correct groups.
4) Observe the information and answer the following questions.

i) What is valency of Magnesium ?

ii) Which element has more electro-positivity?
iii) Write the elements which belongs to (third) 3rd Period.
iv) Write the elements which belongs to 1º Group.
A) i) Valency of magnesium is two.
ii) Potassium (K) has more electro-positivity.
iii) The elements which belongs to 3rd period are Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg).
iv) Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) belong to 1st Group.

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6) Observe the following table.

Now answer the following questions.

a) Which two elements belong to the same period ?
b) Which two elements belong to the same group ?
c) Identify the inert gas element.
d) Classify the above elements as metals and non-metals.
A) a) A and B; C and D
b) A and C
c) B
d) Metals: A and C; Non-metals: B and D
7) Observe the following table.

A) a) 2nd period
b) Li and Be c) Li d) F.

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LAQ’S:
1) Define the modern periodic Law, Discuss the construction of the long form of
the periodic table.
A) The modern periodic Law: "The physical and chemical properties of elements
are the periodic function of the electronic configuration of their atoms."
Construction of the Modern Periodic Table:
1. Based on the modern periodic law, the modern periodic table is proposed.
2. This periodic table is know as long form of the periodic table.
3. Long form periodic table is the graphical representation of Aufbau principle.

4. The modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns called groups and 7 horizon-
tal rows know as periods.

5. There are 18 groups, represented by using Roman numerals I to VII, with letters A
and B in traditional notation.
6. There are 7 periods. These periods are represented by arabic numerals 1 to 7
7. The number of main shells present in the atom of particular atom decides to
which period it belongs.
8. First period consists 2 elements, 2nd and 3rd periods contains 8 elements each
4th and 5th periods contains 18 elements each. 6th period contains 32 elements
and 7th period is complete.

2) What is ionization potential? Explain the factors which affect ionization

potential.
A) Ionization Energy: The energy required to remove an electron from the outer
most orbit or shell of a neutral gaseous atom is called ionization energy.
The ionization energy of an element depends on its :
1) Atomic radii: With increase in the atomic radius, the attraction between the
nucleus and the outermost electron decreases. Due to this, less energy is required
to remove the electron. Hence, with increase in the atomic radii, the ionization
potential decreases.
2) Nuclear charge: With increase in the nuclear charge, the attraction between the
nucleus and the outermost electron increases. Due to this, more energy is required
to remove the electron. Hence, with increase in the effective nuclear charge, the
ionization potential increases.
3) Shielding effect: With increase in the shielding effect, the attraction between the
nucleus and the outermost electron decreases. Due to this, less energy is required

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to remove the electron. Hence, with increase in the atomic radii, the ionization
potential decreases.
4) Penetrating effect: Penetrating effect represents the ability with which the
orbital attracts an electron. With increase in the penetrating effect, the ionization
energy increases.
5) Stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals: Half-filled and completely
filled orbitals have extra stability. This extra stability increases the ionization energy.

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[Link] BONDING
IMPORTANT POINTS
➤"The attractive force that holds two or more atoms (or) ions together in a
molecule or ion is called a chemical bond".

➤Chemical bonding mainly depends on number of electrons present in the

outermost shell (valence electrons)

➤The electrons of the inner shell are well protected and are generally not involved
in the chemical bond formation.

➤Lone pair of electrons means un shared electron pair (or) non bonding electron
pair in outer most shell of an atom in bonding.

➤G.N. Lewis, an American chemist introduced simple and convenient notations to

represent the va-lence electrons in an atom. These notations are called Lewis
Symbols.

➤The number of dots around the symbol represents the number of valence
electrons. This number of valence electrons helps us to calculate the group number
and group valency of the element.

➤Ionic bond :"The electrostatic forces of attraction between two oppositely

charged ions which are formed by transfer of one or more electrons from one atom
to other atom is called ionic bond". Ionic bond is also called Electrovalent bond (or)
Polar bond.

➤The compounds containing ionic bond are called ionic (or) electrovalent (or) polar
compounds.
Ex: NaCl, MgCl2, MgO, LiF, A/F3, Na2O etc.

➤Covalent bond:

➤Covalent bond was explained by Lewis.

➤"The chemical bond formed between two atoms due to mutual sharing of
electrons is called covalent bond".

➤As the electron pairs are shared in between the two atoms, covalent bond is also
called electron pi bond.

➤ Covalent bond is formed when the combining atoms require 1, 2, 3 or 4

electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration.

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➤That means the combining atoms have 7, 6, 5 or 4 electrons in their outermost

shell.

➤Covalent bond is formed generally between the two atoms which have same or
almost same electronegativities.

➤Ex: F2, Cl2, Br2, H - Cl etc.

➤Covalent bond is generally formed between the two non-metal atoms of same or
different kinds of elements.

➤Compounds which have covalent bond are called covalent compounds. PC/5, SF,
etc.
Ex: H₂, O2, N2, Cl₂, P₁, S₃, CO2, NH3, CH₁, HCI, C₂H₃, Valency is the combining
capacity of an element.

➤"Number of valence electrons present in a metal atom is its valency".

➤Generally metals have 1 or 2 or 3 valence electrons. So their valencies are 1 or 2

or 3 respectively.

➤Valency of non-metals = (8 - number of valence electrons)

➤Generally non-metals possess 4 or 5 or 6 or 7 valence electrons.

Thus their valencies are 8-4, 8-5, 8-6, 8-7 i.e., 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.

➤Bond Parameters:
Bond length is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nucleii of two
bonded atoms in a molecule. It is expressed in Aº units (or) pico metre.
Ex: 1Aº 10º pico metre.
1A=100m = 0.1nm = 100 pm, 1 nm = 10m

➤Bond lengths are measured by spectroscopic, x-ray diffraction and electron -

diffraction techniques.

➤Bond energy is required to break a particular bond in a poly atomic molecule in

the gaseous state.
A-B(g) A(g) + B(g)
(molecule)
(free radicales)

➤Bond energy is the average bond dissociation energy of all bonds present in a
poly atomic molecule.

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➤This Bond dissociation energy or bond energy is expressed in K.J/mole.

➤Bond angle is defined as the angle between the orbitals containing bonding
electron pairs around the central atom in a molecule or complex ion.

➤Bond angle is expressed in degree. It gives some idea regarding the distribution
of orbitals around the central atom in a molecule and hence it helps us in
determining its shape.
Ex: H-O-H bond angle in water is 104° 31'

➤Valence bond theory:

➤Valence bond theory was first presented by Heitler and London in 1927 to explain
how a covalent bond is formed. This theory was extended by Pauling and Slater in
1931 to explain the shapes of molecules and the direction of the bonds in the
molecules,

➤VBT is proposed by Linus pauling is 1954

➤Hybridisation:
Hybridisation can be defined as the process of intermixing of the atomic orbitals of
slightly different energies so as to redistribute their energies, resulting in the
formation of new set of orbitals of equivalent energies and shape.

➤Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory:

➤Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory was proposed by Sidgwick
and Powell in 1940. It was further developed by Nyholm and Gillespie (1957).

➤The shape of the molecule is determined by the arrangement and the repulsions
between all of the electron pairs present in the valence shell of central atom.

➤The electron pairs on the central atom are considered as point charges.

➤A Due to repulsions among the point charges, they are arranged in space around
the central atom such that the repulsions are minimum.

➤ The order of repulsions among various electron pairs is lone pair - lone pair >
lone pair - bond pair > bond pair - bond pair

➤Presence of lone pairs at the central atom causes distortion to the regular shapes
and deviation in bond angles.

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QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’S:
1) Explain how a covalent bond is formed ?
A) i) A chemical bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair is called covalent
bond.

ii) When two atoms approach each other, the valence orbitals of the two atoms
overlap each other.
iii) The extent of overlap decides the strength of the chemical bond.
2) Why Noble gases are chemically inert?

A) They have 8 electrons in their outer most orbit and these electrons are close to
the nucleus and strongly attracted by the nucleus so don't participate in chemical
bonding.
3) Give three examples of molecules having a double bond.
A) Molecules having double bond are i) oxygen (O₂) ii) ethylene(C₂H₂) iii) carbon
dioxide (CO₂).
4) Give two examples of molecules having a triple bond.
A) Molecules having triple bond are i) acetylene (C₂H₂) ii) nitrogen (N₂) iii) calcium
carbide (CaC2) iv) hydrogen cyanide (HCN).

5) Write two example for electron defficient molecules?

A) BeCl2, BF3.
6) How is a (sigma) bond formed?
A) By the axial or head on overlap of pure orbitals or hybrid orbitals of two atoms
7) How is a (pie) bond formed
A) By the lateral or parallel overlap of only pure atomic orbitals after the sigma
bond formation.
8) HCl dissolves in water, but not in kerosene why?
A) HCl is a polar compound similarly water is also a polar solvent kerosene is a non-
polar solvent.
9) Explain how a covalent bond is formed?
A) i) A chemical bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair is called covalent
bond.

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ii) When two atoms approach each other, the valence orbitals of the two atoms
overlap each other.
iii) The extent of overlap decides the strength of the chemical bond.

SAQ’S:
1) Explain the Formation of O, molecule based on Lewis theory
A) Atomic number of O is 8 its electronic configuration is 1s² 2s² 2pX22P y12P 1z .
1) The electronic configuration of O is 2, 6. Oxygen atom has six electrons in its
valence shell.
2) It requires two more electrons to get octet in its valence shell.
3) Therefore oxygen atoms come close and each oxygen atom contributes two
electrons for bonding.

4) Thus, there exist two covalent bonds between two oxygen atoms in O, molecule
as there are two pairs of electrons shared between them.

5) We can say that a double bond is formed between two oxygen atoms in O,
molecule.
6) Observe the following figures;
7) Both the oxygen atoms have octet in the valence shell.

2) Explain the formation of Nitrogen (N₂) molecule based on Lewis theory.

