0

Balog O k

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING (AMS103/COS 101)

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Brief history of computing.
2. Description of the basic components of a computer/computing device.
3. Hardware, software and human ware.
4. Input/Output devices and peripherals.
5. Diverse and growing computer/digital applications.
6. Information processing and its roles in society.
7. The Internet, its applications and its impact on the world today.
8. The different areas/programs of the computing discipline.
9. The job specializations for computing professionals.
10. The future of computing.
11. Lab Work:
i. Practical demonstration of the basic parts of a computer.
ii. Illustration of different operating systems of different computing devices including
desktops, laptops, tablets, smart boards and smart phones.
iii. Demonstration of commonly used applications such as word processors, spreadsheets,
presentation software and graphics.
iv. Illustration of input and output devices including printers, scanners, projectors and
smartboards.
v. Practical demonstration of the Internet and its various applications.
vi. Illustration of browsers and search engines.
vii. How to access online resources.
 1
Balog O k

CHAPTER ONE
BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Computing is the process of using computers and its associated technologies to access, store and
manipulate data either to solve problems and perform tasks. Computing is broadly classified into
theoretical studies (principles, algorithms, and logic) and practical studies (hardware, software,
and applications).
Computing as an area of study and practice is incomplete without reference to its history. The
history of computing is classified into 8 stages/periods:

[Link]-Mechanical Era (2400BC-1600AD))

This is the era of manual means of counting, adding, multiplying and computing.
[Link] (2400 BC)
This is the first known calculating tool, used in Mesopotamia and later in China. It is the first
machine designed to process data to information.

Figure1.1: Abacus
Source: ([Link])
 2
Balog O k

[Link]-Powered, Thermometre and Steam-Powered Devices (100 AD)

These three devices were invented by a Greek inventor called Heron of Alexandria, Egypt. He
was believed to have lived between 10-70 AD.

Picture 1.2a,b,c&d: Heron’s Wind and steam Powered, Thermometer and Automata Machines.
Sources: ([Link] [Link]

iii. Johann Gutenberg’s movable metal-type printing press of 1450, that printed the first Latin
Bible with page numbers and book indexes.
 3
Balog O k

Figure 1.3: Johan Gutenberg Printing Press

Source: ([Link] )

2. Mechanical Era (1600s–1840)

This is the era when manual means of computing (counting, addition, multiplication and
division) was replaced with machines.
[Link]’s Bone was invented by Scottish Mathematician, John Napier in 1617.
 4
Balog O k

Figure 1.4: Napier’s Bone.

Source: ([Link]

ii. Wilhelm Schickard’s mechanical calculator with 6 digits across column in 1623.

Figure 1.5: Wilhelm Schickard’s mechanical calculator

Source: ([Link])

iii. Wilhelm Oughtred’ slide rule in 1625. This is the 1 st example of an analog mechanical
computer.

Figure 1.6: Wilhelm Oughtred’ slide rule

Source: ([Link])
 5
Balog O k

iv. Blaise Pascal mechanical calculating machine

This machine was invented in 1642, which he called it Pascaline. It was made out of clock gears
and levers and could solve basic mathematical problems like addition and subtraction.

Picture 1.7 Pascaline

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Mecahnical Calculator

German Mathematician Gottfried Leibniz in 1673 invented a calculator, called Stepped
Reckoner, that performed all four basic mathematical functions (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Stepped Reckoner improved on the adding machines of Pascal and
others by incorporating a new invention: the stepped drum. Though, his computing schemes
remained theoretical, but they anticipated the fundamental elements of modern digital computers:
binary coding, calculation, symbolic logic, even something like programming.
 6
Balog O k

Picture 1.8: Liebniz Calculator

Source: ([Link]

vi. Charles Babbage‘s Difference and Analytical Engines

These machines were respectively invented in 1821 and 1832. The Difference machine is a
steam powered adding machine, regarded as the first programmable modern mechanical
computer. His Analytical machine obtained information from punched cards to solve and print
complex mathematical operations. Though, analytical machine was not completed before his
death. His invention won him the “Father of Computers”.

Figure 1.9: Charles Babbage‘s Analytical Figure 1.10: Charles Babbage‘s Difference
Source: ([Link]) Source: ([Link])
 7
Balog O k

[Link] Lovelace’s Notes-Added Algorithm

Ada Lovelace translated Barbabage’s lecture on the invention of his analytical machine from
French language that he delivered in Turing, Italy. She added notes to the translation which
became an algorithm for Barbbage analytical machine. She was regarded as the first world’s
programmer.

Picture: 1.11:Ada Lovelace’s Note G Algorithm for Charles Barbbage Analytical Engine
Source: (Wikipedia)

[Link]-Mechanical Era (1840s-1940s)

This is the era of advanced mechanical means of computing with computers.
[Link] Hollerith in 1890 created a punched-card system computer for the U.S. Census that led
to IBM 1896, when his Tabulating Machine Company merged with others.
 8
Balog O k

Figure 1.12: Hollerith Tabulating Machine

Source: ([Link]

[Link] Turing Universal Machine

Turing introduced the concept of the universal machine (Turing Machine), the foundation of
computer science in 1936.

Figure 1.13: Turing Universal Machine

Source: ([Link]
 9
Balog O k

[Link] Zuse
Zuse built the Z3, the first programmable digital computer in 1938.

Figure 1.15: Zuse Machine

Source: ([Link]

[Link] Era (Post 1940s)

This is the era of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and the projected nth generations of computers system
that actually began in the 1940s. Generally, there are series of generations of computer hardware
and software.
1st generation of computer hardware is characterized by Vacuum tube technology and Low level
programming language like Machine language that spanned between 1940s -1950s. E.g ENIAC
(1945) and UNIVAC that are large-scale electronic general-purpose computer that are huge,
expensive, and power-hungry.
2nd generation of computer hardware is characterized by Transistors technology with low level
programming language like Assembly language that spanned between 1950s- 1960s. They are
smaller, faster, more reliable than 1st generation.
3rd generation of computer hardware is characterized by Integrated circuits (ICs) technology with
Operating systems (OS) and high level structured programming language like C, C++, Java,
Visual Basic, COBOL, FORTRAN, etc that spanned between 1960s- 1970s. These generations
gave rise to smaller, more affordable computers.
4th generation of computer hardware is characterized by Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
(VLSIC) technology called Microprocessors (1971) with high level domain specific
programming language like Structured Query Language (SQL) for database access, Tex for text
formatting, (Wikipedia, 2018), Perl, Python, Ruby, etc that spanned between 1970s- 1990s. This
is the generation of Personal Computers (PCs) by Microsoft, Apple and IBM and growth of
software like Microsoft, Unix, etc,
 10
Balog O k

5th generation is characterized by Multiple Parallel Microprocessors technology with Concurrent

logic programming, (Shapiro, 1983) like Prolog, OPS5 and Mercury, (Balagurusamy, 2009) and
ICAD that all spanned between 1990s- present. This is also the generation of Artificial
Intelligence (AI), Internet revolution, mobile computing, cloud services, machine learning, big
data and quantum computing.
There are controversies as to whether computer hardware generations actually ends with
5th generations. However, computer hardware technology is evolving with higher generations
readily available from manufacturers like Intel, AMD, etc. Intel has series of generations of
processors available. Intel processors began with the low level Pentium series like Pentium 4, M,
R, Intel Celeron, Inside etc. The 6 th of January, 2006, marked the end of Pentium and Celeron
series and the beginning of first set of the core brands like Dou (dual core) and Solo (duo with
one disabled core) processors. The 4th of January, 2008, marked the discontinuation of duo and
solo core processors. The termination of dou and solo cores was followed by the introduction of
new generations of 4 series of Intel core brand processors like core i3, i5, i7 and i9 and their
many sub-series in each generation. Intel Core i3 (dual core) was released on 7 th of January,
2010. Intel Core i5 was also released in 2010. Intel Core i7 with 6 cores was first released in 16 th
of March, 2010, followed by other sub-generations that were released in 2011, etc.
Not until the 7th generation in 2016 that core i9 was released. The latest in the market is Intel ®
CoreTM Processor i9-13900KS, released in 2022, as a 13 th generation successor of Processor i9-
13900K. Core i9 series of processors are the rarest and the most advanced kind of computer
hardware technologies as of today.
Computer has played significant role in the evolution and revolution of ICT from Abacus era to
the present and would also into the future.
11
Balog O k
12
Balog O k
 13
Balog O k

CHAPTER TWO
DESCRIPTION OF BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
Introduction
Computer system is a composite electronic machines that comprises instructed hardware,
software and peripherals- through memory stored instructions- to accept data, store data, process
data and delivers them as information. Computers process data items (text, numbers, images,
audio, and video, etc) into information. For instance, goods and their prices that are bought in a
shopping mall and are input into the computer system constitute data that the computer processes
to produce cash register receipts for customers as information.
Computer system has two broad divisions: Hardware and Software.

2.1 Hardware
This is the physical components of the computer system that work together to maintain stability.
It is the tangible aspect that could be felt and touched. Components of computer hardware
include: Input, Storage (internal and external), Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Storage
devices. Some input and output devices are peripheral in nature in the computer system. For
instance, external hard drive, scanner, printer, speaker, projector, GPS, digital and video camera,
microphone, card reader, etc, are peripheral to all types of computers.
 14
Balog O k

Figure 2.1: Computer System

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Devices
Input devices are hardware components that accept data and instructions from users. Input
devices have been designed to help communicate with the computer. Input devices include:
Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Track ball, Light pen, Touch screen, Scanner and Barcode reader.

[Link]
The keyboard is an input device that allows users to enter data and information into the computer
system. The keyboard of an average computer comprises about 101 keys arranged in segments:
Alphabetical, Alphanumeric, Function and Arrow/Cursor movement keys, and Computer keys.
 15
Balog O k

Figure 2.2: Keyboard

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
A mouse is an input device that allows users to point, click, select and drag characters, numbers,
and features on the computer screen. Original mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart and
Bill English at the Stanford Research Institute in 1963 but the first commercial mouse used in
Apple’s Macintosh in the mid 80s was Lisa. Singh (2014), itemized varieties of mouse(s) like
Lisa, Mechanical, Optical, Bus, Serial, Ring styled, Laser, Gamer, Ergonomic, Multi-button,
Tactile, 3-D, Touch pad, Wireless, Stylus/Pen, Inertia, Infrared/radio, Bluetrack, Bluetooth,
Magic, Mighty, etc. Optical, Laser, Gaming, etc. Lisa mouse has a single steel roller instead of
plastics found in nowadays mice.

Figure 2.3: Lisa Mouse

Source: ([Link])
 16
Balog O k

[Link] mouse
This has a roller inside that extends below the plastic casing that is used to move around.
Mechanical mouse is of 2 types: Bus and Serial mice.

Figure 2.4: Mechanical mouse

Source: ([Link])

Bus Mouse is usually connected to a computer through an expansion board and not through the
serial port.

Figure 2.5: Bus Mouse

Source: ([Link])

Serial Mouse is usually connected directly to the computer.

 17
Balog O k

Figure 2.6: Serial Bus

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Mouse
This uses laser technology and not mechanical movement to detect mouse movement.

Figure 2.7: Optical mouse

Source: ([Link])
[Link] mouse is another version of optical mouse that uses laser technology to detect mouse
movement. Laser is much sensitive and precise than optical mouse.
 18
Balog O k

Figure 2.8: Lenovo wireless Laser mouse

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
This is an input device with a ball-like button in the middle on which users rest their hands to
move the cursor around the screen. They require less desk space than the mouse.

Figure 2.9: Kensington Expert Mouse

Source: (www. [Link])

[Link]
This is an input device that is commonly used for games.

Figure 2.10: Xbox-like Joystick

Source: ([Link])
 19
Balog O k

[Link] Pen
This is an input device that allows a user to write on or point at a special pad on the screen of a
pen-based computer, such as Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs).

Figure 2.11: Light pen

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Screen
This is a version of computer screen that is characterized by direct input into the monitor by
punching electronic graphics or icons displayed on the screen. It is advantageous where
keyboards and other input devices are less or non-functional.

Figure 2.12: Touchscreen

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
This is a peripheral input device used to copy images into a computer memory without
keyboarding. It projects light on images, senses the intensity of the reflection and converts the
images into electronic ones.

Figure 2.13: Epson Scanner

 20
Balog O k

Source: ([Link])
[Link]-Code Reader
This is a device emits beam of light frequently from a laser that reflects and converts pattern of
bar code images into numeric digits. It is commonly used in super markets.

Figure: 2.14 Barcode Reader

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Device
These devices manipulate data and information in the computer system. It encompasses the
Central processing unit (CPU) and the Memory. The memory comprises the Random access
memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

[Link] Processing Unit (CPU)

This is a tiny electronic chip known as the micro-processor located in the system unit of the
desktop or the mother board of the laptop. The CPU is where data are processed as information.
The volume of data received and released by the chip anytime is a measure of the chip’s
processing capability. The CPU is fast and efficient, but not omniscient. It often refers to the
RAM for software instruction and for remembrance on what it works on. The CPU can get
 21
Balog O k

information faster from RAM than it can from a hard disk. The computer, through the users, then
reads data and instructions from the hard disks or external storage medium and store them in the
RAM where they could be quickly retrieved, processed, copied and returned.
Every CPU has 4 components: Control unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Register and
Internal Bus.
[Link] unit
This coordinates all the computer activities and contains the CPUs instruction to carry out
commands.
[Link] and Logical Units (ALU)
This is responsible for performing arithmetic and logic functions. In other words, when the
control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and logic it refers it to the ALU.
[Link]
This is a temporary storage area that holds data, keeps instructions and holds the location and
results of these operations.
[Link] Bus
Internal Bus is the network of communication lines that connects the internal elements of the
processors and also leads to external connectors that links the processors to other elements of the
system.

Figure 2.15: An Intel Processor (CPU)

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
This comprises the RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory).
Data and information entered into the computer system are either held in the temporary storage
section called the RAM or permanent storage section called the hard disk/drive. Data and
information storage in the RAM is temporary because RAM’s memory chips need stable power
 22
Balog O k

to steadily hold information but when power is interrupted, data in the RAM are lost forever.
Memory is measured in a small group of data called bytes (characters). Each byte consists of
eight bits. The byte is the basic unit of memory measurement. RAM actually refers to the way
the CPU searches through memory for the information it needs.

Figure 2.16: series of RAM

Source: ([Link])

Byte= one character (letter, number space or punctuation mark).

