UNIVERSE

Nebular Hypothesis Revised Hypothesis

और एक
और एक दिन दिन अचानक
अचानक किसी किसी Developed by Immanuel Kant, Modified in
1796 by Pierre Laplace.
Revised by Otto Schmidt and Carl
Weizascar, in 1950 .

result की
result pdf में
की pdf में मुस्कु
मुस्कु राता
राता Formed from a large cloud of gas and dust,
called a nebula, that collapsed due to
gravity.
Surrounded by a solar nebula consisting
of hydrogen, helium and dust.

तुम्हारा roll
हुआ तुम्हारा
हुआ roll number
number तुम्हारेतुम्हारे
The friction and collision of particles led
Nebula collected its material in the center,
to the formation of a disk-shaped cloud.
start rotating and flattened into a
protoplanetary disk. Planets were formed through the

सारे संघर्षों,
सारे संघर्षों, सारी
सारी परेशानियों
परेशानियों और और
process of accretion.
Center became increasingly dense and hot.

PHYSICAL
PHYSICAL
Central region (Sun) rest of the disk
(planets & moons).

प्रश्नों का
प्रश्नों का जवाब
जवाब देगादेगा heliocentric
A model of the universe that places

तुम बस
तुम बस ख़ामोशी
ख़ामोशी सेसे लगे
लगे रहो,
रहो,
the SUN at the center, Developed by

GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY
Nicolaus Copernicus, in 1543 A.D.

आएगा दिन
आएगा दिन ।।
A model of the universe that
places the EARTH at the center,
in 140 A.D.

First
First Edition
Edition geocentric

ASTRONOMICAL UNIT EARTH LUNAR DISTANCE (384,400 KM)

AVERAGE DISTANCE BETWEEN

AVERAGE DISTANCE BETWEEN EARTH AND THE MOON
EARTH AND THE SUN

SUN

MOON
Moon
LIGHT YEAR :- distance light travels in one year.
(300,000 kilometers) per second

PARSEC :- unit of length used to measure the large distances to astronomical

objects outside the Solar System, approximately equal to 3.26 light-years.

GALAXY
Dark energy is estimated to make up about 68–70% of the universe. This is a
mysterious force that's responsible for the universe's accelerating expansion.

MASS GREATER THAN 1.44

TIMES THE MASS OF THE SUN
spiral galaxy elliptical galaxy irregular galaxy BIG
BANG
Spiral galaxies have a central disk Elliptical galaxies are shaped Irregular galaxies have no
surrounded by spiraling arms and like spheres or cucumbers particular shape like a
possess new stars. and contain old stars. spiral or elliptical galaxy.
MILKY WAY (spiral shaped) The brightest galaxy in the

THEORY
EARTH is part of milky way galaxy. universe.
ANDROMEDA galaxy is the closest
major galaxy to the Milky Way.

300,000 YEARS FROM THE

BIG BANG, TEMPERATURE
Early stages DROPPED TO 4,500K
of formation A TINY SPACE BALL, ABOUT (KELVIN) AND GAVE RISE TO
Kuiper Belt THE SIZE OF AN ATOM WITH
AT THE BIG BANG (13.7 BILLION
YEARS AGO), THE TINY BALL ATOMIC MATTER.
A ring of asteroids, comets, HIGH DENSITY AND HIGH EXPLODED VIOLENTLY WITH
asteroid belt and other icy bodies that
TEMPERATURE.
A ring of asteroids orbit the sun beyond HUGE EXPANSION.
( rocky objects) that Neptune. THE UNIVERSE BECAME

PLANETS
orbit the sun between Kuiper belt contains many
MASS LESS THAN 1.44 TIMES THE TRANSPARENT.
Mars and Jupiter. dwarf planets, including
MASS OF THE SUN Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, The leftover material around a young star forms a

FORMATION
Quaoar, and Orcus.
protoplanetary disk.

Asteroids different Comets SUN

Dust particles collide and stick together, forming
planetesimals, which eventually grow into planets through
Asteroids are made of Small icy dirtballs Mercury

SunSave Energy
e that orbit the the process of accretion.
materials, such as silicat VENUS

EARTH
Earth Mars Neptune
. Turn off lights and uranus
As planets form, their interiors heat up.
materials and nickel-iron. electronics when not
SATURN

the Comets are Jupiter Heavier elements sink toward the center, forming a
Rocky objects that orbit made of ice &
in use. dust . Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago
Develop tails metallic core, while lighter elements form the outer layers within a protoplanetary disk around the sun .
sun.
Found in the
asteroid belt
.
when they get
and gas halos
close to sun.
INNER PLANETS OUTER PLANETS (mantle & crust).
Initially, it was a molten mass due to

Terrestrial or rock Jovian or gaseous LITHOSPHERE frequent collisions and internal heating
from radioactive decay.
planets planets. As Earth cooled further, the outermost layer solidified to
As Earth cooled, the outer layers solidified
form the lithosphere, which is a rigid layer and broken into
Meteoroids Meteors They lie between the sun
They lie after the belt of tectonic plates.
to form the crust, while the interior
remained molten.
Meteoroids are actually Meteoroids that enter Earth's asteroids before the The lithosphere is not a single, continuous layer but is
and the belt of asteroids. Volcanic activity released gases, which
pieces of asteroids or comets. atmosphere& burn up, creating Kuiper belt. fragmented into tectonic plates.
contributed to the formation of the early
a streak of light in the sky. These plates float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere, this atmosphere.
Orbit the sun before enter movement causes earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the
These streaks of light are Lower densities &
the atmosphere. Higher densities &
HYDROSPHERE
also known as shooting stars. formation of mountains.
smaller in size. bigger in size.
ATMOSPHERE Water on Earth likely came from two
sources:
Thin atmosphere & Thick atmosphere & The early atmosphere was mostly composed of hydrogen,