A) Atomic number of N is 7 its electronic configuration is 1s² 2s² 2px1 2py1 2pz1

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1) The electronic configuration of 'N' atom is 2, 5 and to have octet in the valence
shell it requires three more electrons.
2) When two nitrogen atoms aproach each other, each atom contributes 3 electrons
for bonding.

3) There are six electrons shared between two nitrogen atoms in the form of three
pairs.

4) Therefore, there is a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms in N, molecule.

3) Explain the formation of Methane (CH4) molecule based on Lewis theory.

A) Atomic number of C is 6 its ground state electronic configuration is 1s2 2s1 2p2x
2p1y (excited state)electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2px1 2p1y 2p1z
Atomic number of H is 1 its electronic configuration is 1s¹.
1) In the formation of methane, CH molecule, carbon contributes 4 electrons, (one
electron to each hydrogen atom) and 4 hydrogen atoms contribute one electron
each.
2) Thus in CH4 molecule, there are four C - H covalent bonds as shown below.

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4) Explain the formation of Ammonia (NH) molecule based on Lewis theory.

Represent or comment on the formation of ammonia molecule.

A) Atomic number of N is 7 its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z
Atomic number of H is 1 its electronic configuration is 1s¹.
1) In ammonia molecule, three N-H single covalent bonds are present.
2) Electronic configuration of N is 2, 5 and His 1.
3) Nitrogen atom contributes three electrons for bonding.
4) Three hydrogen atoms at the same time contribute one electron each for
bonding.
5) Six electrons form three pairs and each pair is shared between nitrogen and one
hydrogen atom as shown below.

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5) Explain the formation of Water (H₂O) molecule based on Lewis theory.

A) Atomic number of O is 8 its electronic configuration is 1s² 2s² 2p2x 2p1y 2p1 z
Atomic number of H is 1 its electronic configuration is 1s¹.
1) In water molecule (H₂O), there are two O - H single covalent bonds.
2) Electron configuration of O is 2,6 and H is 1.
3) Oxygen atom needs '2' electrons to attain octet in its valence shell.
4) Therefore it shares '2' electrons with two hydrogen atoms to form water (H₂O)
molecule.

6) Write the difference between ionic and covalent bonds. (or) represent the
similarities between ionic and covalent.
A)
IONIC BOND COVALENT BOND
1) It is formed by transfer of 1) It is formed by the sharing of
electrons from one atom to the electron pairs by two atoms.
other
2) Vander waals forces are present
2) Electrostatic forces are present

3) Covalent substances are formed

3) Ionic substances are formed by by covalent bonds.
ionic bonds
4) It is Directional in nature
4) It is Non- directional in nature

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7) Distinguish between sigma bond and pi bond.

A)
Sigma bond Pi bond

1) Orbitals overlap on end-on-end 1) Orbitals overlap laterally.

manner.
2) Minimum overlap of orbitals
2) Maximum overlap of orbitals takes place.
takes place.
3) It is a weak bond.
3) It is a strong bond.
4) If cannot exist independently.
4) It can exist independently.
5) It is formed by,
5) It is formed by
Py – Py overlap (side wise)
s - s overlap,
Px-Px overlap (side wise)
s - p overlap, p-p overlap (end-on-
end) Pz-Pz overlap (side wise)

8) Define polar molecule

A) A molecule of this type which is neutral but possesses partial charges on the
atoms within the molecule is called polar molcecule and the bond is called a polar
covalent bond or partial ionic and partial covalent bond.
Atomic number of H is 1 its electronic configuration is 1s¹.
Cl atomic number is 17 its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s²3p2x 3p1y 3p1z
Polar molecule is formed by unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms
H+Cl H Cl.

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9. ELECTRIC CURRENT

IMPORTANT POINTS
1) Electric current: It is defined as the amount of charge crossing any cross section of the conductor in
one second. Let Q be the charge crossing through any cross section of the conductor in a time interval t.
Then the
amount of charge crossing through that cross section in one second is Q/t. Therefore, I = Q/t
The SI unit of electric current is ampere denoted by A.

1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/1 Second =1A=1C/s

Usually an ammeter is used to measure electric current. It is always connected in series to the circuit.
2) Electromotive force (emf): The work done by the chemical force to move unit positive charge from
negative terminal to positive terminal of the battery is defined as electromotive force.
Potential difference:
Work done by the electric force on unit positive charge to move it through a distance from one
point to another point along the conductor is called potential difference between two points
It is denoted by a symbol V. The potential difference between two points separated by a distance
l in a conducting wire is given by, V = W/q = (Fe*l)/q
This potential difference is also called voltage. The SI unit of potential difference is "Volt" and it is
denoted by V.
1 Volt = 1 Joule/1 Coulomb = 1V = 1J/C
A voltmeter is used to measure potential difference or emf across an electric device like

battery. It must be connected in parallel to the electric device to measure the potential difference
across the ends of the electric device.
3) Ohm's law:
The potential difference between the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the electric current
passing through it at constant temperature.

Let V be the potential difference between the ends of the conductor and I be the current passing
through it. V α I (temperature is constant)

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V/I = Constant
This constant is called resistance of the conductor. It is denoted by 'R', Then we get V/I R

V=IR The SI unit of resistance is ohm.

The symbol of ohm is Ω: 1 Ohm = 1 Volt/1 Ampere; 1Ω = 1V/A

Limitations of Ohm's Law: Ohm's law is valid for metal conductors provided the temperature
other physical conditions remain constant. The resistance of the material changes with temperate
Hence for changing temperature the V-I graph for a conductor will be non-linear. Ohm's law is
applicable to gaseous conductors. It is also not applicable to semiconductors such as germanium and
silicon.
Resistance: The resistance of a conductor is defined as the obstruction to the motion of the electrons

in a conductor. The material which offers resistance to the motion of electrons is called resistor

Factors affecting the resistance of a material

Temperature: As temperature increases then resistance of the conductors also increases,

Nature of material: The resistance of a conductor depends on the material of the conductor
Because different materials contain different number of available free electrons
Length of the conductor: The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to its length
(l) for a constant potential difference, i.e R α l (at constant temperature and cross-sectional area)
Cross-section area: The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross section
area. i.e R α 1/A (at constant temperature and length of the conductor)
We can claim that R α l/ A (at constant temperature)
R = ρI/A

Where, ρ is a proportionality constant and it is called specific resistance or resistivity.

Specific resistance: Specific resistance depends on the temperature and nature of the material where as
the resistance of the conductor depends on nature of material, temperature and geometrical factors like
length and cross section area of the conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is Ω - m.
The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (𝜎). The values of resistivity of material determine
their conductivity.

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The resistivity of materials such as silicon and germanium are 105 to 1010 times more than that of

metals, but 1015 to 1016 times less than that of insulators. Such materials are called semiconductors,

A multi - meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measuring functions in one
Unit To measure the current multi - meter is to connect in series to circuit
To measure potential difference across the element in the circuit multi-meter is connected in parallel
across that element
While measuring resistance in the circuit, switch off the source and measure
Electric shock: An electric shock can be experienced when there is a potential difference exists
between one part of the body and another part. The electric shock is a combined effect of potential
difference, electric current and resistance of the human body.
Series connection of resistors
When three resistors are connected in series we can observe that
The sum of the potential differences of the bulbs is equal to potential difference across the
combination of the resistors. Then we get.

V = V1 +V2 +V3
In series connection of resistors there is only one path for the flow of current in the circuit.
Hence, the current in the circuit is equal to I.

The sum of individual resistances is equal to their equivalent resistance when the resistors are
connected in series.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Total resistance of series combination is always greater than any of the individual resistances
When one of the resistors in series breaks down, the circuit becomes open and flow of current
cannot take place in the circuit. This is the reason why household electrical appliances are not
connected in series.
Parallel Connection of resistors: When three resistors are connected in parallel we can observe that
The current drawn from the battery is equal to the sum of individual currents drawn by the
bulbs. Hence we can write I = I1 + I2 + I3
In parallel connection of resistors there are many paths for the flow of current in the circuit.
Hence, the potential difference across each resistors is equal to V.

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We get: The equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is less than the resistance of each of the
resistors.

Kirchoff's laws: Two simple rules called Kirchhoff's rules are applicable to any DC circuit containing
batteries and resistors connected in any way.
The junction law: At any junction point in a circuit where the current can divide, the sum of

the currents into the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction. This law

is based on the conservation of charge.

The loop law: The algebraic sum of the increases and decreases in potential difference across
various components of a closed-circuit loop must be zero. This law is based on the conservation
of energy.
Convention:
EMF of the battery is taken as negative when we move from positive terminal to negative
terminal across the battery.
EMF of the battery is taken as positive when we move from negative terminal to positive
terminal across the battery.
The potential difference across the resistor is taken as negative when we move along the direction
of electric current through it.
The potential difference across the resistor is taken as positive when we move against the
direction of electric current through it.
Electric energy - work done in an electric circuit:
When we consider a conductor of resistance 'R' through which an electric current 'I' passes, then
energy is generated.

Let V be the potential difference between the points A and B, then a charge of Q coulomb
passes through a point A, moves to point B in the time interval 't' seconds so the work done by
electric field in time 't' is given by W = QV

According to the Ohm's law. V = IR therefore we can have W = 𝐼2Rt or 𝑣2t/ R or VIt
Electric Power:

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Power is nothing but the rate of doing work. Hence, W/t represents electric power (P).
Electric power P = VI = 𝐼2𝑅 = 𝑣2𝑅

Electric power is the product of potential difference and the current. SI unit of power is watt (W).
Electrical energy is the product of power and time. Units of electrical energy watt - second
The unit of electric power consumption is equal to 1 kWh (one Kilo Watt Hour).

1kWh=36×105J=3.6×106J

Household consumption of electric energy:

The minimum and maximum limit of current that can be drawn from the mains is 5-20A when
the current drawn from the mains is more than 20A, overheating occurs and may cause a fire.
This is called over loading
To prevent damages due to overloading we connect an electric fuse to the household circuit.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

VSAQ’s:
1) Define the unit of current?
A. The SI unit of current is ampere (A).