Kilobyte (Kb) = 1,024 bytes. Approximately 1,000 bytes.
Megabyte (Mb) = 1,048, 576 bytes. Approximately 1,000,000.
Gigabyte (Gb) = 1,073,741,824 bytes. Approximately 1,000,000,000 bytes.
1024 Gigabyte = 1 Terabyte.
1024 Terabyte = 1 Petabyte.
1024 Petabyte = 1 Exabyte. Usually these values are approximated. E.g. 1 kilobyte equals 1024
bytes but often rounded up to 1000 bytes.
ROM (Read Only Memory) is a permanent storage section of the computer that contains
instructions on how the system starts or boots. Data and information in this memory are not
easily alterable.
 23
Balog O k

Figure 2.17: An on-board BIOS ROM Chip

Source: ([Link])

Figure 4.18: Hardware Architecture

Source: ([Link])

A friendly dependent relationship exists between the RAM and the CPU. The RAM is the
store house for the CPU because the CPU reads data and instructions from the RAM through its
Control Unit. The Control Unit of the CPU- through the electronic link of the Internal Bus-
connects and reads data and instructions, one after the other, from the RAM (which is a closer
and faster access of stored data than the hard disk). The Control Unit usually notifies the ALU of
mathematical operations (-, +, /, *, >=, etc) to be performed on data, based on instructions it
receives from the RAM. The Register keeps a copy of the data and information from the RAM in
the CPU because the Register could be read from and written into faster than the main memory
 24
Balog O k

(Hard Disk). The results are eventually written and saved back into the RAM. The data and
information are displayable on the monitor and could be permanently stored in a media.

[Link] Devices
A storage device is a piece of hardware that permanently stores data and information. Unlike the
RAM, a storage device retains information when electric power is turned off. Magnetic and
Optical storage technologies are the two technologies used in data and information storage.
Although devices that store data typically employ either while some combine both technologies.
The most common storage devices use magnetic technology. E.g. floppy disk and hard disk use
magnetic technology while CDROM, DVD and WORM (Write Once Read Many) use optic
technology. Storage devices include floppy disk, Hard Disk, CD/DVD, Tape Drive, flash drive,
and Zip Drive.

[Link] disk
This a circular flat piece of plastic made of a flexible (or floppy) magnetic material on which
data are recorded. Floppy disk drives store data on both sides of the disks.

Figure 2.19: A Floppy Disk

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Drive
This generally not visible because hard disks are usually enclosed within the system unit of
desktop. The hard disk is a stack of metal platters that spin on one spindle like a stack of rigid
floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where the disk and drive are separate, the hard-disk drive, or
hard drive is the whole unit. Generally you cannot remove the hard disk from its drive; however
some manufacturers make removable hard disks that plug into a separate drive unit.
 25
Balog O k

Figure: 2.20 Desktop Hard Drive

Source: ([Link])

[Link] disc
This a hard, plastic, silver- colored disk. CD-ROM is an acronym for Compact Disc Read Only
Memory. This implies that the disk can only be read. You cannot change or overwrite the
contents of a CD-ROM disk. CD-ROM disks provide tremendous storage capacities. A single
CD ROM disc can store up to 680 MB of data, sound, and video. This is equivalent to 485 floppy
disks.
 26
Balog O k

Figure 2.21: Compact Disc

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Versatile Disc

This the acronyms for Digital Versatile Disc (formerly digital videodisc), a type of compact disc
able to be used for video as well as audio data.
 27
Balog O k

Figure 2.22: Digital Versatile Disc

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Drive
This a device that reads and writes data to the surface of a magnetic tape, generally used for
backing up or restoring the data of an entire hard disk.
 28
Balog O k

Figure 2.23: Tape Drive

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Drive
These are alternative to tape backup units or tape drives. A zip drive can be internal or external.
Zip drives have removable cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds about 100MB to 250 MB of data.
 29
Balog O k

Figure 4.24: Tape Drive

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Devices
Output devices return processed data (information) back to the user. In other words, output
devices allow the computer to talk to us. The most common output devices are monitor and
printer. Others include modems and speakers.

[Link]
This is an output device that enables the computer to display audio, video and graphics to the
users. It has a screen like that of a television. It is commonly referred to as the screen or display.
It is the main source for output of information from the computer. There are technologies of the
monitor: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), LED (Light Emitting Diode)
and Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER).
 30
Balog O k

Figure 2.25: A Television with CRT Figure 2.26: A Television with LCD
Source: ([Link]) Source: ([Link])

Figure 2.27: A Television with LED

Source: ([Link])
 31
Balog O k

Figure 2.28: A Television with LASER

SSource: (www. [Link])

[Link]
This is an output device that produces hard copy or a print out on a paper. It takes data from its
electronic form and prints it out on paper. There are three principal types of printers; Laser,
Inkjet and Dot- Matrix. In evaluating these types of printers, 4 criteria are most important: Image
quality, Speed, Noise level, Cost. The types of printers include:

[Link] Matrix
This is the first type of printers commonly used with personal computers. They are generally the
least expensive and the most versatile; however they are slow and noisy. The print quality is less
than that of Inkjet printers. Dot-matrix printers can handle multi-part forms such as invoices and
carbons. Dot-matrix printers create graphics and characters as a collection of tiny dots. They
work by impacts of the tiny pins inside the print head that hit the printer ribbon against the paper,
forming the characters and pictures.

Figure 2.29: Dot Matrix

Source: ([Link])
 32
Balog O k

[Link] Jet
This is less expensive than laser printers and they produce high quality printouts quietly;
however they are slower and cannot produce the same quality output as laser printers. Typically,
an inkjet printer is more expensive than a dot matrix printer but costs about half as much as a
laser printer. They are portable and sleek, and were developed to be used with notebook
computers. In addition, inkjet printers are the best option if you want a good resolution colour
printer. Just like laser printers, inkjet printers have their own memory different from the memory
of the computer.

Figure 2.30: Ink Jet

Source: ([Link])

[Link] printers
These are much more expensive than other types of printers. Their print quality are higher. They
are also much faster and are very quiet. As the name implies a laser is at the heart of printers.
Printers are embedded systems, where separate computer (microprocessors) are built into the
printer to interpret the data that it receives from the computer, and to control the laser. A laser
beam is moved by using a moving mirror to create an electrical charge on a rotating drum. The
electrical charge attracts a dry ink substance called toner. The toner is melted onto the page to
leave a permanent high-quality image. Laser speeds are often rated in “pages per minute” or
ppm. Typically, the higher the value, the faster the speed. The complexity of the pages you are
printing determines how fast the printer prints. Laser printers use the measure of dots per inch
(dpi) to determine print quality. Laser printers vary, generally ranging from 300 to 1,200 dpi.
 33
Balog O k

Figure 2.31: Laser printer

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Card
This is also called sound board. It is a device that is installed in one of the expansion slot in the
motherboards of system unit of desktops and laptops to produce quality music, movie, games and
voice sounds through speakers or head phones or earpiece. Sound cards is characterized by
Digital in, Sound in and out, Microphone, Firewall and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital
Interface) peripherals.

Figure 4 32: Sound Card

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
This is a word coined from two words ‘mo’ from modulator and ‘dem’ from demodulator.
Modem is an output device that converts digital data (signals) from one mode to another over
communication media, in order for such data to be easily communicated between computers.
Modems modulate (code) computer data into electrical signals that could only be transmitted
over a telephone line and demodulates (decode) such signals back into a digital data at the
receiving end by another modem. A modem links a computer to the internet over a telephone
 34
Balog O k

line. Quality of modems are measured by either the maximum amount of signals sent per unit of
time (bps) or the number of times the modem sends new signals (speed of the modem).

Figure 2.33: Modem

Source: ([Link])

[Link] of Computer System by Technology, Size and Function

[Link]
Technologically, there 2 classes of computers: Analogue and Digital Computers.
[Link] computer
This is a special purpose machine that solves problems represented as continuous data like
voltage, angular position, temperature, pressure, speed etc. Early analogue computer was
invented in China in the first millennium, (Wikipedia, 2019) and the most recent analogue
computer emerged in 1948. Examples like Thermometer, Thermal analyzer, Oscilloscope,
speedometer, etc.
 35
Balog O k

Figure 4.34: Analogue computer with a meter reading

Source: ([Link])

[Link] computer
This is either general or special purpose machine that solves problems represented as discrete
data in 0s and 1s (digits). Digital computer emerged after analogue computers and its earlier
examples is Abacus while its modern examples include: Mainframe, Super, Mini and
Microcomputers. Digital computers are characterized by combinations of on and off buttons,
chips, and other electronic devices that make them function at a very fast speed. Moreover, a
computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer is called a Hybrid
Computer. E.g medical machines that read heart beats, etc.
Ezaz (2017), Nipun (2015), Admin (2012) and Thakur identified certain differences between
analogue and digital computers some of which are:

Table 1: Differences Between Analogue and Digital

Factors/Criteria Analogue Digital
1. Definition Manipulates continuous Manipulates discrete data in
data/signal in its operations mathematical and logical
like voltage, speed, pressure,operations and outputs results
etc through metering, etc. in binary or digits through
monitor, etc.
2. Age Old New
3. Signal Representation On/off signals, where off Represents any values
state = 0V while On state = between two extremes: -15
5V. and +15V that is constant or
vary with time.
4. Memory Low High
5. Speed Slow Fast
6. Reliability Low High
7. Application/specialization Special purposes like General and special purpose
science, technology and in all field
medicine.
8. Accuracy Low High
 36
Balog O k

9. Usage Difficult Easy

10. Circuitry components Amps, signal generators and Microprocessors, logic gates
networks of resistors and and clock pulse generators
capacitors.
11. Emulation Limited ability to mimic Has higher capability to
digital system mimic analogue systems.
12. Availability Scarcity Popular
13. Size Big Small
14. Program-ability Yes/No with electrical Yes with algorithms by
connections of different comparing, multiplying and
subsystem. E,g connecting a moving 2 or more data E.g
signal generator to a control On/off Switching signal like
knob which varies the signal microprocessors, clock pulse
strength. generators and logic gates.
15. Central coordination No. It does not, hence, Yes. Coordinates with a
chaotic and unpredictable master clock
behavior

16. Data storage Difficult except hybriding Simple

analogue signals to numbers
and stores digitally
17. Noise/Error Yes with effects on accuracy Yes with no effect on
accuracy
18. Examples Thermometre, Speedometre, Laptop, smartphones, etc.,
etc etc.

Picture: 2.35: Mother board of a Computer

Source: [Link]
 37
Balog O k

Picture 2.36: Amplifier Singal Generator Capacitor

[Link] [Link] [Link]

Resistor Logic Gate

[Link]

[Link]
In terms of size, computer is classified as: Mainframe, Super computer, Mini, and Micro
Computers.
[Link] Computers
These are bigger computers that emerged in the 50s with the capability to handle large amounts
of data though not as voluminous like Super computers. They are used mainly by large
organizations to handle public transactions like the PHCN, NITEL, and CBN. IBM and
Boroughs are popular manufacturer of Mainframe.
 38
Balog O k

Figure: 2.35: Internal section of IBM System z9 Mainframe.

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Computers
These are special purpose computers that emerge as the most powerful computer ever made in
the 1960s that have the capability to store and manipulate the largest amount of data or variables
that run in half a million. They are designed for educational, scientific, exploration, nuclear,
space and broadcasting purposes like they are being used by Universities, Broadcasting cable
companies and Aerospace agencies like NASA that launched space shuttle with the aid of
supercomputers. Super computers are about 90 times faster than mini computers. Three Chinese
teams built Tianhe-1A, the world’s fastest computer in 2010, (Normile, 2018). They are bigger in
size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive. Super computers are made by CRAY
Company.
 39
Balog O k

Figure: 2.36: IBM “Intrepid” with 164,000 Processors Cores.

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Computer
This is a smaller computer to Mainframe and Super computers that was invented in the mid-60s,
(Huang, 2014). Mini computers are next in line to mainframe computer and super computers in
terms of size. Modern mini computers can perform better than the older ones of the 60s. One of
the examples is Digital Equipment Corporation PDP’s 8.
 40
Balog O k

Figure 2.37: Digital Equipment Corporation PDP’s 8 Mini computer.

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
These are regarded as Personal computers (PCs), the smallest of all the computers.
They are commonly found in offices, homes and classrooms. Micro computers are built specially
to be used in watches, clocks, calculators, phones, and cameras. Manufacturers like Dell, Hp,
Toshiba, etc are scaling down their sizes the more. Examples include: Desktops, Laptops,
Notebook and Palmtops.
Desktops
These are the first type of PCs and the most common. Most desktops are small enough to fit on a
desk, but are a little too big to carry around.
Laptops
These are battery-operated with built-in screens. They are designed to be carried and used in
locations without electricity. Laptops typically have an almost full sized keyboard.
Notebooks
These are similar to laptops but smaller. They are approximately the size of a notebook and can
easily fit inside a brief case.
Palmtop
These are also regarded as Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs) and are the smallest of portable
computers. Palmtops are much less powerful than notebooks or desktops models and feature
built-in applications such as word processing.
 41
Balog O k

Figure 2.38: Versions of microcomputer Figure 4.39: Versions of microcomputer

Source: ([Link]) Source: ([Link])

[Link]
The classes of computers are classified as Server, Workstation and Embedded system.

[Link]
This is a virtually centralized computer dedicated to provide one or more resources to other
computers. It is of 3 major types: Database, File and Web servers.
Database server
This is dedicated to manage database resources.
File server
This is dedicated to manage collection of files.
Web server
This is dedicated to manage web applications.

[Link]
This is a PC or set of PCs that have the infrastructure to make them synchronizable to other
computers. Workstations like Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) have powerful CPU
and usually run on Linux or its versions, unlike Microcomputers that could run on any of the 4
major OSs. The biggest manufacturers of workstations are Sun Microsystems.

Figure 2.40: Efficient Workstation

Source: ([Link])
 42
Balog O k

[Link] system
This is a small- scaled computer called microcontroller that is programmed into another bigger
machine or engine to perform a specific task not easily modifiable or reprogrammable; some of
which are ICTs. Examples of embedded system is found Automobile, Aircraft, Washing
machine, Robot, Rockets, Camera, Drones, GPS, etc.

Figure 4.41: Series of embeded Systems

Source: ([Link])

2.2 Software
Computer software is a set of instructions (Programs) on the computer system, written to
perform tasks. It is not tangible like the hardware but embedded in the computer. Software is one
of the pair divisions of the computer system. It is characterized by 2 sub divisions: System and
Application softwares.

[Link] Software
System software maintains the basic internal operations and enhances the performance of the
computer system. System software is classified into operating system, utility, network and
firmware, (Mugivane, 2014). Operating system software include: Windows, Macintosh, Linux,
Unix, Android, etc while application software is specific task software like desktop publishing,
word processing, entertainment, utility, etc.
 43
Balog O k

[Link] System
It boots or starts-up the computer system, manages the hardware resources and controls the
execution of application programs. E.g Microsoft Operating Systems (Ms DOS and Windows),
Apple OS (Mac and iOS), Linux, Unix, and Android, etc.
[Link]’s Operating Systems (MsDOS and Windows)
Microsoft Operating System includes Microsoft Disc Operating System (MSDOS) and other
Windows versions manufactured by Microsoft. Microsoft" is an acronym of "microcomputer"
and "software" originally labelled by Paul Allen. Microsoft is an US multinational technological
company headquartered in Redmond, Washington, D.C. that produces computer accessories like
hardware, softwares and services, (Wikipedia, 2016). Microsoft was founded by Bill Gates and
Paul Allen on the 4th of April, 1975, to develop BASIC interpreters for MITS’s Altair 8800.
Microsoft began the development of operating systems through its own Unix version called
Xenix, (Dyar, 2002).