Meteorites
helium, methane, and ammonia, primarily from volcanic Volcanic Outgassing: Water vapor
lower gravity. higher gravity.
outgassing. released by volcanoes condensed to form

DO YOU KNOW !
survive their
Meteoroids that Early life forms, such as cyanobacteria, began the process oceans.
Earth's Move faster, shorter Move slower, longer
passage through of photosynthesis, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. Cometary Impacts: Comets, which are
land on Earth.
atmosphere and Light travels at a speed of period of revolution. period of revolution. This gradually led to the formation of the ozone layer, which rich in water & ice, may have also
iron, or stony- contributed water to Earth during the
Can be stony,
300,000 kilometers per second protects life from harmful UV radiation.
on their (km/s) and the distance it travels in
iron, depending Present atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and early stages of its formation.
. one year is called a light-year. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
com pos ition traces of other gases, including carbon dioxide, which Water being cycled through evaporation,
Mars. Neptune. support life on Earth. condensation, and precipitation.
 VENUS SUN
The second planet from the sun and the
hottest in the solar system. Sun is the only star in our solar
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
Venus’ atmosphere is made of (H2SO4). system and generates its own light
No moons or rings. Mercury through nuclear fusion reactions.
The Sun is about 100 times wider CAINOZOIC

ERA
Venus also known as “the Morning Star”
MOON
The first planet from the sun & smallest
than Earth and 10 times wider than
and “the Evening Star”. in the solar system, slightly larger than 65 Million years ago - present
Venus rotation clockwise (retrograde), Jupiter.
Earth's Moon. Holocene (0 - 10,000)
Composed of hydrogen & helium. Earth's only natural satellite. The era of Homo sapiens (Modern Man)
243 Earth days (slowest rotation). No moons or rings.
Sun emits a stream of charged Moon's gravity significantly influences Pleistocene (10,000 - 2 M)

EPOCH
Named after a female figure. Mercury's exosphere is composed of

ERA PERIOD
Venus has the highest albedo in our solar mostly of oxygen, sodium, hydrogen,
particles called solar wind. Earth's tides. Quaternary Present - 2 MYO Pliocene (2 - 5 M) Miocene (5 - 24 M)
system. Sun's atmosphere consists of three Due to tidal forces, Moon always Oligocene (24 - 37 M) Eocene (37 - 58 M)
helium, and potassium.
main layers: the photosphere shows the same side to Earth.
Tertiary 2 - 65 MYO Paleocene (57 - 65 M)
Fastest planet, takes 88 days for
(visible surface), chromosphere,
Mars revolution.
and corona.
(384,400 Km) away from earth. MESOZOIC
Rotation - approx 58 days. Moon has a very thin, tenuous 65 - 245 Million years ago mammals were present on Earth
atmosphere.
The fourth planet from the sun in the
Earth The era of dinosaurs and mass extinctions, Frogs and turtles.

ERA
solar system.
"Red Planet" due to iron oxide (rust) on The third planet from the sun and most Cretaceous 65 - 144 MYO Extinctions of dinosaurs

PERIOD
its surface, giving it a reddish color; dense in the solar system.
visible to the naked eye from Earth. Atmosphere is composed of about 78 % Jurassic 144 - 208 MYO Ages of dinosaurs
nitrogen, 21 % oxygen, 0.9 % argon, & 0.1
Two small moons Phobos & Deimos. Triassic 208 - 245 MYO Frogs and turtles
Similar to Earth's seasons due to its % other gases.
Earth’s rotation 23 hr, 56min, 4sec & REMINDER PALEOZOIC

ERA
axial tilt, but each season lasts longer
on Mars because of its longer orbital revolution 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes. 245 - 570 Million years ago
Venus and Uranus are the only
period. It would take 1.3 million Earths to fill up the
planets in our solar system that Life began in the ocean and transitioned onto land.
Water existing primarily as ice at the sun.
rotate clockwise, while all other Primitive plants covered the earth.
poles and in the subsurface. Only planet in our Solar System which is
planets rotate counterclockwise.
"Cold desert world" due to its thin suitable for sustaining life. Permian 245 - 286 MYO Reptile dominate-replace amphibians
atmosphere, composed of carbon
Carboniferous 286 - 360 MYO First Reptiles: Vertebrates ( Coal beds )
dioxide.
SATURN Devonian 360 - 408 MYO

PERIOD
Amphibians

The sixth planet from the sun in the DENSITY DISTANCE RADIUS MASS ROTATION TIME ORBITAL Silurian 408 - 438 MYO First trace of life on land: Plants
solar system.
Ordovician 438 - 505 MYO First Fish
Jupiter
Spectacular ring system, countless
small particles of ice and rock Earth Neptune Jupiter Jupiter Venus Neptune Cambrian 505 - 570 MYO No terrestrial Life: Marine Invertebrate
The fifth & largest planet from the sun Gas giant composed of hydrogen &
in the solar system. helium
Mercury Uranus Saturn Saturn Mercury Uranus PRE-CAMBRIAN