Ampere (A): The current flowing through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere if 1 coulomb of charge
flows through it in 1 second. 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
2) What is meant by potential difference?
A. Electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some current as the
work done to move a unit charge from one point to other.

Potential difference (V) = work done (W)/charge moved (q)

V = W/q
3) List out the material required to verify Ohm's Law:
A. Materials required: i) 5 dry cells of 1.5V each ii) conducting wires iii) an ammeter iv) a volt
Meter v) thin iron/manganin spoke of length 10cm vi) LED vii) Key.
4) What is electric current ? Write formula and SI. unit for it ?
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.
I=q/t Its SI unit is ampere.

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5) What is the SI unit of electric potential ?

A. The SI unit of electric potential is volt. 1 volt = 1 J/s
6) What happens to our body if we touch live wire of 240V?
A. The current passing through our body when we touch a live wire of 240V is given by
I=240/100000 = 0.0024A. When this quantity of current flows through the body the functioning of
various organs inside the body gets disturbed. This disturbance inside the body is felt as electric
shock.
7) Do all materials obey Ohm's law? Can we classify the materials based on Ohm's law?
A. All materials do not obey Ohm's law. Based on Ohm's law materials are classified into two categories.
Ohmic materials: The materials which obey Ohm's law are called ohmic materials.

Example: metals are ohmic materials.

Non ohmic materials: The materials which do not obey Ohm's law are called non ohmic materials.
Example: LEDs, Semi conductors like silicon and germanium are non ohmic materials.
8) Bird can stand harmlessly on one wire of high potential, but it had better not reach over and
grab a neighbouring wire ! Why not?
A. If the bird ride over and grab a neighbouring wire then there will be a potential difference between
two wires. Then current can pass through the body of bird. So, when the bird stands on one wire of
high potential, it can stand harmlessly.
9) What causes electric shock - current or voltage?
A. Electric shock occurs when current is produced in the body, which is caused by an impressed volt-
age. So the initial cause is the voltage, but it is the current that does the damage.
10) What happened to the resistance as the conductor is made thinner?
A. If the conductor is made thinner then its radius and area of cross - section decreases then according to
resistivity and ohm's law the resistance of conductor increases. Then the conductor becomes insula-

tor by high resistance.

11) Define the term 'resistivity' of a material.
A. Resistivity is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1 m when the current
flows perpendicular to its opposite faces.

12) Name a metal which offers higher resistance to the passage of electricity than copper.

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A. Iron, it offers higher resistance than copper.

13) If a wire of resistivity (p) is stretched to thrice its initial length, what will be its new resistivity?

A. Resistivity (p) remains unchanged, because it depends on the nature of the material and not on the
dimensions of the wire.

14) What happens when one of the resistors in series breaks down?
A. When one of the resistors in series breaks down, the circuit becomes open and flow of current cannot
take place in the circuit. This is the reason why household electrical appliances are not connected in
series.
15) How should we connect the fuse in house wiring circuit? In series or in parallel? Why?

A. We connect the fuse in house in series. Thus if high current flows the fuse element melts and opens
the circuit to prevent damage to various electrical appliances.
16) A heater joined in parallel with a 60 W bulb is connected to the mains. If the 60 W bulb is
replaced by 100 W bulb, will the rate of heat produced by the heater be more or less or re-
mains the same.

A. As 100 W bulb has lesser resistance than 60 W bulb, more current will flow through 100 W bulb
connected in parallel with the heater and so heat produced by the heater will be less.
17) What happens if we use a fuse made up of same wire which is used to make the electric
circuit?
A. If we use a fuse made up of same wire as the wire used in connecting circuit then it cannot prevent
the
short circuit or overloading of circuit. It allows the current to continue the heating process and leads
to fire accidents.

18) What happens, if the household electric appliances are connected in series?
A. If the household electric appliances are connected in series, then the resistance in the circuit increase
enormously and current value decreases to minimum. Then each electric appliance will get very low
power and cannot function properly.

19) What is value of 1 kWh in joules?

A. kWh is a unit of Electric energy the value of 1 kWh in joule is 1 kWh =36×105J

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20) Silver is better conductor of electricity than copper why do we use copper wire for conduction
of electricity.
A. Silver is best conductor of electricity among all metals as it has more numbers of free electrons in the
outermost shell. The reason copper is used widely is its cheaper cost and availability.
However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites etc.
21) Explain overloading of household circuit.
A. The minimum and maximum limit of current that can be drawn from the mains is 5-20A. When the

current drawn from the mains is more than 20A overheating occurs and may cause a fire. This is

called over loading

22) Why do we use fuses in household circuits?
A. To prevent damages due to overloading we connect an electric fuse to the household circuit.
23) Why don't we use series arrangement of electrical appliances like bulb, Television, fan an
other domestic circuits?
A. If bulb, television, fan and other domestic circuits are connected in series then if any one resistance
a set of resistors breaks down, the circuit becomes open and the flow of current ceases. To avoid the
problem the household electrical circuits are not connected in series.
24) Why do we consider tungsten as a suitable material for making the filament of a bulb?
A. In bulbs filament must be heated to extreme temperatures before it will emit visible light. Most metal
will melt before reaching such extreme temperatures. Light bulbs filaments are manufactured win
tungsten because it has abnormally "Melting Temperature".
25) Are the head lights of a car connected in series or parallel? Why?
A. Car head lights are connected in ' parallel'. If one head lamp goes out the other still works. In parallel
wiring both head lamps get the power like two dogs pulling on separate leashes. That way, if ore

head lamps goes out the other still works.

26) Why should we connect the electric appliances in parallel to house hold circuit? What happens if
they are connected in series?

A. If resistors are connected in series with others is removed (or) fails, the current through each resistors
becomes zero. On the contrary, if a resistor are connected in parallel with others fails (or) is removed
the current continues to flow through the other resistors.

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27) Where I.C's are used?

A. IC's (Integrated circuits) are used in all sorts of electronic devices including computers TV, mobile
phones etc.,

SAQ’s:
1) What are the factors on which resistance of a conductor depends upon?
A. Resistance of a conductor depends upon
1. length of the conductor
2. Area of cross section of the conductor
3. Nature of the material and
4. temperature.
2) What do you mean by electric shock? Explain how it takes place.
A. When the quantity of current (0.0024 A) flows through the body at a potential difference of
240V the functioning of organs inside the body gets disturbed. This disturbance inside the body is felt
as electric shock. An electric shock can be experienced when there is a potential difference exists
between one
art of the body and another part. The electric shock is a combined effect of potential difference,
electric current and resistance of the human body.

3) Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather than a pure metal.
A. The coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather than a pure metal because.
i) Resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.
ii) alloys have a high melting point.
iii) They do not oxidize (burn) readily at high temperatures.
iv) Alloys also have the advantage that their resistance varies very little with temperature

4) What do you mean by short circuit? Why does a short circuit damage electric wiring and devices
connected to it?

A. Joining any two points at different potentials across an electric circuit directly using a conducting wire
is called short circuit. As a result of short circuit, the two points will gain same potential in a fraction of
time by flowing high current between them. As a result of short circuit between any two points in an
electric circuit the resistance across them becomes zero or decreases to minimum. Therefore we observe
large amount of current flowing between the two points allowing the release of large amount of heat
which damage electric wiring and devices connected to it. Short circuit may take place due to ageing of
insulation material around the conductors or overloading.

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5) Write the limitations of ohm's law?

A. i) Ohm's law is valid for metallic conductors provided the temperature and other physical conditions
remain constant.
ii) The resistance of the material changes with temperature.

iii) Ohm's law is not applicable to gaseous conductors and semiconductors.

6) Explain about effect of electric currents on the body?
A. The damaging effects that result due to passing of current through the body is called electric shock
The resistance of one's body, which depends on its conditions, range from about 100 ohm. (If it is
soaked with salt water) to about 100,000 ohm (if skin is dry). From ohm's law current depends upon
voltage that is applied and on resistance of human body.
Effect of electric current on the body.
Table
At 240V potential difference
Current in ampere Effect
0.001 Can be felt
0.005 Is painful
0.010 Causes involuntary muscle contraction
(spasms)
0.015 Causes loss of muscle control
0.070 If through the heart, causes serious
disruption; probably fatal if current lasts for
more than 1s

7) What precautions should be taken to avoid the overloading of domestic electric circuits?
A. The precautions that should be taken to avoid the overloading of domestic circuits are as follows:
i) Too many appliances should not be connected to a single socket.

ii) Too many appliances should not be used at the same time
iii) Fuse should be connected in the circuit.
iv) Faulty appliances should not be connected in the circuit.
8) What do you mean by electric shock? Explain how it takes place.
A. Electric shock:
The electric shock is a combined effect of potential difference, electric current and resistance of the
human body.

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1) An electric shock can be experienced when there is a potential difference exists between one part of
the body and another part.
2) When current flows through human body, it chooses the path which offers low resistance.
3) The resistance of a body is not uniform throughout it.
4) As long as current flow continues inside the body the current and resistance of human body goes on
changing inversely. 5) This is called the electric shock.
9) Why does a bulb glow immediately when we switch on?
A. When we switch on any electric circuit, irrespective of length of the connecting wire (conductor) an
electric field is set up throughout the conductor instantaneously due to the potential difference of the
source (battery) connected to the circuit. This electric field makes all the electrons to move in a specified
direction simultaneously.
10) Why do electrons move in specified direction in conductor when it is connected with a battery?
A. i) When the conductor is not connected to the circuit through a battery, the electrons inside the
conductor are in random motion.
ii) When the ends of the conductor are connected to the terminals of a battery a uniform electric field is
set up throughout the conductor. This field makes the electrons move in a specified direction
11) What happens to the motion of electrons when the ends of the conductor are connected to the
battery?
A. When the ends of the conductor are connected to the battery through a bulb, energy transfer takes
place from battery to the bulb. The electrons are responsible for this transfer of energy, due to their
ordered motion. Therefore there will be a net charge crossing through any cross section of the
conductor, as shown thus we can say that electric current is ordered motion of charges.