[Link]
This is a command line interface that was Microsoft’s first modified operating systems launched
in the mid-1982 which was followed by the first Windows versions on the 20 th of November,
1985 and Microsoft office suite like word and excel in 1990, (Allan, 2001). Users need to
understand programming to operate MsDOS because of its users’ unfriendliness. It requires the
users to type command at a prompt, like CLS to clear the screen.

[Link] Windows
MS Windows versions include Windows 1.0, 2.0, 2.1 3.0, 3.1, 95, 98, Windows ME, 2000, 2000
professional, Win XP, Vista, Windows 7 and 8, 8.1, 10, (Gibbs, 2018). These are better
operating systems than MS `DOS because of their user-friendliness. They are characterized by
graphical user interface. They are the most popular and operate virtually on most computers,
especially in other continents. They make use of graphics and icons to represent objects. They
are driven by mouse. Windows 95 emerged on the 20th of August 1995; Windows 98 in 25 th
June, 1998; Windows 2000 on the 17th of February, 2000; Windows XP on the 25th of October,
2001; Windows Vista on the 30th January, 2007; Windows 7 was released on the 22 nd of October,
2009; Windows 8 on the 26th of October, 2012; Windows 8.1 on 17 th of October, 2013 and
Windows 10 on the 29th of July, 2015, (Gates, 2018 & Howse, 2015). Microsoft released Xbox in
2002, (Radwick et al 2002). It introduced “Surface” its own first version of Microsoft tablet, to
explore full capabilities of Windows 8 on the 29 th of October, 2012. (Sullivan, 2012). It bought
“Yammer” a social network for $1.2 Billion dollars on the 25 th of June, 2012, (Acohido, 2012).
Microsoft revealed the purchase of Nokia at $7.2 Billion in 2013 and launched “Kinetic”, a video
game controller, with an ultra-wide 1080p camera that sees in the dark, measures a user’s heart
rate by just looking at the eyes and can also be used to monitor the behaviors of television
viewers (Pirece, 2013).
Microsoft bought Github for $7.5 Billion in 2018; Linkedln for $28.1 Billion in 2016;
Mojang for $2,5 Billion in 2014; Nokia for $7.2 Billion on the 25 th of April, 2013; Yammer for
$1.2 Billion 25th of June, 2012; It acquired Skype for $8.5 Billion in 2011; Aquantive for $5.9
Billion in 2007; Navision $1.3 Billion in 2003; Great Plain Software for $1.3 Billion in 2000;
Visio for $1.3 Billion 1999, (Shen, 2018).
Microsoft was rated the wealthiest software company in 2011, (Kooten 2011). Its wealth has
created 3 Billionaires and about 12,000 Millionaires since it went public in 1986, (CNBC, 2014).
 44
Balog O k

Microsoft’s products includes: its operating systems like MsDOS, Windows versions,
Microsoft Office suite (word and excel), internet explorer, bing and edge browsers, Video games
like xbox, xbox 360 and xbox one, formerly windows Nokia phone, etc.
Soffar (2015) and RJ systems (2017) listed and explained some advantages (strength) and
disadvantages (weaknesses) of Microsoft Windows.

Windows’ Strength
i. Ease of use
Modern versions of windows are usually not difficult to handle for users who are familiar with
earlier versions, since the days of MSDOS till date. This is the reason for the reluctance of
windows users for other operating systems. Though, I would say windows is not as easy to install
and delete like Mac.
[Link] of readily compatible software
Windows dominance of PC operating systems makes it possible for software manufacturers to
liaise with Microsoft and develop products and services that are windows compatible. There is a
huge selection of software available for Windows. There is hardly any application whose
windows versions compatibility are not available.
[Link]’s Backwards compatibility
Programs in older windows’ versions work effectively with newer versions of windows when
users update to newer versions without losing critical programs in the older versions.
[Link] support for latest windows
The dominance of Microsoft in the software market makes hardware manufacturers offer support
for recent versions of Windows when they go to market with a new product. Almost all hardware
accessories have support for new windows versions.
v. Plug and Play
Windows are designed to be easily compatible with other new hardwares without manual
intervention, as long as the right drivers are installed compared with other operating systems.
vi. Entertainment
Windows is designed to supports most of the PC gaming technologies to the extent that wider
varieties of game softwares are readily available for windows. Users who are game lovers shoot
for windows.
[Link] with MS driven websites
Popularity of windows and bundling of windows with Internet explorer-after the irrelevance of
Netscape- coerce users who want to access the full potentials on Microsoft driven servers to
crave for windows as the only opportunity accompanied with latest internet explorer, not
possible with other browsers.
[Link] windows susceptibility to viruses has thrived anti-virus multi-million dollar
industry.

Windows’ Weaknesses
i. Costly
Microsoft requires its customers to highly invest their resources in computer hardware like a
faster CPU, bigger RAM and hard disk due to all the extra functionality that have been added to
its products and services, which in actual sense are not really needed by all users but still pay the
prices.
 45
Balog O k

[Link] Source
Troubleshooting problems with Windows is difficult because log files are not generated for users
to deduce problems and only Microsoft has full access to its software's source code. Users are
left with trials and errors to troubleshoot which is usually time-consuming and impossible.
[Link] security
Microsoft security is weak, as it has been argued by its developers that its products aren't
engineered for security. This is the reason that Windows computers are highly likely than others
to be hijacked and used for spamming, pornography and hate mail. In addition, Windows
systems require a lot more time and effort to maintain than other systems.
[Link] susceptibility
Microsoft's operating systems are susceptible to computer viruses compared to other operating
systems even not as worse for older Mac operating systems. That is, business clients of
Microsoft have no choice but to keep investing in anti-virus software for all of their Windows
computers and keep track of almost daily release of Microsoft security patches.
v. Offensive license agreements
Microsoft’s End User License Agreement (EULA), that must be agreed to before any Microsoft
product (service packs and security updates) could be used or installed is irritating and boring.
E.g. Microsoft's EULA for Windows XP was radically amended for people who installed a
security update in mid-2002 that fixed an obvious and potentially dangerous security leak in
Windows Media Player.

[Link] and iOS

Apple Inc is a multinational I.T company headquartered in Cupartino California that designs,
develops and sells computer hardware, computer software and online services. Apple was
originally founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne on the 1 st of April, 1976,
(Williams, 2015) but the business was funded by Mike Markkula with $250,000 during the
incorporation on the 3rd of April, 1977 by Steve Job and Steve Wozniak as founder, (Dorhmel,
2018). Apple’s 1st product was single handedly designed and built by Steve Wozniak on the 29 th
of June, 1976.
Steve Job introduced the original Macintosh computer, without a programming language but
with an integral graphical user interface and mouse- on the 10 th of January, 1984. Apple’s
hardware products include: iPhone, iPad, Mac computer, iPod, Applewatch, AppleTV,
Homepod; while its software products include: MacOS for the computers and iOS operating
systems for the its phones, iTune media player, Safari browser, iLife and iWork (music creativity
and productivity), Final Cut Pro, Logic Pro, and Xcode (Professional applications), (Wikipedia,
2019).
Apple’s recent hardware include: three desktops (the all-in-one iMac, entry-level Mac
mini, and the Mac Pro graphics workstation), and four laptops (the MacBook, MacBook Air,
MacBook Pro, and MacBook Pro with Retina display). Apple’s current operating system for the
Mac, OS X version 10.11.6 "El Capitan" was released on the 9 th of July, 2018. Macs are
currently capable of running non-Apple operating systems such as Linux, Open BSD, and
Microsoft Windows with the aid of Boot Camp or third-party software. Apple does not licensed
OS X for use on non-Apple computers. Over 10% of global desktops run on Mac. Bonhauer
(2018), identified some advantages and disadvantages of MacOS in relation to others operating
systems.
 46
Balog O k

Mac’s Strength
i. Attractiveness
Its graphical user interface (GUI) is the most powerful and beautiful.
[Link]
It is simple in installation, launching and deleting of application unlike in windows where you
have to go through folders paths to install and uninstall.
[Link] security
Unlike windows, MacOS is not easily infested with viruses. MacOS has in-built firewall that
enable users to operate without fear of viruses.
[Link] integration for efficiency
Apple is both hard and software manufacturer whose software run on its hardware without
optimization issues. Its system is highly compatible because Apple runs production from start to
finish. E.g iPhone, iPad, iPod work best with Mac computers. Users working with iOS may
continue their tasks with MacOS without synchronization through cloud based drive like Google
drive and One drive.
[Link] functional apps
Apple computers usually come with a lot of useful apps that do not require costly installations
unlike windows that does not come preloaded with Microsoft office suites. E.g MacbookPro or
Mac desktops come with Productivity suites like Pages, Numbers and Keynotes; Browser like
Safari; email like client mail; Communication app like Facetime and Messenger; Photo and
video editing apps like iPhoto and iMovie; Music production app like GarageBand, etc.
[Link] multiple tasks
Apple computers systems that work seamlessly are equipped with multitasking features like
switching between multiple desktops and apps at the same time through built-in short keys,
trackpads and mouses better than Windows. It is possible to have a desktop run productivity
while another may run on music or video on the same system. MacOS can run Windows vista or
XP concurrently though with bootcamp and parallel softwares. Though, Apple has not licensed
OS X for use on non-Apple computers,
[Link]
MacOS and others provides the best Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for
Programmers. Microsoft has ported its Visual Studio IDE to MacOS.
viii. Longevity
Apple PCs like MacBookPro and others running MacOS are built with stronger hardwares like
metals and are likely to sustain their OS for as long as they exist.

Macintosh’s Weakness
i. Cost
Mac computers like MacBookPro or Macmini are very expensive though qualitative compared
with their Windows counterparts. Genuine MacOS could only be obtained by buying a Mac
computer.
ii. Difficulty in Maintenance
Apple products are not easily upgraded because their system are integrated. Unlike Windows
where users can design and build their system to taste by just buying necessary accessories and
 47
Balog O k

install them. Upgrading is vital for longevity of the system and this is difficult with Apple
products.

[Link] Entertaining
Mac is not designed to accommodate varieties of game apps like windows. Users of Macs don’t
enjoy the latest in limited game apps on their systems because of the difficulties in upgrading.
[Link]’ unfriendliness
Mac is not designed to accommodate diversities of apps like Windows. Software developers
prioritize their services for Windows above other operating systems. It is not easy to source
advanced business apps for MacOS.
[Link] and software Incompatibility
Mac and iOS resources are usually incompatible with other operating systems and computers.
E.g PCs with MacOS are not synchronisable with Windows PCs. Users cannot transfer
information from Apple resources to other computer except Apple resources. File management is
difficult with Mac than Windows and others.
[Link]’ Instability and Consistency
Apple products are unstable because the management changes executives at will which
influences the stability of Macintosh.

[Link]
Unix is a general purpose, multiuser interactive operating systems for the initial larger Digital
Equipment Corporation PDP -11 and Interdata 8132 computers, whose origination began with
the AT&T Unix that was 1st released on the 20 th of April, 1969 and developed through 70s at the
Bells Lab Research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Richie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas
Mcllroy, and Joe Osanna, (Ritchie, 1978). Unix was initially written in Assembly language but
its version 4 was entirely rewritten in C language in 1973, (Ritchie, 1979). It was initially a
closed sourced but versions like BSD family and Illumo are open sourced. It is both a command
line and graphical user interface (X Window system). Initially intended for use inside the Bell
System, AT&T licensed Unix to outside parties from the late 1970s, leading to academic and
commercial variants of Unix. There are many cloned versions of Unix over the years, one of
which is Linux as the most popular; while Apple's OS X now MacOS, is the Unix version with
the largest installed base as of 2014.
Walron (2019), Toulba (2018), Wikipedia (2018) and Anikesh et al (2014) explained some
advantages and disadvantages of Unix OS.

Unix Strength
[Link] tasks
The Unix operating system offers an efficient level of virtual memory that allow multiple users
with multiple accounts to work with a large number of programs concurrently by using
computer's storage space as working memory, temporarily increasing available system resources
without interfering with each other, not slowing or crashing the systems.
[Link] utilities
Unix is rich in collection of small utilities (e.g anti-virus) and commands (e.g cat to display file
contents) that are designed to carry out specific tasks, rather than being muddled in a variety of
 48
Balog O k

special but insignificant options. Unix is accompanied with a well-stocked toolbox for some
troubleshooting.
[Link]
Unix has the ability to string different utilities and commands together in an unlimited number of
configurations in order to accomplish a variety of complicated tasks. This operating system is not
limited to any pre-configured menus or combinations as most ordinary personal computer
systems normally are.
[Link]
Unix is available for use on a variety of machines, making it one of the most portable operating
systems in existence. Unix can be run on regular PCs, Mac and many others.
[Link]
Unix is much more secured that others, due to the fact that it requires authentication from users
through username and password. Unix is characterized by files systems. Hence, all files on the
system must have an owner, who can set specific permissions as to which users can or cannot
read or modify that file.
[Link] File system
Unix is the most organized of all operating systems. It is organized as a single large tree of
nested directories within its file system whether it is data, program or disk.
[Link] of trouble shooting
Unix is simple to handle due to the provision of readable source code of many programs
available to users. Unix programs also often come with exhaustive digital manuals, collectively
called man pages.
[Link] of Expertise
Unix seems older than other operating systems, which means it should be easy to hire experts
who can work with operating systems or find documentation when a problem arises with a Unix
system.

Unix Weaknesses
[Link]’s unfriendliness
The traditional interface for the Unix operating system is command line based, and this
command line shell interface may be hostile to the casual user. Unix was developed for use by
programmers rather than casual users. A graphical user interface (GUI) is also available, but the
traditional Unix interface is command line only.
[Link]
Special commands and characters required by the command line interface often make use of
code names do not give much information to notify a user of what they are doing. Many
commands in the Unix interface require the use of special characters, whereby their small,
insignificant typos (errors) can have much greater and unexpected results on Unix machines.
[Link]
Though, the richness of Unix’s utilities is advantageous but may be overwhelming to the
comprehension of a novice user.
[Link] software’s support
Windows and MacOS have varieties of softwares and hardware supports from manufacturers
than Unix, despite Unix universality on different machines.
[Link] Resources Requirement
 49
Balog O k

Unix variants like Linux, Xenix, BSD and others require different hardwares, softwares and
source codes that require different approaches.