ERA
Composed of hydrogen and helium gas, Least dense planet, maximum
570 - 4,800 Million years ago
Mars
with no solid surface.
Venus Saturn Uranus Neptune
number of Satellites(146).
Shortest day, rapid rotation less than Largest moon is Titan. Saturn
The Precambrian is a period of time that began when the Earth formed.
10 hours.
Ganymede is the largest moon in the Mars Jupiter Neptune Uranus Earth Jupiter Proterozoic 570 - 2,500 MYO Soft-bodied arthropods

EONS
solar system, and larger than Mercury Neptune
and Pluto.
The eighth & most distant planet Neptune Mars Earth Earth Neptune Mars Archean 2,500 - 3,800 MYO Blue-green Algae: Unicellular bacteria

from the sun in the solar system. Hadean 3,800-4,800 MYO Oceans, Atmosphere & Continents form - Rich in CO2
Jupiter Earth Venus Venus Uranus Earth
uranus An ice giant, made up of dense icy

ERA
materials, mainly water, methane, and 5,000 - 13,700 Million years ago
The seventh planet from the Sun. ammonia, above a small rocky core. Uranus Venus Mars Mars Saturn Venus
Recorded coldest temperature ever. Methane in the atmosphere absorbs A period of time when universe is formed.
A gaseous cyan-colored ice giant. red light, causing the light reflected by
Saturn Mercury Mercury Mercury Jupiter Mercury Origin of the Sun
Rotates clockwise, or in a the planet to be blue in color, making Origin of Stars 5,000 MYO

EONS
retrograde fashion. Neptune appear blue.
Supernova 12,000 MYO Origin of the Universe
ARRANGEMENT OF PLANETS : HIGHEST TO LOWEST Big Bang 13.700 BYO Gave rise to atomic matter

WEST TO EAST:
The equator is the longest latitude
TRAVELING FROM JAPAN TO You move into the previous
and the poles are the shortest
latitudes. THE USA: calendar day.
Gain a 24hrs, but loses a day.
Crossing the International Date
Distance Between Lines:
Line from west to east results in
ON A 24 HOUR CLOCK, THE TIME IS 00:00
Latitude divides Earth into Northern Approximately 111 km (69 miles)
gaining a day. EAST TO WEST: IN LONDON. THEN THE TIME IN MUMBAI ON
Hemisphere and Southern apart. You advance to the next A 12 HOUR CLOCK WILL BE 05:30 AM.
Hemisphere. TRAVELING FROM HAWAII TO calendar day.
Latitude helps determine Climate NEW ZEALAND: Loses 24hrs, but Gain a day.
INDIAN STANDARD TIME
Zones, Sunlight Intensity, Seasonal
Crossing the International
Variation, Vegetation and (IST): UTC +5:30
Total 181 Latitudes aka parallels. Date Line from east to west
Ecosystems, Global Navigation.
results in losing a day.
gt
ssin he lin
Equator (0°), Tropic of Cancer

ro
North pole (23.5°N), Tropic of Capricorn
(23.5°S), Arctic Circle (66.5°N), and STATES : UTTAR PRADESH,

e
C
A r c tic C ir cle Antarctic Circle (66.5°S). MADHYA PRADESH,
Tro pi
c of C ancer
CHHATTISGARH, ODISHA,
Equator ANDHRA PRADESH.
82°30' E LONGITUDE
n

n
ic or
idia

T r o pic of C a p r

INDIAN STANDARD TIME (IST)

Mer

Antar
c tic C ir cle
Prime

South pole

Longitude helps determine time zones, It zigzags around islands

with 15° of longitude corresponding to The distance between two longitudes is and countries to
a one-hour. maximum at the equator (111.3 km) & 180° INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE (IDL) accommodate political and
minimum at the poles (0 km). territorial boundaries.
Longitude divides Earth into Eastern
Hemisphere and Western Measured in degrees (°) from 0° at the
Hemisphere. Prime Meridian (Greenwich, England) to It is not convenient for a
180° at the Anti Meridian or the country of greater
There are 360 longitude lines.
International Date Line (IDL) latitudinal extent but
COUNTRIES : UNITED smaller longitudinal extent
KINGDOM, FRANCE, SPAIN, to have multiple time
ALGERIA, MALI, BURKINA zones.
DO YOU KNOW ! FASO, TOGO, AND GHANA

Each 1 degree of longitude corresponds

to a time difference of 4 minutes.
TROPIC OF CANCER (STATES) : THE "MAHI RIVER" IS THE
Eastward, the time increases by 1 hour
GUJARAT, RAJASTHAN, MADHYA RIVER THAT CROSSES THE
for every 15 degrees of longitude. PRADESH, CHHATTISGARH, TROPIC OF CANCER TWICE IN
THE FIRST SUNRISE IN THE
JHARKHAND, WEST BENGAL, INDIA.
WORLD IS SEEN IN MILLENNIUM 0° PRIME MERIDIAN Westward, the time decreases by 1
ISLAND, ALSO KNOWN AS
CAROLINE ISLAND, IN KIRIBATI. (GREENWICH, ENGLAND) hour for every 15 degrees of longitude. TRIPURA, AND MIZORAM
 APHELION AND PERIHELION
ORBIT
CORE INTERIOR OF
THE EARTH
Dense, metallic layer at the
( FARTHEST ) ( NEAREST ) center of the Earth.
th RD
4 JULY 3 JANUARY
DIVIDED INTO:
EARTH SUN EARTH Outer Core: Liquid layer.
Inner Core: Solid layer.
NiFe: Nickel-Iron layer