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12) Write the difference between potential difference and emf.

A.

Potential difference emf (Electromotive force)

Work done by the electric force on unit The work done by the chemical force to
positive charge to move it through a move unit positive charge from negative
distance from one point to another point terminal to positive terminal of the battery is
is called potential difference between two defined as electro motive force.
points.
It is denoted by a symbol V given by, It is denoted by a symbol E given by,
V= W/q = Fe l/q E=W/q=Fed/q
This potential difference is also called Electro motive force produced by a cell is
voltage. equal to the potential difference produced
across its terminals when it is in open circuit.
The SI unit of potential difference is The SI unit of emf is
1 volt = 1 Joule/1 Coulomb 1V=1J/C 1 volt = 1 Joule/1 Coulomb 1V=1J/C
It is equal to the emf of cell when It is equal to the terminal voltage when cell
cell is not in use, while less than the is not in use, while greater than the terminal
emf when cell is in use. voltage when cell is in use.

13) Explain Kirchhoff's laws with examples.

A. i) The junction law:
The Algebraic sum of currents at any junction in a circuit is zero
i.e ΣI =0
In the figure, the currents which flow towards a point is taken as positive (I1,I4, & I6) while those that
flow away from the point is taken as negative [I2, I3 and I5]. Therefore I1 - I2 - I3 + I4 - I5 + I6 = 0

ii) The loop law:

In any closed circuit, the Algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistances of each part of the
circuit is equal to the total Pd in the circuit
i.e. 𝛴𝐼 × 𝑅 = 𝛴𝑉

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To positive electrode of the battery. Let us apply kirchhoff's second law to the above figure.
For the ACDBA, I1 R1 - I2 R2 = V1 - V2
For the loop EFDCE, I2 R2 + (I1 + I2) R3 = V2
For the loop EFBAE, I1 R1 + (I1 + I2) R3 = V1

LAQ’s:
1) List out the material required in the experiment to verify the resistance of a conductor depends on
its area of cross section and write the experimental procedure.
A. Aim: To prove that resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-section area of the conductor.
Materials required: 1) A Battery 2) Wires 3) Ammeter 4) Key 5) Iron rods with different cross-section
areas (lengths are same).

Procedure:
1) Make the circuit as given figure.
2) Connect an iron rod (spoke) to the circuit between the two ends (P and Q) of the wire.
3) Switch on the circuit. Note the ammeter reading in your notebook.
4) Continue the experiment with different rods of same length but different cross- section areas. Note
the ammeter readings in your notebook.
Observation: As the cross-section area of the rods increases, the current increases.
Result (Conclusion): Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-section area of the conductor.
i.e., R α 1/A

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2) List out the materials required to experiment to show that, the resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to its length for a constant potential difference, and write the experimental procedure.
A. Aim: To prove that the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length(l) for a constant
potential difference.
Materials required: 1) Iron spokes of different lengths with the same cross-sectional areas. 2) Battery 3)
Ammeter 4) Key
5) Wires etc.
Procedure:

1) Make the circuit as shown in figure.

2) Connect one iron spoke and close the circuit. Note the ammeter reading in your notebook.
3) Continue the experiment with different iron spokes and note all readings in your notebook.
Observation: We observe that, as the length of the rod increases the current decreases.
Result (Conclusion): As the length of the rod increases, the resistance increases,
i.e., Rαl.

3) Mention the required materials in the experiment to verify Ohm's law and write the experimental
procedure.
A. Aim: To show that the ratio V/t is a constant for a conductor.
Materials required: 5 dry cells of 1.5V each, conducting wires, an ammeter, a volt meter, thin iron spoke
of length 10cm,etc .
Procedure:
i) Connect a circuit as shown in the figure.
ii) Solder the conducting wires to the ends of the iron spoke.
iii) Close the key. Note the readings of current (I) from ammeter and potential difference (V) from volt
meter in table.

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iv) Now connect two cells in series instead of one cell in the circuit.
v) Note the respective readings of the ammeter and volt meter and record the values in table.
vi) Repeat the same for three cells, four cells and five cells respectively.

vii) Record the values of potential difference (V) and current (I) corresponding to each case in the table.

SI. No Potential Current(I) V/I

Difference (V)
1
2
3
4
5

viii) Find V/I for each set of values. Draw a graph between V and I taking the current (I) along Y - axis and
potential difference (V) along X-axis with appropriate scale.
Observations: i) We observe that the ratio V/I is a constant.
ii) We will get a straight line graph passing through the origin.
Result: i) VαI
ii) The potential difference between the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the electric
current passing through it at a constant temperature.

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10. ELECTROMAGNETISM
IMPORTANT POINTS
➤When we bring a compass closer to the current carrying conductor we notice that the needle
getting deflected when we switch on the circuit. From this activity we can discover that a current
carrying conductor produce magnetic field. This phenomenon is called electromagnetism.

➤Magnetic field : The region around the magnet upto which we can feel its influence is called
magnetic field.
i) Magnetic field is three dimensional i.e., magnetic field surrounds its source such as bar magnet

ii) The magnetic field that surrounded the source by which it has been produced at any point
characterised by the strength and direction.

➤The properties of magnetic lines of force are

i) They do not intersect with each other.

ii) These are closed curves. The relative strength of the magnetic field is shown by the degree of
closeness of the field lines.

➤Magnetic flux density : is defined as the magnetic flux passing through unit area taken
perpendicular to the field. B is also known as magnetic field induction.

Magnetic flux density = magnetic flux/ area.

Β = Φ/Α.
Unit of flux density is weber/m2 (or) Tesla.

➤Magnetic flux : The number of field lines passing through the plane of area perpendicular to the
field is magnetic flux It is denoted by 'ø'
The S.I. unit of magnetic flux is weber.
The magnetic flux passing through the plane, is given by

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Φ = BA cos0.

The magnetic flux through a closed lamina is zero.

➤Current carrying wire produces magnetic field :

➤ The magnetic field lines due to straight wire carrying the current can be verified by sprinkling
iron filings around the wire when current flows in the wire we conclude that magnetic field lines
are closed lines.

➤Right hand rule :

We determine the direction of field lines easily with right hand
thumb rule.
If we grab the current carrying wire with our right hand in such
a way that thumb is in the direction of current, then the curled
fingers show the direction of the magnetic field produced around
it.

➤Circular coil : We can determine the direction of magnetic field due to a circular coil depending
on
the orientation of compass needle by keeping at the center of the coil or by applying right hand
rule.

➤Solenoid : A solenoid is a long wire wound in a close packed helix. This long coil is called
solenoid.
The direction of the field due to solenoid is determined by using right hand rule.
One side of the solenoid behaves like a north pole and other behaves like a south pole.
here O Indicates the direction of B and it is out of the page & direction of B and it is into the page

➤The magnetic field exerts a force on the moving charges. This is called magnetic force.
Let a charge 'q' moves with a velocity 'v' perpendicular to the magnetic field 'B'. The value of

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magnetic force on the moving charge can be found experimentally and it is given by F = q v B.
This formula holds well only when the direction of velocity of charged particle 'v' is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field 'B',

We generalize the equation for magnetic force on charge when there is an angle ' e ' between
the directions of field B and velocity v. Then the magnetic force experienced by the charge is
given by F = q v B sin0.

➤Right hand rule :

The direction of magnetic force acting on a moving charge can be easily determined by keeping
the right hand fingers along the direction of velocity of moving charge and next curl the fingers
towards the direction of magnetic field then the thumb gives the direction of magnetic force as
shown. This rule is applied for any case of angle between directions of velocity and field.
The direction of magnetie force is always perpendicular to the direction of both velocity an
magnetic field. The charge experiences no force when it is moving parallel to magnetic field.
A charged partiele is moving with a speed 'v' perpendicular to the magnetic field of induction s

➤The magnetic force on a current carrying wire which is placed in a magnetic field :
We can determine the magnetic force on a current carrying wire which is placed in a magnetic field
using the formula F = ILB.
This equation holds good when the direction of electric current is perpendicular to magnetic field
The force on the wire if its length makes an angle ' e' with the magnetic field, then the force acting
on the current carrying wire is given by F = ILB sin0 (at any angle)
We can use right hand rule to find out the direction of force on the current carrying wire.

When a copper wire carrying current is placed in between the poles of horse shoe magnet it will
under go deflection due to the non uniform magnetic field produced around it by the over laying
of its
own magnetic field due to carrying current and magnetic field of horse shoe magnet.

➤Electric Motor :
.The behavior of a current carrying coil kept in a uniform magnetic field will help us to understand
the working of an electric motor.
When a rectangular coil carrying current is kept in a uniform magnetic field. We will notice that
it experiences magnetic force on two sides and start rotating about an axis. The direction of
rotation of the coil is given by the right hand rule.

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In electric motors, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.

➤When there is relative motion between the magnet and coil then we observe there sets up a
current in the coil. It makes no difference whether the magnet is moved towards the coil or the
coil towards the magnet.

➤"Whenever there is a continuous change of magnetic flux linked with a closed coil, a current is
generated in the coil" The current generated is called induced current and is set up by an induced
electromotive force (induced EMF). This phenomenon of getting induced current is called
electromagnetic induction.

➤Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction :

The induced EMF generated in a closed loop is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux passing
through it. We can write this ia Induced EMF = change in flux/time

The equation is called Faraday's law of induction where & (phi) is the flux linked with coil. Let Φ0
be the flux linked with single turn. If there are N turns in the coil, the flux linked with the coil is
NΦ0.
Φ=NΦ0.
So far we have not specified the direction of the induced EMP or induced current.