[Link]
This is an operating system that belongs to the group of free and open source operating system
software based on Linux kernel, (Wikipedia, 2018). The defining component of Linux is the
Linux Kernel that was first released on the 5 th of October 1991 by Linus Torvald, while he was
studying computer technology in university of Helsinki. Linux was originally developed as a free
operating system for PC based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more
computer hardware than any other operating system. Because of the dominance of Android on
Smartphone, Linux has the largest installed base of all general-purpose operating systems. Linux
is also the leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as Mainframe and
virtually all fastest Supercomputer but is used on only around 2.3% of desktop computer when
not including Chrome OS, which has about 5% of the overall and nearly 20% of the sub-$300
notebook sales. Linux also runs on embedded systems, which are devices whose operating
system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system; this includes
smartphones and tablet computers running Android and other Linux derivatives. Linux is an
alternative operating system to Microsoft. It is a low cost or free Unix-like operating system that
is secured, free and stable. It is an open source software with available source codes compared
with windows.
Lombardo (2018), Das (2017), RJ System (2017), Kuppan (2016), Renewablepcs (2016), Beach
(2013), identified some advantages and disadvantages of Linux:

Linux’s Strength
[Link] source
Linux is free to download and install on as many computer as possible. Its Open sourceness
means it allows access source code.
[Link]
Access to Source codes allows users to customize Linux to their tastes and even create their own
distributions. Source codes allows many users to have access to technical solutions and make
programmers to collaborate, review and improve it. Open Sourceness allows companies to align
their IT strategy to their own business objectives, instead of to those of their software provider.
[Link] cost
Linux requires far fewer resources to achieve results comparable to those of Windows. Linux as
an Open source operating system, incurs little or no cost in its productivity, investment and
expenditure except in terms of its licensing cost.
[Link]
Linux users usually do not get scared of malware, spyware, trojan and worms from Hackers like
they feel with Windows and others. In addition, files are executed by users with administrator
privileges that required the input of passwords. Viruses that find ways into the system required
administrators who would intentionally or unintentionally execute them.
[Link]
Linux rarely generally crashes. It runs until its hardware fails or shuts down, due to the fact that
Linux is configured not to be affected by applications that misbehave. ZDnet (1999) argued that
when Windows NT Server 4.0 with service pack 3 and Linux servers were subjected to about 10
 50
Balog O k

months reliability test, Windows NT crashed on an average of once every six weeks and cost
about 30 minutes each time to fix it without any of the Linux servers crashing.
[Link] support
Linux is supported by commercial distributors, consultants, and by a very large and active
community of users and developers. In 1997, the Linux community was awarded InfoWorld's
Product of the Year Award for Best Technical Support over all commercial software vendors.

[Link]
Programmers all over the world collaborate regularly to better Linux. Bugs are usually and
quickly fixed, contrary to closed source or proprietary operating systems, where even top-tier
support providers must rely on the OS vendor for technical information and bug fixes.
[Link] support
Linux always has support for many different computing platforms and peripherals regardless of
age or models while windows does less. Though, exceptional case is the pre-installed-Linux-on-
PC issue that only few vendors like Dell better support than HP and Lenovo do not fully support,
except you install it on them. Peripherals like keyboards, mice, video cards, printers, sound
cards, scanners, digital cameras, SCSI cards, and tape devices.
[Link] tools and applications
Most times Linux is accompanied by a huge collection of tools for system administration and
development. On top of that, many commercial applications are also available for Linux.
[Link] continuity
Most products and businesses that many companies depend on are usually discontinued after
some times. This means that the companies that rely on those products will end up paying for
expensive migrations to alternative products. Organizations and users of Linux’s source code can
maintain the source code for as long as they want.
[Link]
Linux works together with many different computer systems. It can communicate using the
native networking protocols for Unix, Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2, Novell NetWare, and
Macintosh, and can also read and write the disks and partitions used by these OSs and many
other operating systems. It runs on almost all the Unix versions and can process all common file
formats.
m. Strong remote access
This is a great way to save money on maintenance and support that is fast and efficient in Linux,
even via the Internet.
[Link] operation
Linux operation is smooth and fast due to immunity against malwares or spywares and irregular
hard drive’s defragmentation unlike Windows XP and older versions whose hard drives needs to
be defragmented with New Technology File System (NTFS) on regular basis to improve
performance.
[Link]
Linux can run smoothly and quickly on any PC regardless of age or version. Internet could be
surfed, games could be played and files could be created and edited on spreadsheets, word
processing and presentation applications.
[Link]
 51
Balog O k

Linux has many distributions and versions and free diverse applications that users can choose
from like Ubuntu, PCLinuxOS and OpenSUSE, etc.
[Link] efficiency
Linux distribution and versions do not require large memory like Windows. Linux distros can
run on less 2GB memory.

Linux’s Weaknesses
i. Fewer business applications
Although most Linux distributions come with an impressive array of tools and applications, there
still aren't nearly as many specialized business applications available for Linux as there are for
Windows. This is undoubtedly one of the most important hurdles that will have to be cleared by
the Linux community before Linux can become a common desktop solution.
[Link] distributions
One of the main headaches for developers, but also for users, is that not all Linux distributions
are the same: an application developed for one distribution may not work on another. Sometimes,
an application may not even work on a different version of the same distribution.
[Link] Administrators required
Contrary to Windows administrators, Professional Linux administrator has to know a lot more.
Such knowledgeable individuals are not as easy to come by, but luckily, once found and
employed, they tend to represent much better value for money.
[Link]
Due to its Open sourceness, there is absence of legal justification in cases where Linux distros
causes troubles on one’s computer.

[Link]
Android is a mobile operating system, made for touch screen mobile devices like smart phones
and tablet devices that was initially developed by Android Inc but later financially backed and
bought by Google in 2005, based on Linux kernel, (Wikipedia, 2019). Android was written in
Java, C, C++ and other programming languages, (Moheshwari, 2018). Lee (2017), Soffer (2015),
Puri (2016), Ahmad (2012), and Simhadri (2008), itemized and explained some advantages and
disadvantages of Android OS:

Android’s Strength
[Link] tasks
Android phones can run many applications simultaneously. You can browse, facebook while
listening to the song.
[Link]
Instant notifications like latest Short message service (SMS), Email, articles and Missed calls
usually appear on the LED Home screen of Android phone.
[Link] access to apps
Thousands of applications are ready for free download and use on Android phones through
Google Android Apps Market.
[Link] software and hardware support
Android enjoys supports from various manufacturers like Sony Ericsson, Motorola, HTC and
Samsung, etc, with each manufacturer’s specification and style: Motorola with its Motoblur,
Sony Ericsson with its Timescape and so on. Unlike iOS and MacOS that are limited to iphone
 52
Balog O k

and Macintosh. Android device chargers are usually compatible with other mobile devices.
Android is equipped with excellent software updates to improve maintenance.
[Link] integration
Android phones have been integrated with Google services, so you can quickly browse and
check e-mail from Gmail.
[Link] life
Android devices have varieties of battery sizes that are easily changeable and wirelessly charged
with longer life than other OS devices like iOS. Though, there exceptions.

[Link]
Android provides quick and easy access to varieties of widgets on the Home screen. E.g email
could be easily accessed from Gmail account.
[Link] and remote controller
It can also serve as a router for internet share and also remotely control TV with its infrared.
[Link] alteration
It provides the choice of ROM modification to be used on your mobile phones.
[Link]
Samsung galaxy S7 edge has better RAM, faster processor, lasting battery and higher screen
resolution that iphone 6.

Android’s Weaknesses
[Link]
Most Android phones require a simultaneous internet connection that is continuously active.
That means you must be prepared to subscribe GPRS packet that suits your needs.
[Link] Ads
Applications in the Android phones can indeed be obtained freely, but they are usually disturbing
either at the top or bottom of screen.
[Link] updating
Android mobile’s apps are not regularly and timely updated like iOS app. Android update
depend on the mobile vendors that determine when these updates would be done.
[Link] resolution
Android devices do not have powerful camera resolution like apple devices. E.g 12 megapixel
camera of iphone 7 is better than 12 megapixel of LG G5.
[Link]
Some Android devices use apps that are outdated and hackable compared to Apple that has
increased surveillance, has the ability to update multiples devices fastly and has embarked on
Touch ID (Finger print). Users’ privacy are much more secured with iOS than Android because
their data are encrypted, unused and unstored by Apple.
[Link] in screen sizes and resolutions- These make app design and User interphase (UI)
development harder.
[Link] lock-in
You must have a Google id before you can access Android devices. Access is not possible if you
do not have a Google id.

[Link] Software
 53
Balog O k

This software is a special service program that is written to enhance the performance of the
system and smooth running of the applications. E.g Norton utilities and McAfee suites.

iii. Network software

It enables the computer and other pripherals to communicate efficient. E.g Novell netware,
Window NT based, UNIX, etc.

[Link]
This is an instruction written on single chip about how the system boots.

[Link] Softwares
These are software written with algorithms to perform specific tasks. Examples of Application
softwares include:
[Link] Processing Softwares
These applications are generally used for creating, editing, formatting and printing neat, accurate
and professional texts/documents. e.g. MS Word, Google Docs, WPS Writer, LibreOffice Writer,
Word Star, Word perfect, Lotus 1, 2, 3, etc. They are also specifically used for:
[Link] letters, reports, books, resumes, and essays.
[Link]-checking, grammar correction, and formatting tools.
[Link] images, tables, and hyperlinks.
[Link] merge and automatic page numbering.
[Link] Softwares
These are softwares used for organizing, calculating, and analyzing numerical data using rows
and columns. E.g Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, LibreOffice Calc, Apple Numbers. They are
used for:
[Link], accounting, and financial forecasting.
[Link] analysis using formulas and charts.
[Link] business inventories and employee records.
[Link] reports and graphs automatically.
[Link] Publishing/Graphic Design and Multimedia
These are used for creating and editing images, videos, music, and animations and to also
produce books, posters, documents. E.g Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW, Paint, Illustrator,
Canva, Blender, Audacity. They are used for:
[Link] design, photo editing, and video production.
[Link] logos, posters, and digital artwork.
[Link] by artists, photographers, and content creators.
[Link] Softwares
These are used to present ideas for others in a pictorial manner and for creating visual slideshows
for teaching, business meetings and presentation in seminar, conferences, workshops, etc. E.g.
MS Power point, Google Slides, Keynote, Prezi and Canva.
[Link] dynamic multimedia presentations.
[Link] animations, charts, audio, and video.
[Link] in classrooms, conferences, and company meetings.
v. Entertainment Software
They are used for relaxation, fun and interactive learning. E.g Steam, VLC Media Player,
Spotify, Netflix, Roblox and Epic Games Launcher pinball, solitaire, etc. They are used for:
 54
Balog O k

[Link] movies and listening to music.

[Link] educational or recreational games.
[Link] Software
These are used to connect and communicate with people and to also educate people. They are
also used to facilitate digital communication, video conferencing, and instant messaging. E.g.
WhatsApp, Zoom, Skype, Microsoft Teams, Telegram, Slack, Google Meet. They are used for:
[Link] and video calls.
[Link] sharing and online collaboration.
[Link] and group discussions.
[Link] in education, business, and remote work.
[Link] videos or live content.
e. MS Outlook for e-mails.
[Link] Software
These are used in computer networks to communicate data and information and share resources
between and within networked computers. E.g. Network OP like Windows New Technology for
Client-Server and PC OS for Peer-peer.
[Link] and Maintenance Software
They are used to manage, optimize, maintain and enhance the performance of system. They are
used to detect problems and solve them on the computer. E.g CCleaner, WinRAR, Backup and
Restore, Disk Defragmenter. They are used for:
[Link] temporary files.
[Link] and extracting files.
[Link] storage and improving system speed.
[Link] Software
They are used to protect computers and networks from threats such as viruses, hackers, and
malware. E.g Anti-virus softwares like Avast Antivirus, Norton, McAfee, Bitdefender and
Kaspersky; File management and security programs. They are used for:
[Link] scanning and removal.
[Link] and network monitoring.
[Link] encryption and system backup.
[Link] Browser/Search Engine
They are used to access, view, and navigate information on the World Wide Web. E.g Google
chrome, Mozilla firefox, Opera mini, Safari, Internet explorer, Microsoft edge, Slimjet,
Maxthon, Slim, Netscape, UC, Yahoo, [Link], Bing, etc. They are used for:
[Link] websites, emails, and online platforms.
[Link]/uploading files.
[Link] online applications and cloud services.
[Link] Management Software (DBMS)
They are used for storing, managing, and retrieving large volumes of structured data. E.g
Microsoft Access, MySQL, Oracle Database, PostgreSQL, SQLite. They are used for:
[Link] school or hospital records.
[Link] customer or employee data.
[Link] queries, sorting, and reporting information.
[Link] security and backup management.
[Link] and Financial Software
 55
Balog O k

They are used to record, process, and manage financial transactions automatically. E,g
QuickBooks, Tally ERP, Sage, FreshBooks, Xero, Wave Accounting. They are used for:
[Link] invoices, salaries, and taxes.
[Link] financial statements.
[Link] business income and expenses.
[Link] Resource Planning (ERP) Software
They are used to integrate all major business processes into one unified system. E.g
SAP ERP, Oracle ERP Cloud, Microsoft Dynamics 365, Odoo. They are used for:
[Link] finance, HR, inventory, and supply chain management.
[Link] duplication and improves data accuracy.

[Link] and E-Learning Software

They are used for teaching, learning, and training students or employees. E.g Moodle, Google
Classroom, Duolingo, Khan Academy, and Rosetta Stone. They are used for:
[Link] learning and assessments.
[Link] classrooms and progress tracking.
[Link] exercises and simulations.
[Link] and Medical Software
They are used in hospitals, clinics, and labs for patient care and data management. E.g Electronic
Health Record (EHR) systems, Telemedicine apps, Medisoft, and CareCloud. They are used for:
[Link] and analyzing patient data.
[Link] hospital operations.
[Link] remote diagnosis and monitoring.
[Link] Intelligence and Data Analysis Software
They are used for machine learning, data prediction, and decision-making. E.g ChatGPT, Power
BI, TensorFlow, IBM Watson, Tableau, and RapidMiner.
[Link] trends and patterns.
[Link] tasks through AI.
[Link] large data sets.
[Link], CAD, and Scientific Software
They are used for designing machines, buildings, and scientific research. E.g AutoCAD,
SolidWorks, MATLAB, Simulink, ANSYS.
[Link] design and simulation.
[Link] and mechanical engineering.
[Link] modeling and mathematical computation.
[Link] Information System (GIS) Software
They are used to capture, analyze, and visualize spatial and geographical data. E.g ArcGIS,
QGIS, Google Earth Pro, MapInfo. They are used for:
[Link] planning and environmental mapping.
[Link] management and navigation.
[Link] and land use analysis.
[Link] and Logistics Software
They are used for managing routes, fleets, and deliveries. E.g Uber Driver App, Google Maps,
Fleet Complete, DHL Tracking Systems. They are used for:
[Link] optimization and GPS tracking.
[Link] management and cargo monitoring.
 56
Balog O k

[Link] and Administrative Software

They are used by governments to manage data, services, and citizens’ records. E.g. National ID
systems, E-voting platforms, Tax management software, and Court record systems. They are
used for:
[Link] transparency and efficiency.
[Link] record keeping and service delivery.
[Link]-Based Applications
They are used to operate entirely online through internet servers instead of local storage. E.g
Google Drive, Dropbox, iCloud, Microsoft OneDrive and Canva Online.