APHELION PERIHELION MANTLE

EQUATOR (COUNTRIES) : ECUADOR, COLOMBIA, BRAZIL, SAO TOME & PRINCIPE, GABON, Located beneath the crust, extending from
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, UGANDA, KENYA, SOMALIA, a depth of about 35 km to 2,900 km, cover
MALDIVES, INDONESIA, KIRIBATI. OUTTER CORE 83% of earth.
DIVIDED INTO:

PERIGEE AND APOGEE Upper Mantle: Includes the lithosphere (rigid)

and asthenosphere (ductile).
Lower Mantle: Extends from about 660 km
ORBIT to 2,900 km, more rigid due to high pressure.
360,000 KM 405,000 KM SiMa : Silicon, Magnesium.
( MINIMUM ( MAXIMUM
DISTANCE ) PERIGEE APOGEE DISTANCE )
LOWER MANTLE
EARTH
Earth's axial inclination: UPPER MANTLE
SUPERMOON MICROMOON
axis is tilted 23.5 degrees,
causing seasons. ASTHENOSPHERE
Earth's orbital inclination:
Semi-fluid layer of the upper mantle that
TROPIC OF CANCER (COUNTRIES) : MEXICO, BAHAMAS, WESTERN SAHARA, MAURITANIA, MALI, 66.5 degrees.
lies below rigid lithosphere, extending
NIGER, ALGERIA, LIBYA, EGYPT, SAUDI ARABIA, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, OMAN, INDIA, 400km.
BANGLADESH, MYANMAR, CHINA, AND TAIWAN. BEGINNING OF SPRING IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE, SUN IS Viscous Molten in nature (magma).
DIRECTLY ABOVE EQUATOR EQUAL AMOUNTS OF DAY AND NIGHT.
Geological processes like seafloor
21 MARCH
21 JUNE 22 DECEMBER spreading, mountain building, and
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE volcanic activity, earthquake caused due
(SUMMER) (WINTER)
to plate tectonic movement.
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
(WINTER) ( VERNAL EQUINOX ) (SUMMER)
LITHOSPHERE
Crust and Upper
portion of mantle,
CRUST
brittle & solid layer. Outermost solid layer of the Earth.

( SUMMER SOLSTICE ) ( WINTER SOLSTICE ) Continental Crust: Thicker (50 - 70 km),

( AUTUMNAL EQUINOX ) less dense, composed of granite & in
CONTINUOUS CONTINUOUS MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENTS
DAYLIGHT IN NORTH DAYLIGHT IN SOUTH ON EARTH'S CRUST: Himalayan regions 100 km.
POLE FOR 6 MONTHS. POLE FOR 6 MONTHS.
Oxygen (O) - 46%
Oceanic Crust: Thinner (5 - 30 km), denser,
Silicon (Si) - 28%
23 SEPTEMBER Aluminum (Al) - 8.2% composed of basalt.
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN (COUNTRIES) : CHILE, ARGENTINA, NAMIBIA, SOUTH AFRICA, BEGINNING OF AUTUMN IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE, SUN IS DIRECTLY Iron (Fe) - 5.6% SiAl : Silicon, Aluminum.
MADAGASCAR, AUSTRALIA, BRAZIL, PARAGUAY, BOTSWANA, AND MOZAMBIQUE. ABOVE EQUATOR EQUAL AMOUNTS OF DAY AND NIGHT. Calcium (Ca) - 4.2%

CONTINENTAL CRUST
OCEANIC CRUST
CONTINENTAL
KUMARIGAL
DENSITY R CRUST

DRIFT THEORY
OUTE

A
CONRAD

AE
G
ID R CRUST

N
INNE
SOL DISCONTINUITY PANTHALASSA

PA
M³
2.8G/C CYNOGNATHUS
MOHO BY
R MANTLE
UPPE
A land reptile that lived
DISCONTINUITY during the Triassic period.

ALFRED WEGENER
PANGAEA
LIQUID 250 million years ago
Found: South Africa &
LYSTROSAURUS
REPETTI DISCONTINUITY South America
A Triassic land reptile, have
M³
4.6G/C
been found in many places
R MANTLE
LOWE
Found: India, Madagascar,
SOLID Antarctica & Africa .
MESOSAURUS
GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY LAURASIA
Fossils of the freshwater
TETHYS
reptile. FERN GLOSSOPTER FOSSIL DISTRIBUTION
GO

OUTER CORE LIQUID ND SEA Found: South Africa & Identical species of plants &
WA A woody, seed-bearing
NA South America animals are found on opposite
shrub or tree.
10.5G/CM
³ LEHMANN DISCONTINUITY LA
ND
sides of ocean.
Found: Southern continents
Coal deposits in Antarctica
INNER CORE TRIASSIC JURASSIC
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS serves as significant evidence
13G/CM³ 200 million years ago 145
145million
millionyears
yearsago
ago 65 million years ago
SOLID for the continental drift theory.

DIRECT SOURCE INDIRECT SOURCE MATCHING ROCKS PLATE TECTONIC

ROCK MINING DRILLING METEORITES EARTHQUAKE Rocks are found on opposite
sides of the ocean, such as THEORY
VOLCANO SURFACE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 2,000 million year old rocks in
Brazil & western Africa.