➤Lenz's law

➤Statement:
The induced current will in the coil.
We get Faraday's law of induction from conservation of energy. When the conductor of length
moves perpendicular to field B with a speed v the potential difference (voltage) developed
between the ends of conductor is B/v. This EMF is called motional EMF,

➤Applications of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

i) During security check, people are made to walk through a large upright coil of wire which
produces a weak AC (alternating) magnetic field. If we are carrying any significant quantities of
iron, the magnetic flux linked with the large coil changes and the induced current generated in coil
triggers an alarm.
ii) The tape recorder which we use to listen to songs (or) record voices works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, It consists of a piece of plastic tape coated with iron oxide and is
magnetised more in some parts than in others. When the tape is moved past as a small by the
tape changes, which leads to generation of current in the small coil of wire. How could we use the
principle of electromagnetic induction in the case of using ATM card when its magnetic strip is
swiped through a scanner.
iii) An induction stove works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A metal coil is kept just
beneath the cooling surface. It carries alternating current (AC) so that AC produces an alternating

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magnetic field. When we keep a metal pan with water on it, the varying magnetic field beneath it
crosses the bottom surface of the pan and an EMF is induced in it. Because the pan is a metal then
induced EMF generates an induced current in it. Since the pan has a finite resistance, the flow of
induced current in it produces heat in it and this heat is conducted to the water. That's why we call
this stove as induction stove.

➤In generators, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

➤AC generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electric energy it works on the
basis of the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

➤The current which changes its direction alternatively for each half cycle is called alternative
current.

➤The direction of charge flow reverses periodically.

➤If two half slip rings are connected to ends of the coil as shown in figure, the AC generator works
as DC generator to produce DC current.
QUESTION AND ANSWERS
VSAQ’S:
1) How do electric appliances work?
A) i) Electrical appliances work by converting electrical energy into mechanical energy or light
energy, or, heat energy, etc. eg: Motor, fan, bulb, stoves.
ii) And some electrical appliances work by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. eg:
Generators, etc.
2) How do electromagnets work?
A) If we pass electricity through a wire which is wounded around a soft iron, soft iron becomes
magnet. If we put off electricity, soft iron loses its magnetism. In this way electromagnets work in
devices.
3) What happens when a current carrying wire is kept in a magnetic field?

A) A force will be applied on the current carrying wire and the direction of force is given by right
hand rule.
4) What happens when a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field?
A) Magnetic field applies force on current carrying wire. It is called magnetic force.

(OR)

Current carrying wire deflects due to the force applied by the magnetic field when the wire is
perpendicular to the field, (or) there will be no force acting on the wire when wire is in the
direction of the field.

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5) Which energy we get from an electric motor ? Write two daily life applications of the electric
motor.
A) We get mechanical energy from electric motor.
In our daily life we use motor in
(i) Mixies
(ii) Grinders
(iii) Water Pumps
(iv) Fans / Coolers, etc.
6) List out the material required for Oersted experiment and mention the precautions to be
taken in the experiment.
A) Materials required for Oersted experiment are :
1) Thermocol sheet.
2) Wooden sticks.
3) Copper wire of 24 gauge.
4) Battery.
5) Key. 6) Magnetic compass.
Precautions to be taken are:
1) Copper Wire is made through the slits of the wooden sticks tightly.
2) Arrange/complete the circuit correctly.
7) What happens when magnetic flux passing through a coil changes continuously? Where does
this process is used?

A) 1) When there is a continuous change of magnetic flux passing through a coil a current is
generated in the coil.

2) This process is used in

i) Induction stoves.

ii) Security checking entrance / exit doors.

iii) ATM cards scanners.
8) What is the principle of electric motor ?
A) Electric motor is a device working on the principle of force acting on the current carrying coil
when kept in a magnetic field.
The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

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9) Write the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

A) Whenever there is a continuous change of magnetic flux linked with a closed coil, a current is
generated in the coil.
10) Write Lenz's law (or) State Lenz's principle.
A) Lenz's law states that "the induced current will appear in such a direction that it op-poses the
changes in the flux in the coil".
11) What is the principle of generator ?

A) Generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy.
12) What is the difference between AC generator and DC generator ?
A) 1) In an AC generator, the ends of coil are connected to two slip rings.
2) In a DC generator the ends of coil are connected to two half slip rings.
13) What are the characteristics of AC current ?
A) 1) AC current changes the direction of charge flow periodically.
2) AC possesses certain frequency.
14) Why does the picture appear distorted when the bar magnet is brought close to the screen
of a television?
A) Picture on a television screen is due to motion of the electrons reaching the screen. These
electrons are affected by magnetic field of bar magnet.
15) What is meant by electromagnetic induction ?
A) Whenever there is continuous change of magnetic flux linked with a closed coil, current is
generated in the coil is called electromagnetic induction.
16) State the right hand thumb rule. How the rule helps us ?
A) When you curl your right hand fingers in the direction of current thumb gives the direction of
magnetic field. It is useful to find the magnetic field direction as well as current direction.
17) Name some devices in which electric motors are used ?
A) Some devices in which electric motors are used are as follows:
water pumps, Electric fans, Electric mixers, Refrigerators, Washing machines.
18) State the principle of an electric generator.
A) An electric generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It generates
electricity by rotating a coil in a magnetic field.

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19) What is electromagnetic induction?

A) Whenever the magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes, an induced current and e.m.f.
is set up in this conductor. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
SAQ’S:
1) Give a few applications of Faraday's law of induction in daily life.
(OR)

Write any four applications of Faraday's law of induction in daily life.

A) The daily life applications of Faraday's law of induction are
1) Generation of electricity
2) Transmission of electricity
3) Metal detectors in security checking
4) The tape recorder
5) Use of ATM cards
6) Induction stoves
7) Transformers
8) Induction coils (spark plugs in automobiles)
9) Break system in railway wheels
10) AC and DC generators
11) Wind mills etc.
2) How do you verify experimentally that the current carrying conductor experiences a force
when it is kept in magnetic field?
(OR)
Show the magnetic force experimentally.
A) 1) A copper wire is passed through splits of wooden sticks.

2) Connect the wire to 3 volts battery.

3) Close the switch to make the circuit. Current passes through the wire.

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4) Bring the horse-shoe magnet near the wire.

5) Then a force is experienced on the wire.
6) Reverse the polarities of the magnet, then the direction of the force is also reversed.
7) The right hand rule helps to find the direction of magnetic force exerted by the magnetic field
on current carrying wire.
LAQ’S:
1) List out the materials required for the Oersted experiment of Electromagnetism. Write the
procedure of the experiment. What do you understand by this experiment? (or) How can you
verify that a current carrying wire produces a magnetic field with the help of an experiment?

A) List of Material required: Thermocol sheet, Two thin wooden sticks, copper wire of 24gauge,
battery of 3 or 9 volts, magnetic campass, a bar magnet.

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Procedure:
i) Take a thermocol sheet and fix two thin wooden sticks of height 1cm which have small slit at the
top of their ends.
ii) Arrange a copper wire of 24 gauge so that it passes through these slits and make a circuit.
iii) Complete the circuit by connecting with a 3(or 9) volt battery, key and copper wire which are in
series as shown in figure.
iv) Now, keep a magnetic compass below the wire. We notice that the needle is getting deflected
when we switch on the circuit.

v) And also we observe that needle changing its orientation when the circuit is switched off
Conclusion / Inference: From this activity we can discover that a current carrying conductor
produce magnetic field.
2) Describe an activity to map the magnetic field around a bar magnet?
A) i) Place a white sheet of paper on a horizontal table.
Place a compass in the middle of it. Put two dots on either side of the compass needle. Take it out.
Draw a line connecting the dots which shows the North an South of the earth.
ii) Now place the bar magnet on the line drawn in such a way that its north pole points towards
geographic north.

iii) Now place the compass at the north pole of the bar magnet. Put a dot at the north pole of the
compass needle. Now remove the compass and place it at the dot. It will point in other direction.
iv) Again put a dot at the north pole of the bar magnet.
V) Connect the dots from 'N' of the bar magnet to 'S' of the bar magnet. You will get a curved line.
Now select another point from the north pole of the bar magnet. Repeat the process for many
points taken near the north pole. You will get different curves as shown in figure.

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3) Describe an activity to demonstrate magnetic field due to straight wire

carrying current ?

A) Magnetic field due to straight wire carrying current:

i) Take a wooden plank and make a hole as shown in figure. Place this plank on the table.
ii) Now place a retort stand on the plank as shown in figure
iii) Pass 24 gauge copper wire through hole of the plank and rubber knob of the retort stand in
such a way that the wire be arranged in a vertical position and not to touch the stand.
iv) Connect the two ends of the wire to a battery via switch. Place 6 to 10 compass needles in a
circular path through the hole so that its centre coincides with the hole.
V) Use 3(or 9) volt battery in the circuit. Switch on. Current flows through the wire.
VI) We notice that they are directed as tangents to the circle as shown. So we conclude that
magnetic field lines are closed lines. The magnetic field lines due to straight wire carrying the
current is shown in figures. This can be verified by sprinkling iron filings around the wire when
current flows in the wire.

4) Describe an activity to demonstrate magnetic field due to solenoid.

A) i)Take a wooden plank covered with white paper
Make equidistant holes on its surface as shown in figure
ii) Pass copper wire through the holes as shown in figure. This forms
a coil. Join the ends of the coil to a battery through a switch. Switch on the circuit. As current
passes through the coil.

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iii) Now sprinkle iron filings on the surface of the plank around the coil. Give a small jerk to it. An
orderly pattern of iron filings is seen on the paper.
iv) The magnetic field lines set up by solenoid resemble those of a bar magnet indicating that a
solenoid behaves like a bar magnet. The direction of the field due to adenoid is determined by
using right hand rule.

v) One end of the solenoid behaves like a north pole and other behaves like a south pole. The field
lines outside the solenoid are continuous with those inside. Outside the solenoid the direction of
the field lines is from north to south while inside the direction is from south to north.
5) Trace the magnetic field due to circular coil.

A) 1) Take a thin wooden plank covered with white paper and make two holes on its surface as
shown in the figure.
2) Pass insulated copper wire (24 gauge) through the holes and wind the wire 4 to 5 times through
holes such that it looks like a coil.
3) The ends of the wire are connected to terminals of the battery through a switch. Now switch on
the circuit.
4) Place a compass needle on the plank at the centre of the coll. Put dots on either side of the
compass needle.
5) Again put compass at one of the dots, put other dot further.