[Link] storage and backup.

[Link] collaboration and sharing.

[Link] from any device, anywhere.

[Link]/Peopleware/Userware
Humanware is the human element in a computer system or information system. Though, this
write has reservations against literatures that categorize users as a component of computer
system. However, we cannot totally detatch the impacts of mankind from the computer system.
Humanware includes not only people who design, operate, manage, and use computers system to
perform tasks but also the manufacturers who embark on system development lifecycle of the
computer system before they are commercialize for sale. It has been said that the hardware is the
body, software is the brain, while the humanware is the soul of the computer ssytem

Classification and Components of Humanware

Humanware covers different categories of users like
[Link] Analysts
These are professionals, who study problems and design computer-based solutions.
[Link]
These are professionals, who write instructions (programs) for the computer.
[Link]
These are professionals, who run and monitor the computer systems.
[Link] Managers and Administrators
These are professionals, who maintain, secure, and manage computer systems.
[Link] and Educators
These are professionals, who teach others how to use computer systems.
vi. End Users
These are users of the computer system, who use its applications to perform their daily tasks

Advantages of Humanware
[Link] Identification
Only humans can recognize real-life problems and determine how computers should be used to
solve them.
[Link] and Goals
Computers cannot decide what to do on their own; humans set objectives for them.
[Link] and Innovation
 57
Balog O k

Humanware introduces new ideas, designs, and technologies that hardware and software alone
cannot create.
[Link]-Making Power
Computers process data, but humans interpret the results and make final judgments.
[Link] and Adaptability
Unlike machines, humans can adapt to new environments, errors, and unexpected changes.
[Link] and Troubleshooting
Human experts detect faults, repair systems, and update software or hardware when needed.
[Link] Improvement
Humanware drives the upgrading of systems, making computers faster, smarter, and more useful
over time.
[Link] and Knowledge Transfer
Humans teach others how to use computer systems effectively, spreading digital literacy.
[Link] and Ethics
People ensure that computer use follows laws, ethics, and safe practices.
[Link] Between Technology and Society
Humanware connects raw technology (hardware and software) to real-world applications,
ensuring systems serve human needs.

Differences between Operating systems (Android, Windows and Mac OS)

Criteria Android Windows Mac OS

1. Devices Smart phones and Desktop and Desktop and
boards, Tablets laptops computers laptops
and TV computers
2. Developer Android Inc. but Microsoft Apple Inc
later by Google
3. Founders and Dates Andy Rubin, Rich Bill Gate and Paul Steve Job, Steve
Miner, Nick Sears, Allen in 1975 Wozniak and
and Chris White in Ronald wayne in
2003 but acquired 1976
by Google in 2005
4. Age/Origin Newer Older Old
5. Operating System Mobile Desktop Desktop
6. Kernel Type Linus based Windows NT Unix based
7. Primary Input Method Touch screen, light Touch, keyboard, Touch,
pen, stylux, tap, Mouse keyboard,
swipe and gesture Mouse and
trackball
8. Tasks Limited and Full multitasks Full multitasks
controlled multi-
tasks
9. Application Mobile App Desktop App Desktop (.app)
(APK/AAB) (.exe, .msi)
10. Application Sources Google Play Store, Microsoft Store, Mac App Store,
Android Package web installers web installers
 58
Balog O k

Kit
(APK)/Android
App Bundle
(AAB) files
11. Power Low and medium High High
Processing
12. RAM Size Optimized for low Requires more Requires more
RAM (2–12 GB) RAM (8–64 GB) RAM (8–64
GB)
13. File System Access Restricted Full Full
14. System Customization High User Moderate Limited
Interface (UI) customization customization
customization
15. Security Model App sand boxing Antivirus, Unix permission
permission based firewall, user sand boxing
accounts
16. Boot Time Very fast Moderate Fast
17. Battery Optimization Highly optimized Less battery Optimized but
for battery focused power hungry
18. External Support and Limited for mobile Wide range of Low peripheral
compatibility app only. peripheral and and creative
professional professional
software support support and
and compatibility compatibility
E.g Apple
specific
19. Availability/Accessibility Partially open Mostly Mostly
sourced proprietary proprietary
20. Updates Controlled by Direct from Direct from
Manufacturers microsoft Apple

Differences between Hardware and Software

Criteria Hardware Software
1. Definition Physical/tangible parts of Non physical part of the
the computer system computer system that is a
program that instructs the
computer
2. Origin China in 2400BC. E.g Britain in 1843 E.g Ada’s
Abacus note G.
3. Function Houses/cases the system and Activates the hardware and
process data. E.g maintains basic internal
Plastic/metal case and also operations.
the CPU or the RAM
4. Relationship Independent. Abacus Dependent. Software
 59
Balog O k

survived without software requires hardware as a

template
5. Creation Manufactured in factories Developed in classes,
offices, workshops by
programmers
6. Wear and Tear Physical damages like Non physical damages like
cracks errors/bugs/crash
7. Development/Upgrading Replacement of physical Installation of new versions
parts
8. Cost Initially expensive to buy, Relatively cheaper to acquire
but later modifiable and and update
upgradeable at lower prices
9. Storage Physically stores data, Does not store data,
information and software information but itself is
E.g hard drive, CD, DVD, stored on hardware. E.g
etc data, information,
instructions and apps Hard
Dic Drive (HHD), Solid
State Drive (SDD) and Read
Only Memory (ROM)
10. Security Not infestable by virus but Infestable by viruses/bugd,
could stolen, cracked, etc
broken etc,
11. Power Electrical means Electro-mechanical means
and hardware supports
12. Examples CPU, RAM, Keyboard, etc Windows, IOS, UNIX,
Word, Python, etc.
 60
Balog O k

CHAPTER FIVE
DIVERSE AND GROWING COMPUTER/DIGITAL APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Diverse and growing computer/digital applications refers to the various un-ending areas of
applications of computer and computer related tools that enable us comfortably and efficiently
perform various tasks Their areas of applications are numerous, different, rapidly expanding, and
increasingly interconnected through artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and
cloud computing. The areas of applications including:
[Link] and E-Learning
This is the area of application of computers, tablets, and digital platforms to teach, learn, assess,
and manage academic resources.
Through e-learning platforms like Google Classroom, Moodle, Coursera, and Zoom, students
can attend classes online, access materials, submit assignments, and collaborate globally.
Computer-based testing (CBT) and smart classrooms enhance interactive learning and efficiency.
Educationally, adaptive learning platforms are reshaping traditional teaching methods, while
telehealth applications are revolutionizing patient care in healthcare, (Marwadi et al, 2024).
[Link] and Commerce (E-Business / E-Commerce)
This is the area of application of digital systems to conduct business activities such as buying,
selling, and management, which involves the use of online platforms like Amazon, Jumia,
Alibaba, ebay, OLX, etc for sales and marketing, while software like SAP and QuickBooks assist
in accounting and inventory control.
E-commerce has created a digital marketplace accessible worldwide.
[Link] (E-Health / Telemedicine)
This is the area of application of, where computer systems is integrated with diagnostics, medical
care, and patient management, where computer system and other embedded systems support
electronic health records (EHR), medical imaging (CT, MRI), and remote diagnosis.
Telemedicine allows doctors to consult patients virtually, while AI assists in disease prediction
and personalized treatment.
[Link] and Finance (E-Banking / FinTech)
 61
Balog O k

This is the area of application of computers and digital networks to provide financial services,
where digital banking enables online transfers, cash transactions through ATMs, mobile
payments through PayPal, Flutterwave, Opay), and cryptocurrency operations.
FinTech innovations simplify transactions, enhance security, and improve customer experience.
[Link] and Public Administration (E-Government)
This is the area of application of ICT in governance and public service delivery, where
governments use computers system for tax collection, national ID registration, voter databases,
and digital records management.
E-government helps to improve transparency, reduces corruption, and increases citizen
participation.
[Link], Engineering, Research and development
This is the area of application of computer system and other ICTs to simulate, analyze, model,
and process data in research, where Scientists rely on high-performance computing for weather
forecasting, genetic research, space exploration, and artificial intelligence.
Engineers use CAD (Computer-Aided Design), CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) and
AUTOCAD for design and production.
[Link] and Social Media
This area of application of digital platforms for global interaction, information sharing, and
media distribution, where e-mail, instant messaging, video calls, and social media like Facebook,
WhatsApp, X, TikTok, etc, all rely on computer networks. They have revolutionized information
flow, marketing, and social relations.
[Link] and Multimedia
This is the area of application of digital technology in music, film, gaming, and art production,
where computer system powers video editing, animation, virtual reality (VR), and streaming
platforms like Netflix and YouTube. The gaming industry uses 3D graphics and AI for
immersive experiences.
[Link] and Logistics
This is the area of application of digital systems in navigation, vehicle control, and logistics
management, where computers system manages air traffic control, GPS navigation, autonomous
vehicles, and fleet tracking systems.
Logistics firms use software for route optimization and delivery tracking.
[Link] and Defense
This is the area of application of computer systems in surveillance, intelligence, and military
operations, where digital technologies support cybersecurity, encryption, drone control,
biometric systems, and satellite surveillance. AI assists in threat detection and defense strategy
planning.
[Link] (E-Agriculture / Smart Farming)
This is the area of integration of ICT and automation in agricultural production and management,
where farmers use drones for crop monitoring, sensors for soil testing, and software for weather
prediction.
Smart farming increases yield, reduces waste, and supports sustainable agriculture.
[Link] and Insurance (Digital Transactions and Risk Management)
This is the area of application of digital platforms to handle policies, claims, and transactions,
where data analytics and AI help insurers calculate risk, detect fraud, and improve customer
service efficiency.
[Link] and Manufacturing (Automation & Robotics
 62
Balog O k

This is the area of application of machines and computer systems in industrial production,
robotics and automation technologies enhance precision, speed, and safety in manufacturing
plants. E.g automotive and electronics industries.
[Link] Management
This is the araea of application of computer system to help monitor, predict, and manage
environmental changes through GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and remote sensing
technologies to aid in tracking deforestation, pollution, and climate change.
[Link] Intelligence and Data Science
This is the area of application of advanced digital applications for decision-making, automation,
and analytics, where AI powers virtual assistants like Siri and ChatGPT, while data analytics aids
in predicting trends, customer behavior, and optimizing processes in all sectors.

CHAPTER SIX
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND ITS ROLES IN THE SOCIETY
Introduction
Information processing describes the systematic and logical steps of actions taken to collect,
store, organize and analyze data and communicate them as useful information for decision-
making.
Stages of Information Processing
[Link] Stage
This is the stage of data capture from different sources and entry into the computer system using
one of the input devices like keyboard and mouse.
[Link] Stage
This is the stage of keeping and maintain data and information for future needs like saving files
in hard drive or flash drive or in cloud.
[Link] Stage
This is the stage of manipulation of data into meaningful information through stored programs
like sorting, calculation, classifying and comparing.
[Link] Stage
This is the stage of presenting information to the users like displaying reports, reports, charts,
emails, etc.
[Link]
This is the stage of applying the useful information to make informed decisions like adjusting
entries after receiving error reports.

Types of Information Processing

Information processing advances with time from earlier period to the present. It could be
classified into:
Pre-mechanical/Manual, Mechanical and Digital information processing.
[Link]-mechanical/Manual Processing
 63
Balog O k

This type lacks the use of technology but was done manually. It involves the usage of paper, pen,
and calculators. E.g Manual filling of census form.
ii. Mecahnical Processing
This involves the use of machines like type writer, adding machine, etc. E.g Punch card system
[Link]/Digital Processing
This involves the use computer system and other embedded systems to process large volume of
data automatically and efficiently. E.g Banking transactions, e-commerce and payroll systems.

Roles of Information Processing in the Society

[Link]
Enhances teaching, research, and record management through computer-based systems.. E.g. E-
learning platforms, online results and digital libraries.
[Link] and Economy
Improves productivity, planning, and decision-making. E.g Inventory control, financial analysis,
e-commerce.
[Link]
Aids transparency, record-keeping, and public service delivery. E.g National databases, e-
governance and digital ID systems.
[Link]
Enables accurate storage and analysis of patient information. E.g Electronic medical records,
telemedicine.
[Link]
Facilitates fast and effective exchange of information globally. E.g Email, instant messaging,
social media.
[Link] and Finance
Enables safe, fast, and accurate transactions. E.g ATMs, mobile banking, online payments.
[Link], Research and Development
Processes large datasets for analysis and innovation. E.g Climate modeling, data analytics, AI
research.
[Link] and Law Enforcement
Helps track crimes and manage national databases. E.g Fingerprint databases, surveillance
systems.
[Link]
Manages routes, ticketing, and logistics. E.g GPS systems, air traffic control, digital ticketing.
[Link]
Processes media for music, movies, and gaming. E.g Streaming platforms like Netflix and
YouTube.

Importance of Information Processing

[Link]
Reduces human error in data handling.
[Link]
Processes data much faster than manual methods.
[Link]
Saves time, labor, and cost.
[Link] and retrieval
 64
Balog O k

Easy to store and access information.

[Link]-making
Provides reliable data for analysis.
[Link]
Enhances global interaction and data sharing.
[Link]
Simplifies repetitive or complex tasks.
[Link]
Results from computations and analysis are effective
[Link]
Consistently delivers the same result under same conditions and data
[Link]-
It is obedient to instructions, as directed.
[Link]
Acceptance and process of different types of data and information in different format from
different sectors.
[Link]
It has helped to narrowhe distance between people and places through internet and tele-
communication
[Link]
Professionals have been able to secure their jobs
[Link]
Speed, manipulation and accuracy improves efficiency, productivity and lowers cost
[Link]
Serves as a teaching and training aid for career development in organizations.

Challenges of Information Processing

[Link] security threat
[Link] of maintenance
[Link]
[Link] and ethical issues
[Link] divide.
 65
Balog O k

CHAPTER SEVEN
INTERNET, IT’S APPLICATIONS AND IT’S IMPACTS IN TODAY’S WORLD
The Internet is a word derived from the combination of two words inter and net. Inter in this
context means between, while Net in this context means network. Internet then implies ‘between
networks’. Network means an interconnected system of things. What are the “things” in
question? Things here mean computers. Deductively, internet therefore means interconnected
system of computers. That is, the internet means a global networks of computers that speak
similar languages, where every computer is an integral component of the global network from
the scientific research, educational, government, commercial and business networks.