PRESENT DAY

DAN MCKENZIE
(1967-1968)
DENSITY, TEMPERATURE, WILLIAM JASON
MATCHING SHORELINES ROBERT PARKER
& PRESSURE ALL MORGAN (1968)
Shorelines of Africa and South (1967-1968)
INCREASES FROM THE America fit together very well. Dan McKenzie, Robert
EARTH'S CRUST TO ITS Parker, and Jason Moves horizontally over the
Gold deposits in Ghana are
CORE. derived from the Brazil plateau.
Proposed that Morgan provided semi-fluid asthenosphere.
lithosphere is broken mathematical models
CORE > MANTLE > CRUST into several large & & mechanisms
small tectonic plates. explaining the Oceanic crust is denser
movement of plates. than continental crust
EARTH’S SPHERE
 INDO-AUSTRALIAN CONVERGENT
The gravitational MAJOR PLATES PLATE
BOUNDARIES
pull of the moon & Wegener suggested that
sun on Earth, also perhaps the rotation of
Two tectonic plates
known as tidal the Earth caused the
move toward each FOLD
forces, can help
EARTH’S SPIN
continents to shift NORTH AMERICAN SOUTH AMERICAN EURASIAN PLATE other and collides.
SUBDUCTION MOUNTAINS
move continents. towards & apart from PLATE PLATE ZONE
Created by the
each other. compression of
Denser (heavier) plate will
These boundaries go below the less dense crustal material.
are destructive
AFRICAN PLATE PACIFIC PLATE ANTARCTIC PLATE plate boundaries
(lighter) plate.

Subducted plate sinks into

VOLCANIC ARCS the mantle and melts due
TIDAL FORCES EARTHQUAKES Chains of volcanoes to high heat.
MINOR PLATES Due to the intense formed on the overriding
plate near a subduction
CONVECTION CURRENT pressure & friction at
the plate interface. zone (e.g., Ring of Fire). TYPES
Mantle material heated near the
core becomes less dense and
ARABIAN PLATE CAROLINE PLATE COCOS PLATE One plate is subducted beneath the other.
rises toward the crust. Western coast of
Arabian Peninsula. Philippine, Indian, New Guinea(north). Forming a deep ocean trench and volcanic
Central America & Pacific plate.
island arcs.
At the surface, this material This creates a circular
NAZCA PLATE EXAMPLES
cools, becomes denser, and sinks convection current in the BURMA PLATE PHILIPPINE PLATE Mariana Trench and Mariana Islands
Southeast Asia Western coast of
back toward the core. mantle. (Andaman Sea & Myanmar). Asiatic and Pacific plates.
South America & Pacific plate. Aleutian Trench and Aleutian Islands
Solomon Islands
OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENCE:
AMURIAN PLATE PHILIPPINE SEA PLATE INDIAN PLATE Occurs when two oceanic plates collide.
Eastern Asia Between the Asiatic and Indian subcontinent
(Korea & eastern China). Pacific plate and Indian Ocean.
Neither plate is subducted due to their
similar densities.
the crust is pushed upward, forming
SCOTIA PLATE NEW HEBRIDES PLATE OKHOTSK PLATE
Between Antarctic & South Sea of Okhotsk in mountain ranges.
Vanuatu in South Pacific Ocean.
American plates northeastern Asia. EXAMPLES
Himalayas (India, Asia)

ANATOLIAN PLATE
CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE: Alps (Europe)
FUTUNA PLATE CARIBBEAN PLATE Occurs when two continental plates collide. Rockies (northern
South Pacific, west of Fiji. Central America & Caribbean Sea. Turkey & eastern Mediterranean.
North America)
American
Denser oceanic plate Urals (central Russia)
subducts beneath Atlas (Northwest
YANGTZE PLATE SUNDA PLATE ALTIPLANO PLATE lighter continental plate. Africa)
Southeast Asia, Thailand, Malaysia, Andes region of Bolivia & Peru.
South - eastern China. & Indonesia.

TECTONIC PLATE BANDA SEA PLATE SOMALI PLATE

Forms deep ocean
trenches, volcanic
mountain ranges,
7 MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES eastern Indonesia, near Banda Sea.
Eastern part of Africa, splitting from
the African Plate. and earthquakes. EXAMPLES OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE:
Andes Mountains & Occurs when an oceanic plate collides
20 MINOR TECTONIC PLATES Peru-Chile Trench. with a continental plate.

EARTHQUAKE
DIVERGENT LOVE WAVES RAYLEIGH
WAVES
BOUNDARIES TYPES
Two tectonic plates OF
move away from CONTINENTAL Cause by sudden endogenic forces. SEISMIC
each other. RIFTING EPICENTER Energy released during an earthquake
FAULT Horizontal shear waves,
side-to-side motion. WAVES Cause rolling motion, similar to
Occurs when a is elastic energy. ocean waves.
First location on the Fault is a fracture in Cause horizontal shaking,
This movement allows landmass is pulled Natural earthquakes occur in the Rolling motion can cause vertical &
These boundaries surface to experience the Earth's crust where perpendicular to wave travel.
magma from the mantle to apart, lithosphere. horizontal ground displacement.
are constructive seismic waves. rocks move, releasing
rise to the surface, creating 98% occur in the oceanic crust. Faster than Rayleigh waves but
plate boundaries. energy that causes an Highly destructive to buildings and
Located directly above 2% occur in the continental crust. slower than body waves.
new crust as it solidifies. Formation of rift valleys earthquake.
the focus infrastructure, especially near the
and new ocean basins. Speed depends on the rigidity and Cause severe damage to
epicenter.
Maximum damage density of the medium. buildings due to horizontal
EARTHQUAKES VOLCANIC ACTIVITY EXAMPLES occurs at or near the ground movement. Slowest of all seismic waves.
Shallow earthquakes Magma rising from the
occur as the plates mantle can lead to the
East African Rift (African Plate epicenter. Least speed & large amplitude. SECONDARY
splitting from Somali Plate).
WAVES
move apart. formation of volcanic Red Sea Rift (African Plate PRIMARY
They are generally islands or volcanoes splitting from Arabian Plate.)
SURFACE WAVES
less severe. along the boundary.
West Antarctic Rift (Rifting WAVES CRUST
within the Antarctic Plate.)
EXAMPLE Ex: Iceland, located
Indian Ocean Ridge
on the Mid-Atlantic
(Separates Indo-Australian
Ridge.
Plate from Antarctic Plate (S-Waves) Transverse waves..
& African Plate.) (P-Waves) Longitudinal waves. Slower than P-waves, arrives second.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING Fastest seismic waves, arriving first.
EXAMPLE Occurs at mid-ocean ridges SEAFLOOR SPREADING Similar to sound waves.
Travel only through solids.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge where new oceanic crust is Doesn’t cross core of the earth.
Travel through solids, liquids, & gases.
(Atlantic Ocean: Separates continuously formed. Energy propagates outward
Velocity : solids > liquids > gases.
North American Plate &
Eurasian Plate in the north,
FOCUS (HYPOCENTER) SEISMIC WAVES 1.7 times faster than S-waves. Perpendicular to the direction of
travel in the vertical plane.
& South American Plate & Less destructive but provide early
African Plate in the south.) Vibrations that travel through
The origin of an earthquake warning. Low frequency & High amplitude.
the Earth's crust.
within the Earth. Vibrate parallel to the direction.