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6) Do the same till you reach the edge of the plank.

7) Now repeat this for the other side of the coil from the centre. Then draw a line joining the dots.
We will get a field line of the circular coil. B

8) Do the same for the other points taken in be-tween the holes. Draw corresponding lines. We
will get field lines of the circular coil.
9) The direction of the field due to coil is determined by using right hand rule, which states that,
when you curl your right hand fingers in the direction of current, thumb gives the direction of
magnetic field.
6) Explain the working of electric motor with a neat diagram.

A) 1) Consider a rectangular coil kept in a uniform magnetic field as shown in figure.

2) Switch on the circuit, so that the current flows through the rectangular coil. The direction of
current is shown in the figure.
3) The sides AB and CD of the coil are always at right angles to the magnetic field.
4) According to right hand rule, at AB the magnetic force acts inward perpendicular to the field of
magnet and on CD, it acts outward.
5) The forces on the sides BC and DA varies because they make different angles at different
positions of the coil in the field. At BC, magnetic force pulls the coil up and at DA magnetic force
pulls it down.
6) The net force acting on AB and on CD is zero because they carry equal currents in the opposite
direction. Similarly the sum of the forces on sides BC and DA is also zero. So, net force is zero on
the coil.
7) But the rectangular coil comes into rotation in clockwise direction because equal and opposite
pair of forces acting on the two sides of the coil.

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8) If the direction of current in the coil is unchanged, it rotates, upto half rotation in one direction
and the next half in the direction opposite to previous like to and fro motion.
9) If the direction of current in the coil is changed, the coil will rotate continuously in one and the
same direction.
10) To achieve this, brushes B₁ and B2 are used.

11) These brushes are connected to the battery. The ends of the coil are connected to slip rings C₁
and C₂ which rotate along with the coil.
12) Initially C₁ is in contact with B₁ and C₂ is in contact with B2.
13) After half rotation, the brushes come into contact with the other slip rings in such away that
the direction of current through the coil is reversed. This happens every half rotation.
7) Explain the working of AC electric generator with a neat diagram.

A) 1) Consider a rectangular coil. Let it be held between the poles of curve shaped permanent
magnet as shown in figure.
2) As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux passing through the coil changes.
3) According to the law of electromagnetic induction an induced current is generated in the coil.
Direction of current:
1) Consider initially the coil, positioned in such a way that magnetic flux passes through it. When
the coil is at rest in vertical position, with side (A) of coil at top position and side (B) at bottom
position, no current will be induced in it. In this position, the current in the coil is zero.

2) When the coil is rotated in clockwise direction, current will be induced in it flows from A to B.
During the first quarter of rotation, the current increases from zero to a maximum and reaches
peak value when the coil is in horizontal position.
3) If we continue the rotation of coil, current decreases during the second quarter of the rotation
and once again becomes zero. When coil comes to vertical position with side B at top and side A at

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bottom. During the second part of the rotation. Current generated follows the same pattern as
that in the first half, except that the direction of current is reversed.

Using induced current:

1) The ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings and two carbon brushes are arranged in
such a way that they press the slip rings to obtain current from the coll.
2) When these brushes are connected to external devices like T.V etc., we can make them work
with current supplied from ends of carbon brushes.

3) This current is called Alternating Current (AC) in which, the direction of charge flow reverses
periodically.

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8) Explain the working of DC generator with a neat diagram.

A) i)Consider a rectangular coll. Let it be held between the poles of curve - shaped permanent
magnets as shown in figure.
ii) As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux passing through the coil changes.
iii) According to the law of electromagnetic induction, an induced current is generated in the coll.
iv) If two half slip rings are connected to the ends of the coil as shown in figure, this generator
works as DC generator to produce DC current.

Working:
1) When the coil is in the vertical position the induced current generated during the first half
rotation, rises from zero to maximum and then falls to zero again.
2) As the coil moves further from this position, the ends of the coil go to other slip rings.
3) Hence, during the second half rotation, the current is reversed in the coil itself, the current
generated in the second half rotation of the coil is identical with that during the first half of the
direct current (DC), for one revolution.
4) Hence, this current is called direct current (DC).

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11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY

IMPORTANT POINTS
➤Metallurgy is the process of extraction of metals from their ores and preparation of alloys.

➤Metals like gold (Au), silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) are available in nature in free state as they are
least reactive.

➤The elements or compounds of the metals which occur in nature in the earth's crust are called
minerals, The minerals from which the metals are extracted without economical loss are called ores.

➤The removal of unwanted rocky material from the ore before it converts into the metal is called
concentration.

➤Air under pressure is blown to produce froth in water is called froth floatation.

➤If the ore or impurity, one of them is magnetic and the other is non-magnetic, they are separated
using electromagnets.

➤Arranging the metals in decreasing order of their reactivity is known as activity series.

➤Extraction of the metals at the top of the activity series is electrolysis of their fused compounds.

➤Sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating them strongly in excess of air. This process is
known as roasting.

➤When sulphide ore of copper is partially roasted, the rest of sulphide ore react with oxide and
forms the metal is called auto reduction. In displacement reactions, a more active metal displaces a
less active metal from its compound.

➤Displacement reactions are highly exothermic.

➤The reaction of iron (III) oxide (Fe₂O₃), with aluminium is used to join railings of railway tracks or
cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as the thermite reaction.

➤Metals at bottom of the activity series are often found in free state.

➤The process of obtaining the pure metal from the impure metal is called refining of the metals.

➤The impurities are removed either as gases or they get oxidized and form scum (slag) over the
surface of the molten metal is called poling.

➤Blister copper is purified by poling.

➤Distillation is very useful for purification of low boiling metals like zinc and mercury containing
high boiling metals as impurities.

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➤Metals are not available as free element on earth.

➤Human history in terms of materials had the Bronze age and Iron age. Pertaining to metals, the
started to use the bronze and iron.

➤Some metals like Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) and Copper (Cu) are available in nature in free state as the
are less reactive.

➤Bauxite ore contains 50-70% Aluminium oxide.

➤Ores of many metals are oxides.

➤The impurities of ore are called gangue.

➤Concentration ore can be done in four methods.

1) Hand picking
2) Washing
3) Froth Floatation
4) Magnetic separation

➤The only viable method to extract metals like K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al electrolysis.

➤Some refining methods as follows:

1) Distillation
2) Poling
3) Liquation
4) Electrolytic refining

➤Cathode: Cations move towards the electrode in electrolytic process.

Cathode - Negative electrode.

➤Anode: Anions move towards the electrode in electrolytic process.

Anode - Positive electrode.

➤Low melting point metals can be separated by liquation.

➤The impure metals can be separated as pure metals by electrolytic refining.

➤The extraction of metals from its ore involves mainly three stages. They are
1) Concentration or Dressing
2) Extraction of crude metal
3) Refining or purification of the metal.

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VSAQ’S:
1) Write any two carbonate minerals?

A) i) Magnesite (MgCO3)
ii) Dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3)

2) Write any two sulphide minerals?

A) i) Iron pyrites (FeS₂)

ii) Zinc blende (ZnS)
3) Write any two halide or chloride minerals?

A) i) Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H₂O)

ii) Horn silver (AgCl)

4) How are metals extracted from mineral ores ? Predict methods to be used?

A) The extraction of a metal from its ore involves mainly three stages. They are
i) Concentration or Dressing of the ore
ii) Extraction of crude metal
iii) Refining or purification of the metal
5) Give high reactive metals, moderate reactive metals and low reactive metals in their descending
order ?
A) K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al>Zn>Fe>Pb>Cu>Ag> Au

High reactivity Moderate reactivity Low reactivity

6) What is slag?

A) The substance formed due to reaction of gangue with flux and to form fusible mass is called slag.
Eg: CaSiO3, FeSiO3.
7) Write about poling?

A) When the metals are having the metal oxides as impurities, this method is employed. The impure
metal is melted and is then covered by carbon powder. Then it is stirred with green wood poles. The
educing gases formed from the green wood and the carbon, reduce the oxides to the metal. Ex: Cu
& Sn metals are refined by this method.
8) What is meant by flux?

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A) An outside substance added to the ore to lower its melting point and remove gangue in the form
of slag is known as flux.
9) What is Roasting?

A) Roasting is pyrochemical process in which ore is heated in the presence of oxygen (or) air below
its melting point.
10) Why water pipes are made up of PVC why not with iron?

A) Water pipes are made up of PVC because PVC pipes do not get rusted. If water pipes are made
up of iron they will be get rusted and damaged.
11) What is calcination?

A) Calcination is a pyrochemical process in which the ore is heated in the absence of air.
12) Why does stainless steel will not rust?

A) Stainless steel is prepared by mixing iron with carbon, nickel and chromium. Nickel and chromium
are less reactive with oxygen. So stainless steel will not rust.
13) Give some examples for corrosion.

A) Examples for corrosion:

1) The rusting of iron (Iron oxide)
2) Tarnishing of silver (Silver sulphide)
3) Development of green coating on copper (Copper carbonate) and bronze.

14) Define slag and write its use?

A) 1) The inert material formed due to reaction between gangue and flux.
2) As it is an inert material it covers the melted metal and thus protect the metals from reoxidation.
Ex: CaSiO3, FeSiO3
15). What is flux? Write about the types of fluxes.
A) The material which combines with impurities and form fusible slag. The selection of flux depends
on nature of impurities.
1) If impurities are acidic in nature, basic flux is used. Ex : CaO.

2) If the impurities are basic in nature, acidic flux is used Ex: SiO₂.

16) How are metals extracted from mineral ores?