Evolution of Internet
The Internet originated from the experiment of ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network) awarded by ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency) of the US Department of
Defense to BBN (Bolt, Baranek and Newman) to design and construct communication networks
in 1969 that would function in the event of major disaster. The success of this project led to the
foundation of Internet. The methodology of ARPANET was Packet-switching and TCP/IP
Protocols.
Packet switching was originally conceived by Leonard Kleinrock in his doctoral thesis on the
24th of July, 1961; an idea that was independently developed by RAND researcher Paul Baran
and British researcher Donald Davies. Lawrence Roberts recognized Packet switching as a more
effective means of transmitting data among networks of computers than circuit switching.
ARPANET’s protocols was eventually TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) developed by Robert Kahn and Vint Cerf in 1978 over the initial Network Control
Protocol (NCP). An ARPANET became active between the computers of 4 universities:
University of California-Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), the University of
California-Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah, to communicate and share resources
amongst the scientists in the universities. Similar networks to that of ARPANET were created to
link educational institutions, government offices and military centers in the United States and
other countries. ARPANET’s name was changed in 1971 and de-commissioned in 1990.
 66
Balog O k

Mode of Data and Information Exchange on the Internet

Packet switching entails that data and information to be shared on the internet are first queued-
up, packaged into blocks (packets) by the network softwares and sent together as a stream. This
is an effective means of transmitting data among networks of computers. At the same time, every
computer on the network that must have access to these data must operate on the same standard
TCP/IP protocol. The protocol is a shared communication standard, formats or procedures,
which forms the rule of engagement for all devices to successfully communicate on the internet.
Illustratively, when a user surfs the internet, whether downloading from a web page or
uploading files to a server, TCP on the sender’s machine breaks the message into packets and
send them out. The packets travels from router to router through the concept of “addressing and
forwarding” of those individual packets, as designated by the IP that makes it possible to locate
the information we are looking for among the billions of machines connected to the network. On
the receiving end, the TCP reassembles all the packets into the original messages, checks errors
and sequence order.

Types of Internet Connection

The common types of internet connections are Dial up, DSL, Cable, Satellite, Wireless, Hotspot
and Cellular connections. Other categories are Gateway access, Leased connections and Vsat,
(NIOS, 2013).

i..Dial-Up
This type of connection is formed when a phone number is dialed from a computer connected to
an internal or external modem from which the analog signal is converted to digital signal sent
over a land-line serviced by a public telephone network. The sharing of the land line by the
computer and other devices creates regular interference that affects the speed that ranges from
28K to 56Kbps. Coaxial cables provide faster access here and in DSL.

Picture 7.1: Dial-up Internet

Source: [Link]
 67
Balog O k

[Link] Subscriber Line (DSL)

This is an alternative internet connection to Dial Up that uses a router to transport data within the
range of 128K to 128Mbps. Two lines are available that keeps the connection always on. Calls
and computing are not engaged on the same line and there is no need to dial a phone number to
connect.

Picture 7.2: Digital Subscribers Line

Source: [Link]

[Link].
This type provides an internet connection through a cable modem that operates over cable TV
lines to provide internet service between 512 and 20 Mbps.
 68
Balog O k

Picture: 7.3: Cable Internet

Source:[Link]
computer-image26575069.

iv. Fibre Optic

This type internet transmit light signals instead of electronic signal at a very high speed.

Picture 7.4: Fibre Optics

 69
Balog O k

Source:[Link]
connecting-to-internet-fiber-optic-cable-connecting-to-image313697573.

[Link]
Wireless connection is cableless/cordless connection that operates over radio frequency to
provide faster internet service between 5 to 20 Mbps based on WiFi. This network uses a modem
that picks up internet signals and sent to other devices. This connection covers a wider area as it
could be accessed from anywhere.

Picture 7.5: Wireless Internet

Source: [Link]

[Link]
Hotspots is a phone based internet service that utilizes WiFi technology to offer Internet access
over a wireless local area network (WLAN) by way of a router that then connects to an Internet
service provider. Hotspots utilize Wi-Fi technology, which allows electronic devices to connect
to the Internet or exchange data wirelessly through radio waves.
 70
Balog O k

Picture 7.6: Hotspot Internet

Source: [Link]

[Link]
Satellite accesses the internet via a satellite in Earth’s orbit. The enormous distance that a signal
travels from earth to satellite and back again, provides a delayed connection compared to cable
and DSL. Satellite connection speeds are around 512K to 2.0 Mbps.

Picture 7.7: Satellite Internet

Source: [Link]
 71
Balog O k

[Link]
Cellular connection provides wireless internet service through cell phones at the rates of 2.0
Mbps for 3G and 21 Mbps for 4G.

Picture 7.8: Cellular Internet

Source: [Link]

Differences between types of Internet

Criteria Dial Up DSL Cable Fibre Wireles Hotspot Satellite Cellular
Optics s (WiFi)
[Link] Land line Land line Coaxialca Glass fibre Wireless Mobile Satellite, Mobilede
gy and and DSL ble and router phone dish and vice, SIM
Modem modem cable and modem card and
modem router router. Eg.
based on 3G/4G/5G
WiFi
[Link] Wired Wired Wired Wired for Wireless Wireless Wireless Wireless
on with Light (Fixed (portable (via (via
higher f signals Access Access satellite mobile
Points) Points) dish) tower)
for radio
f
[Link] Very slow Moderate High (10– Very high Moderate Moderat Moderate Moderate
(up to 56 (1–100 1000 to high e (10–100 to high
kbps) Mbps) Mbps) (depends (depends Mbps, (10–1000
on router on often Mbps for
and mobile slower 5G)
distance) data or due to
Wi-Fi) latency)
[Link] Not Not Not Mobile Limited Portablea Ubiquitos. Highly
mobile mobile mobile mobility nd Works mobile
(fixed (fixed (fixed (within moveabl anywhere (usable
location) location) location) router e with with clear anywhere
 72
Balog O k
range device sky view with
network
coverage)
[Link] Low Moderate High High Moderate Moderat Varies Based on
y (easily (depends e based on network
disconnect on signal weather coverage
ed) strength)
[Link] Cheap Affordabl Moderate Expensive Set up Data Expensive Varies by
e dependen depende plan and
t nt provider
[Link] PAN LAN LAN WAN PAN PAN MAN/ PAN
WAN
[Link] Early Small Homes Organizati Homes, Travelers Rural or Smartpho
home offices, and ons schools, , students remote ne and
users homes businesses offices users tablet
(obsolete users
today)
[Link] Always Automatic Automatic Automatic Automati Automati Automatic Automatic
m of Dial c c
Connection
[Link] Legacy AT&T Spectrum, AT&T Wi-Fi MTN, Starlink, MTN,
es ISPs DSL, Comcast networks Airtel, HughesNe Airtel,
(1990s) MTN Glo t Verizon,
DSL hotspots AT&T

Services Provided by the Internet

[Link] Services
These services allow users to exchange messages, information, and ideas in real time or
asynchronously.
a.E-mail
E-mail is called Electronic mail like documents, pictures and others sent and received via the
internet from the senders to even multiple receivers. E.g. Gmail, Outlook, etc.
[Link] Messaging
This service allows us to send and receive real time messages through WhatsApp, Telegram,
Facebook Messenger, etc.
[Link] Telephony
This is a telephone service over the internet based on VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), where
calls are made cheaper over the internet than traditional telephone lines over long distance. The
callers and receivers must have internet connection while they converse. This allows us to make
calls through the internet on platforms like Skype, Zoom calls, Google Voice, etc.
[Link]
This is an Internet service where people discuss topics of mutual interest through video chat
room of Yahoo messenger, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, zoom, Reddit, Quora, etc, as a result
of the webcam installed on most computers or phones.
[Link] Networking
This allows users to socialize with known and unknown users through platforms like Facebook,
Twitter (X), Instagram, LinkedIn, Omegle, Discord servers, IRC channels, etc.
[Link] Fax
Internet fax is a service that takes a special type of e-mail message and sends it to a fax machine
specified in the message. The message can be faxed to a computer (Internet-to-Internet).
g. Listserv
 73
Balog O k

This is an Internet application that allows subscribers to send an email that would be received by
all people who subscribe to the Listserv. Subscribing to the list and all other transactions are
handled through email.
[Link]
X (formerly Twitter), You tube, Threads, Tumblr, etc.

[Link] Retrieval Services

[Link]
This is the acronym for World Wide Web developed by Tim Berners Lee in 1999. The www is a
medium where resources are accessible over the internet through a web browser. Web browsers
are soft wares used to access sites on the World Wide Web. These provide access to a vast pool
of digital information and knowledge that are pooled together as web/bank of enormous
information sources.
[Link] Engines
These are browsers that serve as platforms through which information could sourced. E.g
Google, Bing, Yahoo, DuckDuckGo, internet explorer, safari, netscape, yahoo, Mozilla, etc.
[Link] Encyclopedias
These are websites where diverse information are obtained. E.g Wikipedia, Britannica Online,
etc.
[Link] Libraries
These are online library like Google Books, Project Gutenberg, etc.
[Link] Databases
These are online banks of academic/scholarly resources like ResearchGate, JSTOR, PubMed,
Scopus, etc
[Link] Portals
Theses are online cable news where information and news are reported. E.g BBC, CNN, Al
Jazeera, etc.
[Link] Directories
Open Directory Project (DMOZ).
[Link] Downloading and Sharing
These are downloading and uploading services based on protocol. E.g. FTP sites, torrents, etc.

[Link] and Research Services

These are teaching, learning, research and development opportunities provided by the Internet as
a powerful tool for knowledge dissemination and skill development.
a.E-Learning Platforms like Coursera, Udemy, Khan Academy.
[Link] Classrooms like Google Classroom, Zoom Classes, Edmodo.
[Link] Libraries & Journals like JSTOR, [Link].
[Link] Educational Resources (OERs).
[Link] Tutorials and MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses).
[Link] Collaboration Tools. E.g ResearchGate, Mendeley.
[Link] Laboratories and Simulations.
[Link] Exams and Assessments.

[Link] and Media Services

[Link] Services through Netflix, YouTube, Spotify, Hulu.
 74
Balog O k

[Link] Gaming like Fortnite, Roblox, PUBG, cloud gaming.

[Link] Media Entertainment like TikTok, Instagram Reels.
[Link] Hosting and Listening.
[Link] Radio and TV Broadcasting.
[Link] and Music Downloads.
[Link] Events Streaming (Concerts, Sports, Webinars).

[Link] and Storage Services

These enable users to store, share, and manage files and data online/virtually.
[Link] Storage through Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive, iCloud.
[Link] Computing on AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud.
[Link] and Data Recovery Services.
[Link] as a Service (SaaS) like Office 365, Slack.
[Link] as a Service (IaaS) on Amazon EC2, DigitalOcean.

[Link] and Technical Services

This service support the infrastructure and operations of online systems.
[Link] Name System (DNS) Services.
[Link] Hosting and Website Development.
[Link] Hosting Services.
[Link] Transfer Protocol (FTP) Services.
[Link] Access and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).
[Link] and Database Management.
gCloud-based API and Web Services.

[Link] and Banking Services

[Link] Banking (Fund transfers, bill payments).
[Link] Money Services (M-Pesa, OPay, PalmPay).
[Link] Trading and Blockchain.
[Link] Investment Platforms.
e.E-Wallets and Digital Credit Systems.

[Link] and Public Services

a.E-Government Portals – public records, licensing.
[Link] Tax Filing and Payments.
c.E-Voting Systems.
[Link] Health Awareness Platforms.
[Link] Identity and Passport Applications.
[Link] Job Application Portals.

[Link] and Community Services

[Link] Donations and Fundraising (GoFundMe).
[Link] Forums and Groups (Reddit, Facebook Groups).
[Link] Platforms (Kickstarter).
[Link] Counseling and Therapy Services.
[Link] Campaign Platforms.
 75
Balog O k

[Link] /Emerging Services

[Link] of Things (IoT) Services.
[Link] Intelligence and Machine Learning Tools.
[Link] Data Analytics Platforms.
[Link] and Virtual Reality Applications.
[Link] Home Control via Internet.
[Link] Work Collaboration (Slack, Trello, Asana).

[Link] and Commerce Services

a.E-Commerce (Online Shopping) on Amazon, Jumia, eBay.
[Link] Banking. E.g Internet-based financial transactions.
[Link] Payment Systems through PayPal, Paystack, Flutterwave.
[Link] Advertising like Google Ads, social media marketing.
[Link] Marketing like Commission-based online sales promotion.
[Link] Booking & Reservations in Hotels, airlines, event tickets.
[Link] & Freelancing Platforms like Fiverr, Upwork.
[Link] Trading and Crypto Platforms like Binance, Robinhood.
i.E-Government and E-Tax Services.

Computer Network
A computer network is the electronic and electrical connection between 2 or more computers in
order to communicate and share resources like files, printer and internet. Computer networks
could be classified by Geographical area and Network Usage.
Examples of networks by geographical areas classification include: LAN, PAN, MAN, WAN,
etc, while examples of Network Usage includes Client-server, Peer to Peer and Value added
Networks, (Jain, 2017, Wolf, 2002). Techopedia (2019) also stated that types of networks
include: Local Area Networks (LAN), Global Area Networks (GAN), Personal Area Networks
(PAN), Home Area Networks (HAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN), Campus Networks,
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), Enterprise Private Networks, Internetworks, Backbone
Networks (BBN), Global Area Networks (GAN) and Internet.

[Link] Area
[Link] Area Network (LAN)
This is a group of PC computers connected to each other through a contiguous wire like twisted
pair, coaxial, etc or wireless link in a small area like a building or office to share resources. It is
an highly secured connection with high speed data transmission. It is less expensive as it requires
cheap media like hub, Ethernet and adapter. A wireless LAN is good for difficult wiring
environments such as historic buildings and where cabling could be expensive. A good example
is the network experienced in a bank branch with Managers, Head of operations, cashiers and
clerks sharing resources as they provide services to customers.
 76
Balog O k

Figure 7.9: Local area Network.

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Area Network (PAN)

The idea of this network was developed by Thomas Zimmerman. This network involves two or
more devices like phones, play station and media player connected to a computer to share
resources around a user within 10 m range.

Figure 7.10: Personal area Network.

Source: ([Link])

iii. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

This network comprises two or more LANs connected together that covers a wide geographical
area like 15 Km or more to form a larger network through a telephone exchange.
 77
Balog O k

Figure 7.11: Local area Network.

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Area Networks (WAN)

This is also a two or more MAN connected together covering a wide geographical area like
states, countries, etc than MAN through satellite, telephone, fiber-optics or other long distance
connections. The internet is the biggest WAN ever known. A bank’s server linked to other
national or regional branches from remote sites over subscribed equipments and services not
owned by the banks. It is used by Government, Education and Business sectors.
 78
Balog O k

Figure 7.12: Local area Network.

Source: ([Link])

[Link] Usage
[Link]- Server Network
Client-server networks comprises clients and server. The specialized computers are called
servers that run on a Network Operating system (NOS), while other computers or devices are
called clients that run Personal computer Operation System (PCOS) and rely on the resources of
the server. These resources are disk space, shared files, printers, modems, or other specialized
hardware.
 79
Balog O k

Figure 7.13: Client-Server Network.