TRANSFORM The point where energy is

Travel through the Earth's High frequency & low amplitude.
SHADOW
VE
interior and surface, causing
released, initiating seismic
AD Z
E SH OW Z
ground shaking.
BOUNDARIES waves. S-waves can't get here because

A
FAULTS:
AV

ON
of the liquid outer core.

S-W
Beyond 105°

E
ON
P-W
Two tectonic plates slide
past each other horizontally EARTHQUAKES
Linear Faults: fault lines
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

E
often visible as linear 105° 105°
(Strike-Slip Faults.) LIQ UID
Friction causes them
features, appearing as BODY WAVES (TRAVEL THROUGH THE EARTH'S INTERIOR):
No Crust Creation or Destruction. to get stuck. 105° 105°
long, straight cracks in Primary (P) Waves Secondary (S) Waves
These boundaries Stress builds up to the landscape. P-waves get through the liquid outer
are conservative overcome friction, it SURFACE WAVES (TRAVEL ALONG THE EARTH'S SURFACE): core, but the bent ray paths leave gaps.
plate boundaries results in earthquakes. Love Waves Rayleigh Waves 145° Approximately 105° to 145°
145°
 RICHTER SCALE
MINING AND NUCLEAR
EXPLOSIONS
TECTONIC PLATE
MOVEMENTS
ELASTIC REBOUND
THEORY
VOLCANO
ACIDIC LAVA BASIC LAVA
Developed in 1935 by
Charles F. Richter, an
American seismologist.

RESERVOIRS VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Measure magnitude of earthquake. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE
0 - 10 Range FOR EARTHQUAKES:
Least magnitude : 0
Highest magnitude : 10 Specific volcanic structures Rich in magnesium and iron
FAULT ZONES

Highly Viscous Less Fluid Less Viscous Highly Fluid

MERCALLI SCALE CONSEQUENCES OF Rich in Silicon Light in Color Poor in Silicon Dark in Color
EARTHQUAKE
mercalli EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Developed in 1883 by
Giuseppe Mercalli, an scale Loss of fishermen's lives to damage to coral reefs, flora, and fauna. Mt. Vesuvius (Italy) Mt. Lassen (USA) Hawaiian Volcanoes Fernandina
Italian volcanologist. It can take years for coral to recover, & mangrove roots are often uprooted. (USA) Mauna Loa & (Ecuador)
Krakatoa (Indonesia) Mt. Pinatubo Kīlauea in Hawaii.
(Philippines) Mt. Shishaldin
Measure the intensity of Mt. St. Helens (USA) Deccan Traps (India) (Alaska)
an earthquake. AVALANCHES GROUND SHAKING TSUNAMI
I - XII Range
Least intensity : I
Highest intensity : XII
VOLCANIC GASES
DUST (0.05 MM)
Zone I (No Rick) Water vapor (H₂O),
Volcanic ash and dust
Zone II 60 - 90%
(Low Rick) Zone IV DAM FLOOD LAND & MUDSLIDE are highly fertile.
MP, Telangana, Rajasthan, Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
( High Rick ) VOLCANIC ASH
Jharkhand, Karnataka Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)
EFFECTS OF Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)
(0.05–0.5 MM)

Parts of Uttar Pradesh, EARTHQUAKES: Carbon Monoxide (CO)

VENT
Gujarat, Bihar, West Bengal Narrow opening.
MAGMA
Indo- Gangetic basin, Delhi, Zone V Inside volcano. CRATER
Jammu & Kashmir Himachal
(Very high Rick) Wide opening.
Zone I I I LAVA
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Patna. Outside volcano.
( Moderate )

Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Himachal

Pradesh, Rann of Kutch Gujarat,
Uttarakhand, northeastern region
FIRE STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE GROUND DISPLACEMENT

EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS CINDER CONE VOLCANOES

Formed from the Small, steep-sided cones.
SHIELD VOLCANOES explosive eruption of
pyroclastic material
A few hundred feet tall,
accumulating around
Largest of all the Very Fluid, & low explosivity. can be up to 900 feet tall.
the vent..
volcanoes on the earth.
Built by repeated eruptions Lava fragments cool in EXAMPLES
Only explosive when that occurred intermittently

ACTIVE DORMANT EXTINCT

the air & fall as cinders, Lava Butte (USA)
water gets into the vent. over vast periods of time. ash, or lapilli.