A) The extraction of a metal from its ores involves mainly in three states. They are:
1) Concentration or Dressing

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2) Extraction of crude metal

3) Refining or purification of the metal.
17) Arrange the metals Fe, Na, Ag and Zn in increasing order of their chemical reactivity.
A) Ag < Fe < Zn < Na (OR) Ag, Fe, Zn, Na.
18) Write the differences between Roasting and Calcination.
A) 1) Burning of ore in the presence of air or oxygen is called "Roasting". So in the roasting air is
present.
2) Burning of ore in the absence of air or oxygen is called "Calcination." So in the calcination air is
absent.

19) What are the essential condition that iron articles get rust?
A) The essential condition that iron articles get rust is presence of water and air both.
20) Write two precautions to prevent corrosion of metals in your daily life.
A) Precautions to be taken to prevent corrosion of metals.
1) Painting the metals.
2) By keeping the metals in the dry places.
3) Cover the surface by other metals that are inert or non reactive to the atmosphere.
4) Applying oil/grease to the metals.
5) Making of alloys.
21) Give some examples for corrosion.
A) Examples for corrosion:
1) The rusting of iron (Iron oxide)
2) Tarnishing of silver (Silver sulphide)
3) Development of green coating on copper (Copper carbonate) and bronze.

SAQ’S:
1) Draw a neat diagram of Reverberatory furnace and label it neatly?
A) REVERBERATORY FURNANCE

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2) Draw the diagram showing

1) Froth floatation
2) Magnetic separation
3) Blast Furnace
A) 1) FROTH FLOATATION

2) MAGNETIC SEPARATION PROCESS

3) BLAST FURNACE

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3) What is thermite process? Mention its applications in daily life. (or) "Highly reactive metals will
displace less reactive metals". Explain an activity to prove this fact.
A) Thermite process: The process of reduction of a metal oxide to form metal by using aluminium
powder as a reducing agent is called thermite reaction or thermite process. This process is highly
exothermic and the amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals are produced in the molten
state.
This process is also called as Gold schmidt alumino thermite process. (or) thermite reaction.
Ex: 2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe + Heat 2Al + Cr2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Cr + Heat Al - Reducing agent, Fe₂O,
- Oxidising agent Al - undergo oxidation, Fe2O3 - undergo reduction
Application: Molten metal (iron) obtained in thermite process is used
i) For thermite welding.
ii) For joining the broken pieces of heavy iron objects like griders, railway tracks.
iii) For joining cracked machine parts.

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4) Why alloying is preferred for metals? Explain with examples.

A) 1) Alloying is a method of improving properties of a metal. We can get desired properties by this
method.
2) For example, iron is the most widely used metal. But it is never used in its pure state.
3) This is because pure iron is very soft and stretches easily when hot.
4) But, if it is mixed with a small amount of carbon, it becomes hard and strong.
5) When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium we get stainless steel which will not rust.
5) What is 22 carat gold? Why it is preferred for making jewellery? (or)
Is 24 carat gold can used to make jewellery? If no explain your answer. (Do you know)
A) 1) Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold is very soft.
2) So it is not suitable for making jewellery.
3) It is alloyed with either silver or copper to make it hard.
4) So they use 22 carat gold in which pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either silver or copper for
making gold jewellery.
6) Write a note on dressing of ore in metallurgy.
(OR)

What is concentration of Ore? List various physical methods that are used to enrich the Ore.
(OR)
Write about the given process.

a) Hand picking b) Washing c) Froth floatation d) Magnetic separation.

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A) 1) Ores that are mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amount of impurities
such as soil and sand, etc.
2) Concentration or dressing means, simply getting rid of as much of the unwanted rocky material
as possible before the ore gets converted into the metal. The impurities like clay are called gangue.

The physical methods adopted in dressing of the ore or enriching the ore depends upon the
difference between physical properties of ore and gangue. Methods of dressing or concentration of
the ore:
1) Hand picking: If the ore particles and the impurities are different in one of the properties like
colour, size, etc. using that property, the ore particles are handpicked separating them from other
impurities.
2) Washing: Ore particles are crushed and kept on a slopy surface. They are washed with controlled
flow of water. Less densive impurities are carried away by water flow, leaving the more densive
particles behind.
3) Froth floatation: This method is mainly useful for sulphide ores. The ore with impurities is finely
powdered and kept in water taken in a flotation cell. Air under pressure is blown to produce froth in
water. Froth so produced, takes the ore particles to the surface whereas impurities settle at the
bottom. Froth is separated and washed to get ore particles.
4) Magnetic separation : If the ore or impurity, one of them is magnetic substance and the other is
non-magnetic substance, they are separated using electromagnets.

7) Describe the electrolytic refining of copper.

A) Electrolytic refining of copper:
1) An impure copper is taken as anode and pure copper strips are taken as cathode.
2) The electrolyte is an acidified solution of copper sulphate.

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3) As a result of electrolysis, copper in pure form is transferred from the anode to the cathode.
Reactions: At anode: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e At cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu
4) The soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas insoluble impurities from the blister copper
get deposited at the bottom of anode as anode mud which contains antimony selenium, tellurium,
silver, gold and platinum.
LAQ’S:
1) Suggest an experiment to prove that the presence of air and water are essential for corrosion.
Explain the procedure. (OR)
Write the precautions to be taken in the experiment to show air and water are essential for rusting
iron articles and also write the experimental procedure.

A) Aim: To prove that the presence of air and water is essential for corrosion.
Materials required: 3 test tubes, 3 iron nails, oil, water, anhydrous calcium chloride. rubber corks.
Procedure:
1) Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each of them. Label these test tubes A, B and
C.
2) Pour some water in test tube A and cork it.
3) Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B, add about 1 ml of oil and cork it.

4) Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and cork it.
5) Leave these test tubes for a few days and then observe.

Investigating the conditions under which iron rusts

6) After a few days, we will observe that iron nails rust in test tube A, but they do not rust in test
tubes B and C.

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Reason:
1) In test tube A, the nails are exposed to air and water . Hence, the nails rusted.
2) In test tube B, the nails are exposed only to water, but not to air, because the oil float on water
and prevent the air from dissolving in the water. Hence, the nails are not rusted.
3) In test tube C. the nails are exposed to dry air, because anhydrous calcium chloride will absorb
the moisture, if any, from the air. Hence, the nails are not rusted. From the above experiment we
can prove that air and water are essential for corrosion.

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[Link] AND ITS COMPOUNDS

IMPORTANT POINTS:
➤Carbon is a typical non-metal present in earth's crust to the content of 0.02 percent by mass

➤The compounds of carbon are covalent in nature formed by the electron sharing in between the
bonding atoms

➤Carbon was discovered in prehistory and it was known to the ancients

➤Elements of this group have four electrons in the valence shell.

➤Electronic configuration of carbon (ground state), C: 1s' 2s'2p1.

➤Carbon is a non-metal. It belongs to the 14" group or IV A group in the modern periodic table

➤Atomic number of carbon is 6.

➤The electronegativity of carbon is 2.5

➤Carbon has to satisfy its tetravalency by sharing electrons with other atoms. It has to form four
covalent bonds either with its own atoms or atoms of other elements.

➤The concept of hybridisation was introduced by Linus Pauling.

➤Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in two or more different physical forms having
more or less similar chemical properties but different physical properties, The different forms of the
element are called allotropes. Allotropes form due to the difference in the arrangement of atoms in
the molecules.

➤The allotropes of carbon are classified into two types. They are
1) Amorphous forms 2) Crystalline forms

➤Different amorphous allotropes of carbon are: Coal: Coke: Wood Charcoal; Animal Charcoal; Lamp
black: Gas carbon: Petroleum Coke; Sugar charcoal.

➤Crystalline allotropes of carbon are: diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene.

➤In diamond cach carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation in its excited state.

➤In graphite each carbon atom undergoes sp2 hybridisation in its excited state.

➤Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs

➤In fullerene C molecule contains 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces.

➤In fullerene each carbon atom is sp2 hybridized

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➤Fullerenes are under study for potential medicinal use - such as specific antibiotics to target
resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma.

➤Nanotubes are another allotropic form of carbon

➤Nanotubes discovered in 1991 by Sumio li jima.

➤Nanotubes consist of hexagonal arrays of covalently bonded carbon atoms, in nanotubes the
sheets are rolled into cylinders. Due to the reason they are called nanotubes. Nanotubes like
graphite, are electrical conductors and can be used as molecular wires.

➤Scientists inserted biomoleules into nanotubes to inject them into a single cell.

➤Graphene is extracted from the material which is used in pencils.

➤Graphene conducts electricity better than copper. It is 200 times stronger than steel but six times
lighter. It is almost perfectly transparent to light.

➤Fullerenes are formed when vapourized carbon condenses in an atmosphere of an inert gas.

➤Carbon having versatile nature of exhibiting Catenation, Tetra valency, Isomerism, Allotropy and
formation of multiple bonds.

➤F. Wohler (1828) produced an organic compound Urea in the laboratory by heating an morganic
salt ammonium cyanate.

➤The compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen in their molecules are called hydrocarbons

➤Hydrocarbons are classified into two categories known as open chain hydrocarbons and closed
chain hydrocarbons, also called aliphatic hydrocarbons or acyclic hydrocarbons.

➤All hydrocarbons (both aliphatic and cyclic hydrocarbons) are again classified as Alkanes. Alkenes
and Alkynes:

➤Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms are called Alkanes. All alkanes
are saturated hydrocarbons.

➤Hydrocarbons containing atleast one double bond between two carbon atoms are called Alkenes.

➤Hydrocarbons containng atleast one triple bond between two carbon atoms are called Alkynes.

➤Alkenes and Alkynes are the examples for unsaturated hydrocarbons.

➤The hydrocarbons that contain at least one duble bond (C = C) or contain atleast one triple (C≡C)
between the two carbon atoms are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.

➤If one hydrogen atom is replaced from NH3 by an alkyl group we get the primary amines.

➤If two hydrogen atoms are replaced from NH3 by two alkyl groups we get the secondary amines.

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➤If three hydrogen atoms are replaced from NH3 by three alkyl groups we get the tertiary amines.