Source: ([Link])

[Link]-to-Peer Network
Peer-to-peer network is a type in which computers or other devices on the network can act as
both a client and a server, so as to have access to all or some of the resources on other nodes.
Though, this is an unsecured network but it enhances user’s power and productivity and there is
no failure of the central host system that can suddenly disable all users.
 80
Balog O k

Figure 7.14: Peer to Peer Network.

Source: ([Link])

Table 4.2: Differences between Client-server and Peer to Peer Network

Criteria Client-server Peer to Peer Network
1. Aim Focuses on information Focuses on connectivity
sharing.
2. Designation Clients and server are Clients and server are not
differentiated. differentiated.
3. Storage Centralized server stores the Each peer has its own data.
data.
4. Response Responds to services Every node requests and
requested by Clients. responds to the services.
5. Cost Costlier Cheaper

6. Stability Much stable Less stable as Clients number

increases
 81
Balog O k

7. Operating System PC Operating system Network Operating system

8. Control Centralised Non-centralised

9. Status/setting Business/Corporate Individual/Personal

10. Prevalence Low High

iii. Value Added Networks (VANs)

VANs are usually by subscription. The service is similar to telephone networks services. In this
application they collect forms in an electronic mailbox, translate and forward them to recipients
and guarantee they will reach the destination intact. Other common VAN services include
electronic mail, stock market and other e services like trade, commerce and banking services.

Figure 7.15: Value Added Network.

Source: ([Link])

[Link]
[Link]
This is a LAN based on TCP/IP, whose activities takes place behind a Firewall and it is only
accessible to authorized users in order sto shield their data and information from outsiders. Data
 82
Balog O k

and information are only accessible to the organization's employees or members. It provides the
facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

[Link]
This is a communication network based on TCP/IP for information sharing. It is set up when an
organization open its internal network to selected partners who have login credentials; then an
intranet become extranet. It is characterized by connections to external networks.

Areas of Application of Internet

[Link] and Learning
[Link] learning (e-learning platforms like Coursera, Khan Academy, Udemy)
[Link] classrooms and video lectures
[Link] research and academic databases (Google Scholar, ResearchGate, Scopus, etc)
[Link] libraries and e-books
[Link] examinations and assignments
[Link]–teacher communication via email or LMS (Learning Management Systems)
[Link] forums and study groups
[Link] learning during emergencies (e.g., COVID-19 lockdowns)
[Link] to open educational resources (OERs)
[Link] collaborations and conferences via Zoom or Teams

[Link] and Commerce (E-Business & E-Commerce)

[Link] buying and selling (Amazon, Alibaba, Jumia)
[Link] banking and payment (PayPal, Paystack, Flutterwave)
[Link] marketing and advertising
[Link]-to-Business (B2B) and Business-to-Customer (B2C) transactions
[Link] service through chatbots and help desks
[Link] work and teleconferencing
[Link] research and data analysis
[Link]-based business management tools (e.g., QuickBooks, Slack)
[Link] and affiliate marketing
[Link] entrepreneurship and freelancing

[Link] and Finance

[Link] banking and mobile apps
[Link] and POS transactions connected through the internet
[Link] stock trading and cryptocurrency exchanges
[Link] money transfers (M-Pesa, Opay, etc.)
[Link] wallets and contactless payments
f.E-invoicing and electronic statements
[Link] payment gateways (HTTPS, SSL)
[Link] applications and credit scoring online

[Link] and Social Interaction

[Link] communication (Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo Mail)
 83
Balog O k

[Link] messaging (WhatsApp, Telegram, Signal)

[Link] and video calls (Zoom, Skype, Google Meet)
[Link] networking (Facebook, Instagram, X/Twitter, LinkedIn)
[Link] and microblogging
[Link] dating and relationship platforms
[Link] forums (Reddit, Quora)
[Link] sharing via cloud or P2P (Dropbox, Google Drive)

[Link] and Knowledge Sharing

[Link] engines (Google, Bing, Yahoo)
[Link] portals and online journalism
[Link] and knowledge databases (Wikipedia)
[Link]-source software and developer communities (GitHub)
[Link] surveys and data collection tools
[Link] archives and government information portals

[Link] and Public Services (E-Government)

[Link] tax filing and payment
[Link] registration and verification systems
[Link] records and open data portals
[Link] license and passport applications
[Link] identity systems (e.g., NIN, Aadhaar)
f.E-policing and reporting crimes online
[Link] awareness and information dissemination
[Link] health record systems

[Link] and Medicine (E-Health / Telemedicine)

[Link] medical consultations and diagnosis
bElectronic medical records (EMR)
[Link] information portals and research databases
[Link] patient monitoring using IoT devices
[Link] appointment booking
[Link] awareness campaigns through websites/social media
[Link] e-commerce (ordering drugs online)

[Link] and Media

[Link] videos (YouTube, Netflix, TikTok)
[Link] music platforms (Spotify, Apple Music)
[Link] gaming and multiplayer platforms
[Link] and web radio
[Link] ticket booking
[Link] art and animation sharing
[Link] culture and viral content

[Link], Research, and Innovation

[Link] scientific data and experiments online
 84
Balog O k

[Link] between international research teams

[Link] to online journals and publications
[Link] of supercomputing and cloud-based simulations
[Link] Intelligence and Machine Learning resources
[Link] data for scientific discoveries
[Link] science projects via the web

[Link] and Navigation

[Link] flight, train, or bus ticket booking
[Link] and navigation services (Google Maps, Waze)
[Link]-hailing services (Uber, Bolt)
[Link] tracking and fleet management
[Link] and cargo monitoring online
[Link] traffic control systems
[Link] transport information and reviews

[Link] and Personal Life

[Link] home automation (IoT devices)
[Link] shopping and grocery delivery
[Link] security monitoring (CCTV over internet)
[Link] fitness and wellness programs
[Link] websites and lifestyle blogs
[Link] communication via video calls
[Link] photo storage (Google Photos, iCloud)

[Link] and Tourism

[Link] hotel booking ([Link], Airbnb)
[Link] tours of destinations
[Link] insurance and visa applications online
[Link]-guided travel routes
[Link] reviews and guides (TripAdvisor)
[Link] comparison websites

[Link] and Manufacturing

[Link] Internet of Things (IIoT)
[Link] chain tracking and automation
[Link] procurement and tendering
[Link]-based design and engineering (CAD)
[Link] monitoring via Internet sensors
[Link]-time production management systems

[Link], Security, and Governance

[Link] law enforcement and legal databases
[Link] evidence storage and e-filing of cases
[Link] signatures and e-contracts
[Link] services and online threat detection
 85
Balog O k

[Link] petitions and civic engagement

[Link] and Employment

[Link] job search and recruitment (LinkedIn, Indeed)
[Link] work and freelancing (Upwork, Fiverr)
[Link] networking and skill learning
[Link] CV creation and portfolio hosting
[Link] training and webinars

[Link] and Culture

[Link] sermons and live worship streaming
[Link] discussion forums and blogs
[Link] scriptures and prayer apps
[Link] preservation through digital archives
[Link] charity and donation platforms

[Link] and Agriculture

[Link] forecasting and satellite monitoring
[Link] agricultural training and resources
[Link] irrigation systems connected via the Internet
[Link] awareness campaigns
[Link] data sharing and mapping tools.

Impacts of Internet
[Link] Impact
[Link] citizen participation and awareness.
[Link] online campaigns and digital activism.
[Link] used for surveillance or manipulation (e.g., fake news).
[Link]
[Link] e-commerce and digital economies.
[Link] new industries (tech startups, freelancing).
[Link] global trade and remote work.
[Link]
[Link] people globally through social networks.
[Link] cultural exchange and awareness.
[Link] contributes to issues like cyberbullying and misinformation.
[Link]
[Link] cross-cultural communication.
[Link] global trends, languages, and lifestyles.
[Link] threaten traditional cultural values.
[Link]
[Link] innovation (AI, IoT, cloud computing).
[Link] global collaboration among scientists and engineers.
[Link]
[Link] lifelong learning and global knowledge sharing.
[Link] quality education accessible remotely.
 86
Balog O k

[Link] digital literacy.

[Link]
[Link] has helped to spread progressive and conservative ideologies
[Link]
[Link] serves as an avenue to have access to birth, death and migration statistics.
b.A lot migrants from developing countries have access to information about destinations.

Common Terms Associated with Internet

[Link]
It is the acronym for World Wide Web. It is a collection of interlinked web pages that uses
protocols like HTTP/HTTPS to access and share information.
[Link]
This is the acronym for Domain Name for website that serves as human readable address for
websites that is translated to IP address via DNS. E.g [Link].
[Link]
This is the acronym for Domain Naming System that converts domain names of websites to IP
addresses for the browser to locate websites. E.g [Link] to [Link].
[Link]
This is a group of web pages that provide online information or services that are stored on web
servers only accessible by domain names. E.g [Link].
vWebpage
This is a single page on a web site that displays texts, images and videos written in HTML. E.g
“About Us” page on a website.
[Link]
This is the acronym for Universal Resource Locator, which is an address system that tells a
browser where to find a file on the internet. E.g Http://[Link].
[Link] Adress
This is the acronym for Internet Protocol that serves as network identifier (numeric label) for
each device on the internet. E.g [Link].
[Link]/IP
This is the acronym for Transmission Control Protocol and Internet address. TCP serves as a
standard rule of communication for all computers on the internet and manages packets. It defines
how data is being sent, transmitted and received over internet. TCP breaks data into packets and
ensures delivery. E.g When you send an email or visit a website, TCP/IP ensures the data reaches
the correct computer.
IP handles addressing and routing of those packets to the destination.
[Link]
This is the acronym for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol that serves a s a protocol for the transfer of
webpages from servers to browser, using the TCP/IP. E.g [Link]
[Link]
Acronym for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol secure, which is an encrypted version of HHTP
based on SSL/TLS for security. Protects data like passwords and banking info from hackers
during transmission E.g [Link]
[Link]
 87
Balog O k

It is the code or language used to create and design web pages. Defines the content, layout, and
links of web pages using tags like <html>, <body>, <p>. E.g The visible text and images you see
on a webpage are written in HTML.
[Link]
Acronym for File Transfer Protocol used for uploading and downloading website files. Web
developers use FTP to upload website files to a hosting server.
xiii. ISP
Acronym for Internet Service Provider that provide users with internet. E.g MTN, GLO, etc.

[Link]
Acronym for Wireless Fidelity that connects wirelessly connects devices to the internet without
physical cable connections based radio signal through router.
[Link]
This is a wireless technology that provide portable WiFi service through mobile phone to other
devices
[Link]
This a networking device that connects and directs traffic between networks and also routes date
packets between computer and internet in homes and offices.
[Link]
Modem is the acronym for modulator and demodulator device that alternatively converts digital
to analogue signals through the connection of a local device to ISP via cable/phone.
[Link]
This is a high speed internet connection that encompasses DSL, cable and fibre optics
technologies used homes and offices.
[Link]
This is a storage system that temporarily stores data for quick access in order to reduce the load
time on frequently visited pages. E.g Browser cache.
[Link]
This is a security system that protects networks from unauthorized access and helps to filters
incoming and outgoing traffics. E.g Window firewall.
[Link] Computing
This is an internet model that provides software, storage and platforms online with the aid of
remote servers instead of local storage. E.g Google Drive.
[Link]
This is a small data file that are sent by websites and saved by browsers to stores users’
preferences and login data. E.g “Remember Me” that pops up on websites.
xxiii. VPN
This is the acronym for Virtual Private Networks to provide private secured internet connection
by encrypting traffics and hiding of IP address. E.g Express VPN, Nord VPN and GSM VPN.
[Link]
This is a clickable link that connects one webpage to another. E,g Clickable text in documents.
 88
Balog O k

CHAPTER EIGHT
DIFFERENT AREAS/PROGRAMS OF THE COMPUTING DISCIPLINE
Computing discipline is broadly classified into five core fields according to the classification of
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE-CS) with additional emerging areas, many subfields and specialized programs.

[Link] Science (CS)

This discipline focuses on theory, algorithms, software, mathematics of computing and its key
areas include:
[Link] & Data Structures
[Link] of Computation
[Link] Languages
[Link] Architecture
[Link] Systems
[Link] Systems
[Link] Intelligence (AI)
[Link] Learning
[Link]
[Link] Graphics & Visualization
[Link]
[Link]–Computer Interaction (HCI)

[Link] Engineering (SE)

This disciplne focuses on design, development, testing, deployment, and maintenance of large
software systems and its key areas include:
[Link] Requirements Engineering
[Link] Design & Architecture
[Link] Project Management
[Link] Testing & Quality Assurance
[Link] & CI/CD
[Link] Maintenance & Evolution
[Link] & Scrum Methodologies
[Link] Security
[Link]-Native Software Development

[Link] Technology (IT)

This discipline focuses on application, management, and support of computing technologies in
organizations and its key areas include:
 89
Balog O k

[Link] Administration
[Link] Administration
[Link] Administration
[Link] Infrastructure & Operations
[Link] & Information Assurance
[Link] Services (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud)
[Link] Systems
[Link] Governance & Policy
[Link] Technologies
[Link] Support & Help Desk

[Link] Systems (IS)

This discipline focuses on use of technology to support business processes, decision-making, and
management and its key areas include:
[Link] Information Systems (MIS)
[Link] Intelligence & Analytics
[Link] Resource Planning (ERP)
[Link] Analysis & Design
e.E-Commerce & E-Business
[Link] Support Systems
[Link] Project Management
[Link] Process Management
[Link] Transformation
[Link] Strategy & Innovation

[Link] Engineering (CE)

This discipline focuses on hardware, embedded systems, electronics, and integration of hardware
and software and its key areas include:
[Link] Logic Design
[Link] & Microcontrollers
[Link] Systems
[Link] Architecture
[Link] Design
[Link] & Automation
[Link] Systems
[Link] Processing
[Link] Hardware & Telecommunications
[Link]–Software Co-Design

[Link] & Specialized Computing Programs

These are rapidly growing modern fields:
[Link] Intelligence & Machine Learning
[Link] Science
[Link] Learning
[Link] Language Processing (NLP)
[Link] Vision
 90
Balog O k

[Link] Ethics & Governance

[Link] & Digital Forensics

[Link] Hacking
[Link] Security
[Link]
[Link] Forensics
[Link]-Risk Management
[Link] Science & Analytics
[Link] Data Engineering
[Link] Computing
[Link] Analytics
[Link] Analytics

[Link] Computing & DevOps

[Link] Architecture
[Link] Security
[Link] Engineering
[Link] Reliability Engineering (SRE)

[Link]–Computer Interaction (HCI)

[Link]/UI Design
[Link] Design
[Link] & Usability Engineering

[Link] Development & Multimedia Computing

[Link] Programming
[Link] Design
[Link] Reality (VR)
[Link] Reality (AR)