VOLCANO VOLCANO VOLCANO

Paricutin (Mexico) Cinder Cone (USA) Sunset Crater (USA)
Barring the basalt flows, EXAMPLES Bowl-shaped crater at
mostly made of basalt. the summit.
Mauna Loa & Kilauea Sierra Negra and Olympus Mons
A volcano that has A volcano that hasn't A volcano that has not (Hawaii) Fernandina (Ecuador)
At top of vent, Cinder (Mars)
erupted recently or shows erupted in a long time but erupted for thousands Made of basaltic lava,
Cone is developed.
signs of potential future still has the potential to of years and is not low in silica.
eruptions. erupt again. expected to erupt.

(FLOOD BASALTS)
Gently sloping
structure, not steep LAVA PLATEAUS
Erupt frequently or at Appears inactive, magma No magma activity due to fluid nature.
Lava flows out through Lava spreads over vast
irregular intervals. chamber beneath is active. beneath the surface. long cracks rather than areas before solidifying .

EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES

STRATOVOLCANOES (COMPOSITE VOLCANOES) a central vent.
Layers of basalt can
Composed of basalt and reach thicknesses of
Barren Island, Andaman Narcondam Island (India) More viscous lavas Form a steep-sided,
Dhinodhar Hill (Gujarat) Highly fluid. several kilometers.
(India) Andaman & Nicobar Islands than basalt. symmetrical cone.
Tosham Hills & Dhosi Hills
(Haryana) Cooler than Shield Layers of lava flows, EXAMPLES Structure: Broad, flat,
pyroclastic deposits. gently undulating terrain.
Volcano. Ethiopian Plateau Siberian Traps Deccan Traps
Popa (Myanmar)
(Ethiopia) (Russia) (India)
Mt. Merapi (Indonesia) Mt. Hakusan (Japan) Table Mountain (S. Africa) EXAMPLES Highly viscous lava and
Non-explosive due to the
low gas content.
Mt. Krakatoa Mt. Fuji Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) explosive eruptions.
Mt. Sinabung Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)
Mt. Bromo Low viscosity of
Mount Fuji Cotopaxi Mount Merapi Rich in silica, volatile
Mt. Semeru basaltic magma.
(Japan) (Ecuador) (Indonesia) gases and ashes.

[Link]
(Italy) Vulcano
Mostly at convergent Massive volcanic eruption Magma chamber beneath CALDERAS
plate boundaries where of of all the volcanoes. a volcano is emptied.
Stromboli (Italy)
subduction occurs.
(e.g., Ring of Fire) Overlying rock collapses Much larger than a
Mt. Sakurajima (Japan) into the empty magma
Mount Ararat (Turkey) volcanic crater, over 50
Izu-Oshima Craters of the Moon (USA) chamber, forming a large kilometers in diameter.
Mt. Aso Ojos del Salado (Argentina) LAVA DOMES (VOLCANIC DOMES) depression.
Mount Taranaki (New Zealand) Highly viscous, gas-rich
Mt. Ontake
Created by the slow Explosive eruptions if Circular or oval in plan magma.
Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)
extrusion of viscous lava. dome collapses. view, with steep walls. Aso Caldera
Reykjanes (Iceland)
(Japan)
Mt. Cotopaxi (Ecuador) Piles up near vent rather
than spreading far.
High silica content. EXAMPLES
Kīlauea (Hawaii)
EXAMPLES
Toba Caldera Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania)
Mauna Loa (Hawaii) (Indonesia)
Yellowstone Caldera (USA)
MOUNT ST. HELENS' LAVA DOME. Crater Lake (USA)
 BATHOLITHS

Magmatic material
LACCOLITHS

Dome shaped
LAPOLITHS

Concave downward
PHACOLITHS

Accumulates in the
ROCKS
that cools in the connected by (inverted dome or crests (anticlines) or
CALDERA LAKES FUMAROLES RESURGENT deeper depth. pipe-like conduit. saucer-like). troughs (synclines).

Water often accumulates in

AND GEYSERS DOMES Develops - Large, Surface-composite Large layered Conforming to the Combination Earth's crust Pedogenesis is Rocks break
depression, forming lakes. Uplifted areas within the dome-shaped volcano. intrusion of magma. fold structure. of one or more is primarily the process of down due to
Fumaroles emit gases and
steam continuously. caldera due to renewed
minerals. made up of soil formation. weathering,
magma movement.
Example: Granitic bodies, Smaller than Composed of dense, Small compared to rocks. erosion.
Crater Lake (USA). Geysers periodically erupt spanning hundreds batholiths & found at mafic rocks such as batholiths and
water and steam due to Example: Resurgent domes of kilometers. shallower depths. gabbro. laccoliths.
geothermal pressure. in Yellowstone.

MINERALS
Example: Yellowstone & EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Icelandic calderas.