➤The characteristic properties of an organic compound depend mainly on an atom or group of

atoms in its molecule known as the functional group.

➤Organic compounds are classified by the type of functional group. Funtional groups are
responsible for the behaviour of the organic compounds.

➤The phenomenon of possessing same molecular formula but different properties by the
compounds is known as isomerism. The compounds that are called isomers. (iso = same: meros =
part, i.e., they have same molecular formula)

➤The series of carbon compounds in which two successive compounds differ by -CH2 unit is called
homologous series. Each compound in the series differs by – CH2 unit by its successive compound.

➤The general formula of this homologous series of Alkanes is CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3

➤Alkenes have general molecular formula CnH2n. where 'n' is 2, 3, 4

➤ Alkynes have general molecular formula Cn H2n-2 where 'n' is 2, 3, 4,

➤We have millions of organic compounds. As the number of organic compounds is very big it is
difficult to remember their names individually. The IUPAC name of an organic compound gives
information about:
a) Word root (or) root word refers to number of carbon atoms present in a longest continuous
carbon chain.
b) The substituents in the molecule; which are shown as the prefix.
c) The functional group in the molecule, which is shown as the suffix.

➤Prefix: Prefix again has several parts known as primary prefix secondary prefix, numerical prefix
and number prefix etc.

➤Primary prefix is 'cyclo' and it is useful only for Alicyclic compounds.

➤Secondary prefix tells about the second grade functional and alkyl groups known as substituents.

➤Suffix: It also contains several parts known as primary suffix, secondary suffix, numerical suffix
and number suffix.

➤Primary suffix tells about the saturation or unsaturation present in the parent chain of the
compound.

➤For saturated (C-C) it is 'an' and carbon atoms are attached to one another only through single
bonds in the compounds.

➤For unsaturated (C=C) double bonded compounds it is 'en' and for unsaturated triple bonded
(C=C) compounds it is 'yn'.

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➤Secondary suffix that tells about the functional groups with the particular term.
Example: hydrocarbons - 'e'

Alcohols - 'ol'
Aldehydes-‘al'
Ketones'-‘one'

Carboxylic acid 'oic acid'

➤Numerical prefixes like di, tri are written before the secondary prefixes, primary suffixes and
secondary suffixes, when the same substituent, multiple bond or functional group is repeated etc.,
-COOH>-(CH3CO)2O>-COOR>-COX>-CONH2>-CN>-CHO>-C=O>R-OH>-NH2

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VSAQ’S:
1) Name the simplest hydrocarbon
A) 1) The simplest Hydrocarbon is Methane - CH4

Note: It belongs to alkane family. Its general formula is CnH2n+2

2) What are the general molecular formulae of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes

A) The general formulae and examples of Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes are

[Link] Hydrocarbon General Example

Formula
1) Alkane CnH2n+2 CH4
(n=1,2,3) (Methane),
C2H6(Ethane)
2) Alkene CnH2n. C₂H₄
(n=2,3,4) (Ethene),
C3H6
(Propene)

3) Alkyne Cn H2n-2 C₂H₂

(n=2,3,4) (Ethyne),
C3H₄
(Propyne)

3) Name the carboxylic acid used as a preservative.

A) 1) Acetic acid (carboxylic acid) in the form of vinegar, is used as preservative in pickles.
2) 5 to 8% solution of acetic acid in water is called Vinegar.
4) Write the chemical equation representing the reaction of preparation of ethanol from ethane.

A)
5) Write any two carbonate minerals?
A) i) Magnesite (MgCO₂)
ii) Dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3)

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6) Write any two sulphide minerals ?

A) i) Iron pyrites (FeS₂)
ii) Zinc blende (ZnS)

7) Write any two halide or chloride minerals?

A) i) Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H₂O)
ii) Horn silver (AgCl)
8) How are metals extracted from mineral ores? Predict methods to be used?
A) The extraction of a metal from its ore involves mainly three stages. They are
i) Concentration or Dressing of the ore
ii) Extraction of crude metal
iii) Refining or purification of the metal
9) Give high reactive metals, moderate reactive metals and low reactive metals in their descending
order?
A) K> Na > Ca > Mg > Al> Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au >
High reactivity Moderate reactivity Low reactivity

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SAQ’S:
1) Why does carbon form compounds mainly by covalent bonding?
A) 1) Carbon belongs to 14th group or IV A group in the modern periodic table.
2) Electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p². To get octet configuration in its outer shell it has
to gain four more electrons to form C4-. Its nucleus has only 6 protons. Therefore it would be difficult
for a nucleus with 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, carbon cannot form C¹- ions so easily.
3) If carbon loses 4 electrons from the outer shell, it has to form C4+ ions. This requires huge amount
of energy which is not available normally. Therefore C++ formation also is remote possibility.
4) Carbon has to satisfy its tetravalency by sharing electrons with other atoms. It has to form 4
covalent bonds either with its own atoms or atoms of other elements.
2) Collect information about artificial ripening of fruits by ethylene.
A) Chemistry of ripening:
1) During ripening, the starch in the fruit breaks down to form sugar. The fruit skin changes colour.
2) The ripening of fruit depends on the season. The plant can detect the changes in season, they
produces ethylene (C₂H₂) and spreads across the plant.
3) When ethylene reaches the fruits, it sends a signal to all the cells in the fruit to make enzymes
which breaks starch into sugar.
4) The cells in the skin start making pigments, which give the fruit its colour.
Artificial ripening:
1) Raw fruits are kept in hay - lined wooden boxes called crates. These crates are stacked on shelves
and a wood fire is lit below them. The smoke contains ethylene and acetylene gases, which induce
ripening.
2) Fruits are placed in a room in which ethylene gas or acetylene gas is introduced.
3) In another method calcium carbide (CaC2) is applied over fruits. It reacts with moisture to form
acetylene, which induces ripening.
3) Do you know how the police detect whether suspected drivers have consumed alcohol or not?
A) 1) The police officer asks the suspect to blow air into a plastic bag through a mouth piece of the
detecting instrument which contains crystals of potassium-di-chromate (K2Cr2O7).

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2) As K2Cr2O, is a good oxidizing agent, it oxidizes any ethanol in the driver's breath to ethanal and
ethanoic acid.
3) Orange Cr2O3- changes to bluish green Cr³+ during the process of the oxidation of alcohol.
4) The length of the tube that turned into green is the measure of the quantity of alcohol that had
been drunk.
5) The police even use the IR Spectra to detect the bonds C - OH and C - H of CH3-CH2OH.

4) What is the action of soap particles on the greasy cloth?

A) 1) Soaps and detergents make oil and dirt present on the cloth come out into water. thereby
making the cloth clean.
2) Soap has one polar end and one non-polar end.
3) The polar end is hydrophilic in nature and this end is attracted towards water.
4) The non-polar end is hydrophobic, in nature and it is attracted towards grease or oil on the cloth,
but not attracted towards water.
5) When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach themselves to dirt and remove it
from the cloth.
6) The hydrophobic end of the soap molecules move towards the dirt or grease particles.
7) The hydrophobic ends attach to the dirt particle and try to pull out.
8) The molecules of soap surround the dirt particle at the centre of the cluster and form a spherical
structure called micelle.
9) These micelles remain suspended in water like particles in a colloidal solution.
10) The various micelles present in water do not come together to form a precipitate as each micelle
repels the other because of the lon-ion repulsion.

11) Thus, the dust particles remain trapped in micelles and are easily rinsed away with water.
12) Hence, soap micelles remove dirt by dissolving in water.
5) Why diamond is hard but graphite is smooth and slippery?
A) Diamond has sp³ hybridisation with tetrahedral environment. As C - C bonds are very strong any
attempt to distort the diamond structure requires large amount of energy. Hence diamond is one of
the hardest materials.
Whereas graphite has sp² hybridisation with layer structure with trigonal planar environment. The
layers tends to slide on one on other. So graphite is smooth and slippery.
6) Describe Nanotubes.

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A) 1) Nanotubes consist of hexagonal arrays of covalently bonded carbon atoms, similar to the
sheets in graphite.
2) Unlike the flat graphite sheets, in nanotubes the sheets are rolled into cylinders. Due to this
reason they are called nanotubes.
3) Nanotubes like graphite, are electrical conductors and can be used as molecular wires.
4) In integrated circuits nanotubes are used instead of copper to connect the components together.

5) Scientists inserted biomolecules into nanotubes to inject them into a single cell.

LAQ’S:
1) Explain the cleansing action of soap.
A) 1) Soaps and detergents make oil and dirt present on the cloth come out into water, thereby
making the cloth clean.
2) Soap has one polar end (the end with C-0 carboxy) and one non polar end (the end with
hydrocarbon chain) as shown here.
3) The polar end is hydrophilic, in nature and this end is attracted towards water.

4) The non-polar end is hydrophobic, in nature and it is attracted towards grease or oil on the cloth,
but not attracted towards water.

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5) When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach themselves to dirt and remove it
from the cloth, as shown sequentially in the figure.
6) The hydrophobic end of the soap molecules move towards the dirt or grease particle.
7) The hydrophobic ends attached to the dirt particle and try to pull out.
8) The molecules of soap surround the dirt particle at the centre of the cluster and form a spherical
structure called micelle.
9) These micelles remain suspended in water like particles in a colloidal solution.
10) The various micelles present in water do not come together to form a precipitate as each micelle
repels the other because of the ion-ion repulsion.
11) Thus, the dust particles remain trapped in micelles and are easily rinsed away with water. Hence,
soap micelles remove dirt by dissolving it in water.
2) Write an activity to show esterification reactions.
A) 1) Take 1 ml of ethanol and 1 ml of glacial acetic acid along with a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid in a test tube.
2) Warm it in a water bath or a beaker containing water for at least five minutes.
3) Pour the warm contents into a beaker containing 20-50 ml of water and observe the odour of the
resulting mixture.

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4) We will notice that the resulting mixture is a sweet odoured substance.

5) This substance is nothing but ethyl acetate, an ester.
6) This reaction is called esterification reaction.

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