[Link], Embedded, and Mechatronics Engineering

[Link] Devices
[Link] Networks
[Link] Systems

[Link] & Computational Biology

[Link]/Genomic Computing
[Link] Informatics

[Link] Computing (emerging)

[Link] Algorithms
[Link] Information Science.
 91
Balog O k

CHAPTER NINE
JOB SPECIALIZATION FOR COMPUTING PROFESSIONALS
[Link] Science (CS) Job Specializations
CoreCS Roles/Speacialization
[Link] Developer / Software Programmer
[Link] Analyst
[Link] Scientist / Research Scientist
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Structures Specialist.
[Link] Intelligence Engineer
[Link] Learning Engineer
[Link] Learning Specialist
[Link] Scientist
[Link] Analyst
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Vision Engineer
[Link] Systems Developer
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Architect
[Link] Engineer.
[Link] Systems Engineer
[Link] Analyst
[Link] Tester (Ethical Hacker)
[Link] Engineer
[Link]

[Link] Engineering (SE) Job Specializations

[Link] Engineer
[Link]-Stack Developer
[Link] Developer
[Link] Developer
[Link] App Developer
[Link] Engineer / Test Engineer
[Link] Test Engineer
[Link] Assurance Manager
[Link] Architect
[Link] Engineer
 92
Balog O k

[Link] Engineer
[Link] Reliability Engineer (SRE)
[Link] Master / Agile Coach
[Link] Manager (Tech Projects)
[Link] Software Engineer
[Link] Developer
[Link] Engineer

[Link] Technology (IT) Job Specializations

[Link] Support Specialist
[Link] Desk Technician
[Link] Administrator
[Link] Administrator
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Administrator
[Link] Infrastructure Engineer
[Link] Administrator (DBA)
[Link] Security Analyst
[Link] Auditor
[Link] & Compliance Officer
[Link] Manager
[Link] Operations Officer
[Link] Center Technician

[Link] Systems (IS) Job Specializations

[Link] Analyst
[Link] Analyst
[Link] Consultant
[Link] Systems Specialist (ERP/CRM)
eMIS Manager
[Link] Intelligence Analyst (BI Analyst)
[Link] Analytics Consultant
[Link] Support Specialist
[Link] Project Manager
[Link] Strategist
[Link] Transformation Specialist

[Link] Engineering (CE) Job Specializations

[Link] Hardware Engineer
[Link] Systems Engineer
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Systems Developer
[Link]/Control Engineer
[Link]/Chip Designer
 93
Balog O k

[Link] Engineer
[Link] Architect
[Link] Engineer.

[Link] & Specialized Computing Careers

[Link] Forensics Analyst
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Response Specialist
[Link] Architect
[Link] Security Engineer
[Link] Engineer
[Link] Data Engineer
[Link] Researcher
[Link] Analytics Specialist
[Link]/UX Designer
[Link]–Computer Interaction (HCI) Specialist
[Link] Designer
[Link] Designer
[Link]
[Link]/AR Developer
[Link] Analyst
[Link] Scientist
[Link] Computing Researcher
 94
Balog O k

CHAPTER TEN
THE FUTURE OF COMPUTING
The future of computing describes the expectations from computing in nearest future. The future
is shaped by advances in hardware, software, intelligence, networks, data, and human–machine
interaction and it is moving toward systems that are faster, smarter, more autonomous, more
connected, more energy-efficient, and increasingly integrated into every part of human life.
Below are the major future directions of computing.

[Link] Intelligence and Machine Learning Everywhere

AI will drive nearly all computational systems. It is expected that AI enables and promotes:
[Link] autonomous systems (self-driving cars, drones, robots)
[Link] powerful generative AI and human-like reasoning
[Link] assistants that manage daily activities
[Link] in education, agriculture, medicine, business, and governance
[Link]-augmented decision-making and automation of complex tasks

[Link] Computing
Quantum computing will solve problems impossible for classical computers. It is expected that
quantum computing will complement classical computers and enables:
[Link] in encryption & cybersecurity
[Link] drug discovery and medical simulations
[Link] climate and weather modeling
[Link] problems (transportation, energy grids)

[Link], Edge, and Fog Computing

Computing power is shifting closer to users and devices. It is expected that computing
metamorphosed to
[Link] computing
Data processed near the devices (IoT, smart homes, autonomous robots)
[Link] computing
Continuous growth through global data centers
[Link] computing
A mix of cloud + edge for low-latency applications

[Link] of Things (IoT) & Hyperconnectivity

The world will become a fully connected digital ecosystem. IoT will generate massive data,
requiring new methods of data management and security. The smartness of computing will
emerge and there will exist:
 95
Balog O k

[Link] homes, smart farms, smart hospitals

Sensors everywhere (traffic, environment, energy)
Connected appliances, vehicles, machines

[Link]–Computer Interfaces (BCI)

Computers will communicate directly with the human nervous system and represents the long-
term evolution of human–machine symbiosis.
There will be potential breakthroughs in the form:
[Link] control of computers and machines by thought
[Link] technology for people with disabilities
[Link] enhancement and cognitive augmentation
[Link]-monitoring and medical innovation

[Link] Cybersecurity & Digital Trust

As systems become more connected, security becomes more crucial and cybersecurity becomes a
top global priority and future trends become:
[Link]-driven threat detection
[Link]-safe encryption
[Link]-trust security models
[Link] and behavioral authentication
[Link] blockchain-based transactions

[Link] Reality (XR): Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality
(MR)
Human–computer interaction becomes immersive and future possibilities that follow include:
[Link] classrooms and laboratories
[Link]-based surgery and medical training
[Link] tourism, workspaces, and collaboration
[Link] displays
[Link]-body VR suits for simulation and entertainment

[Link] & Computational Biology

Computing will deeply integrate with biology and becomes a tool for life sciences and health
with future impacts like:
[Link] medicine
[Link] editing (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)
simulations
[Link] prediction models
[Link] organs
[Link] biology

ix..Robotics and Automation

Robots become central to work, homes, and society as autonomous decision maker, with future
directions that include:
[Link] robots (cobots) in manufacturing
[Link] drones for delivery and surveillance
 96
Balog O k

[Link] robots for surgery and caregiving

[Link] robots (precision farming)

[Link] Cities and Intelligent Infrastructure

Future cities will integrate computing into urban life and urbanization becomes data-driven as
exemplified as follow:
[Link] traffic management
[Link] energy grids
[Link] waste management
[Link] monitoring
e.E-governance and smart services

[Link] and Green Computing

Computing must reduce energy consumption and environmental impact. sustainability becomes a
global computing priority and the following trends would be seen:
[Link]-efficient processors
[Link] hardware materials
[Link]-power data centers
[Link]-neutral computing infrastructure

[Link]–Computer Interaction (HCI) of the Future

Interfaces will move beyond screens and human experience becomes the center of computing
with the following future innovations:
[Link]-first systems
[Link]-based computing
[Link] devices
[Link]
[Link]-aware computers.
 97
Balog O k

CHAPTER X
THE BOOTING PROCESS OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
[Link] the Power Button (Power-On Event)
[Link] pressing of the power button sends a signal to the Power Supply Unit (PSU).
b. The PSU converts Alternate Current (AC) power to regulated Direct Current (DC) voltages
(e.g., +12V, +5V, +3.3V).
[Link] voltages stabilize, the PSU sends a Power Good (PWR_OK) signal to the motherboard.
However, at this stage, No software is running yet.
[Link] Reset
[Link] this stage, the CPU is reset.
[Link] internal registers are cleared.
[Link] CPU’s instruction pointer is automatically set to a fixed memory address.
[Link] address points to firmware stored in ROM (flash memory).
However, CPU cannot start from RAM because RAM is empty at power-on.
[Link] Activation (Firmware Storage)
[Link] means Read Only Memory.
[Link] contains BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI firmware
[Link] initialization code.
[Link] provides the first instructions that the CPU executes.
However, ROM is non-volatile, which means its data is preserved when power is off, unlike.
[Link] of BIOS / UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)
UEFI is a modern replacement for BIOS but BIOS performs three major tasks
[Link] (Power-On Self-Test)
[Link] Initialization
[Link] Device Selection.
[Link]-On Self-Test (POST)
Means BIOS checks essential hardware like CPU, RAM, Keyboard, Graphics adapter and
Storage controllers. E.g BIOS writes test patterns to RAM in the form of bit:
10101010, 0101010110101010,; 0101010110101010,01010101
BIOS reads them back to verify correctness.
If and when RAM fails the system beeps error codes but If RAM passes booting continue
Therefore, RAM must be verified before use.
[Link] Initialization
After POST, BIOS configures RAM timing, voltage, and frequency.
RAM becomes usable memory.
From this point on:
BIOS copies parts of itself into RAM
Execution becomes faster
 98
Balog O k

[Link] Initialization
BIOS initializes the Keyboard, Mouse, Display, Disk controllers (SATA/NVMe) and USB
devices. So that the computer can communicate with storage devices.
[Link] Device Selection
BIOS reads the boot order:
[Link] / HDD
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] (PXE)
The BIOS selects the first bootable device.
[Link] from Hard Disk / SSD
[Link] loads the bootloader that resides in the HDD/SSD into the RAM and transfers control to
the RAM
[Link] this stage, bootloader runs under CPU control
[Link] locates the operating system kernel
[Link] the kernel into RAM
[Link] hardware information to the OS
[Link] System Kernel Loading
[Link] kernel is stored on disk
[Link] into RAM
[Link] loaded CPU switches to protected / long mode
[Link] control ends
[Link] takes full control of hardware.
[Link] Initialization Phase
[Link] operating system initializes device drivers
[Link] up virtual memory
[Link] system services
[Link] memory to processes.
[Link]’s role is to Store Kernel, Drivers, Running programs and User data.
From this stage on, RAM becomes the primary working space.
[Link] Interface Appears
[Link] screen or desktop loads
[Link] is ready for user interaction.
Algorithm of Booting Process
Power Button Pressed
↓
Power Supply Stabilizes
↓
CPU Reset
↓
ROM (BIOS/UEFI) Executes
↓
POST & RAM Initialization
↓
Boot Device Selected
↓
 99
Balog O k

Bootloader Loaded into RAM

↓
Operating System Kernel Loaded
↓
Drivers & Services Start
↓
User Interface Ready.

CHAPTER XX
STRUCTURE AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CPU AND RAM
[Link]–RAM Interaction (Fetch Phase)
[Link] places the address of the next instruction in the Memory Address Register (MAR).
[Link] address is sent to RAM via the address bus.
[Link] places the instruction on the data bus.
[Link] stores the instruction in the Instruction Register (IR).

Roles of the Control Unit

[Link] instructions from RAM
[Link] instructions
[Link] control signals to ALU, registers, and buses
[Link] data movement between CPU and RAM.

Roles of the RAM

[Link] the platform/template for data and instructions
[Link] as a friendly partner to the CPU and its components
[Link] sequence.

[Link]–RAM Interaction (Data Flow)

[Link] ALU cannot access RAM directly.
[Link] must pass through registers.
c.E.g ADD instruction. E.g:
ADD A, B
Steps:
[Link] fetches operands AAA and BBB from RAM.
[Link] are loaded into CPU registers.
[Link] performs:
Result=A+B\text{Result} = A + B Result=A+B
[Link] is stored in a register.
[Link] is written back to RAM if needed. ALU depends on RAM for operands and result
storage.

Relationship between ALU and RAM

Role of the ALU
[Link] arithmetic operations (+, −, ×, ÷)
 100
Balog O k

[Link] logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)

[Link] values (>, <, =)

[Link]–RAM Interaction
[Link] holds address → RAM supplies instruction
[Link] holds data → written to RAM
Registers act as buffers between the CPU and RAM. Without RAM, registers quickly become
empty or useless.

Relationship between Registers and RAM

Role of Registers
Registers are small, fast storage locations inside the CPU.
Key registers
[Link] Counter (PC) – Address of next instruction
[Link] Register (IR) – Current instruction
[Link] (ACC) – ALU result
[Link] – Memory address
[Link]/MBR – Data from/to RAM

iv. Bus–RAM Interaction

Internal buses are important without which:
[Link] cannot send addresses
[Link] cannot send data
[Link] cannot receive operands
The internal bus is the communication bridge between CPU components and RAM.

Relationship between Internal Bus and RAM

Types of Buses
[Link] Bus-Sends memory addresses
[Link] Bus-Transfers data/instructions
[Link] Bus-Sends read/write signals..

Interdependent relationship the between CPU and RAM and Processing Cycle of Computer
System
The CPU is the Central Processing Unit that comprises four sub components: Control Unit (CU),
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Register (R) and Internal Bus (IB).
CU co-ordinates the activities of CPU. ALU performs Arithmetic and Logic operations. Register
is storage section of the CPU and Internal Bus is the electrical and electronic link between the
components of the CPU and other parts of the computer system.
CPU is the brain of the computer system and very intelligent. It controls all the form of
manipulation done by the computer system.
However, CPU cannot function in isolation but depends on RAM to supply instructions, data and
stores intermediate and final results. Similarly, RAM cannot perform without the CPU.
RAM is the store house for the CPU, due to the fact that the CPU reads data and instructions
from the RAM through its Control Unit. The Control Unit of the CPU- through internal bus-
 101
Balog O k

connects and reads data and instructions, one after the other, from the RAM, a closer and faster
access of stored data and information than the hard drive. The Control Unit usually notifies the
ALU of mathematical operations (-, +, /, *, >=, etc) to be performed on data, based on
instructions it receives from the RAM. The Register keeps a copy of the data and information
from the RAM in itself due to the fact that the register could be read from and written into faster
than the hard drive. The results are eventually written and saved back into the RAM.
Thus, the relationship between the CPU and the RAM is inter-dependent but CPU-controlled.
The CPU execution/performance is a function of its components and RAM.
CPU Execution= f(CU, ALU, Registers, Internal Bus and RAM).

Processing Cycle of Computer System

The processing cycle of the computer system is how the computer system accepts data and
information through its inputs devices, stores them in the storage devices (main or temporary
memory), processes them through the CPU and present the results of the processed data through
the monitor. The processing cycle of the computer is classified into 4 major steps: Fetch,
Decode, Execute and Store.
[Link] Time Steps
[Link]
CPU (ALU) obtain data and instructions from the RAM, which has locations and addresses that
contain data and instructions.
[Link]
CPU decodes the instructions and directs that data should be transferred to the ALU.
[Link] Time Steps
[Link]
ALU executes/performs the required operations on the received data.
[Link]
ALU retain a copy of the result in its register and send a copy to the RAM.
Combination of the four steps is called the Machine Cycle.
 102
Balog O k

References:

Marwadi, K., Bani, S. G., Srinivasagopalan, L. N. & Umar, s. (2024). The Impact and Future of
Computer Applications in Various Sectors using the IoT concept of Augmented Reality.
Nanotechnology Perceptions 20 (7), 1119–1130. DOI:10.62441/nano-ntp.v20i7.4055.
103
Balog O k