Sierra Nevada The Domal Hills of Bushveld Complex Corndon Hill

California, USA. Karnataka Plateaus. (South Africa) (England)
METALLIC NON METALLIC
NON
MINERALS MINERALS
FEROUS METAL
POST-CALDERA Also referred as
VOLCANOES HOT SPRINGS ANTICLINES HYPABYSSAL IGNEOUS ROCKS PRECIOUS
Zinc
SYNCLINES Lead
METAL Limestone
Smaller volcanic cones may Copper
Natural pools of geothermally Mica
INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC
form within the caldera after
heated water that reach the Platinum Tin
its initial collapse.
FEROUS Dolomite
surface. Gold
METAL Gypsum
Example:
Gedemsa Caldera (Ethiopia) Example:
Grand Prismatic Spring in
PHACOLITHS
LANDFORMS Silver
Steel
Cast Iron
ROCK CYCLE
Yellowstone National Park,
(USA). Stainless
LAVA steel
IMPORTANT TERMS : LAPOLITHS

SEISMOLOGY SEISMOGRAPH LACCOLITHS GABBRO

Study of earthquake Measure seismic waves Black QUARTZITE
Horizontal intrusions of magma Milky White
ISOSEISMIC LINE ISOTACH ISOBAR between existing rock layers.
Equal intensity Equal wind speed Equal pressure

ISOHALINE ISOTHERM ISONIF DYKE SILL SHEET

Equal salinity Equal temperature Equal snowfall Vertical or near-vertical Thicker Thinner GRANITE
sheets of solidified magma. Hard Rock
ISOHUME ISOHEL ISOHYETS SOAP STONE
(Silica & aluminum)
Soft Rock
Relative humidity Equal sunshine Equal precipitation
BATHOLITHS

INTRUSIVE EXTRUSIVE TYPES OF CONTINENTAL SHELF CONTINENTAL RISE

ROCKS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY Beneath shallow waters with
Lies between continental CONTINENTAL SLOPE
slope & abyssal plain.
plain.
steep/gentle
steep/gentle slope (<0.1°).
(<0.1°). After continental shelf &
Form beneath the Earth's surface. Form on or near Earth's surface.
ROCKS Made up of fine-grained before continental rise.
Rich deposits, fossil fuel are
sediments such as mud,
Cool slowly because they are Cool rapidly because they are commonly found beneath the Continental crust transitions
silt, and sand.
insulated by surrounding rock. exposed to the atmosphere or water. ORGANICALLY CHEMICALLY shelf. into oceanic crust.
MECHANICALLY Gentle slope typically
Coarse-grained texture with visible Fine-grained or glassy texture due ROCKS ROCKS ROCKS Rich in marine life due to less than 1°.
The gradient of the slope
crystals. to the rapid cooling. ample sunlight and nutrients. region varies b/w 2-5 degree
Geological formations: Depth - 200-3000 m.
Produced when magma solidifies Produced when magma solidifies Chalk Largest continental shelf in Deep-sea fans (also
known as submarine Submarine Canyons and
inside the Earth's crust. after reaching the surface. the world: Siberian Shelf,
Shelf,
fans). tranches located in this
located in the Arctic Ocean.
EXAMPLES region.
EXAMPLES Limestone
Limestone Halite Limestone Conglomerate
Lignite

Granite Diorite Gabbro Basalt Pumice Obsidian Andesite

Coal Potash

Sandstone
Loess OCEANIC
Coquina
Chert Gypsum Breccia
VOLCANO BASIN
IGNEOUS Shale
SUBMARINE
ISLAND
MID OCEAN
RIDGE
ROCKS CANYON

DEEP SEA
SEAMOUNT
These rocks have a layered These rocks do not exhibit FAN

ELF AL
or banded appearance. layering or banding.

NT
Primary rock - most abundant (95%) Oldest of all the rocks. EXAMPLES

INE
GUYOT
FOLIATED

CON LOPE
AL
Due to alignment of Due to recrystallization of

NT
SH
Solidified from magma & Lava.

ENT
RIFT

TIN
ROCKS

S
SUBMARINE

CO
minerals under pressure. minerals under pressure that

PE
VALLEY ABYSSAL

AL
TIN
VOLCANO

ENT
Cooling rate determines the texture

SLO
PLAIN
does not cause alignment.

ENT
CON

AL
and crystal size. Peridotite Rhyolite Pegmatite
EXAMPLES

RISE
ABYSSAL

TIN
Slate EXAMPLES PLAIN TRENCH

CON
ABYSSAL
HILL
FORMATION NON-FOLIATED
SEDIMENTARY PROCESS Gneiss
Schist
ROCKS
Marble Hornfels
WEATHERING
ROCKS Rocks are broken
Quartzite
EROSION down into smaller
Rocks are broken particles by physical ABYSSAL PLAIN
Detrital rocks - weathered and down and moved or chemical METAMORPHIC Flat, deep-sea floor region found
by natural forces processes.
processes.
eroded from pre-existing rocks.
ROCKS at the base of the continental rise. MID-OCEAN RIDGE OCEAN TRENCHES
like water, wind,
Holds all reserves of coal, oil and or ice. Despite its barren appearance,
appearance, it Continuous, underwater Deep, narrow depression
natural gas. The study of rocks supports unique deep-sea mountain range.
range. of the ocean floor.
LITHIFICATION is called petrology. ecosystems.
Heat causes rock to recrystallize, Site of seafloor Trenches are formed at
DEPOSITION Asbestos is a green
Pressure compacts forming new minerals or crystals. spreading, rift valley & subduction zones.
Not as rich in minerals of economic and black color Geological formations: seamounts,
Sediments settle in the sediments, & tectonic activity.
value as igneous rock. stone. guyots, abyssal hills, submarine Mariana Trench (Pacific
Pressure causes rock to rearrange or
layers in low-energy minerals precipitate Amphibole is a volcano & volcanic islands. Examples: Mid-Atlantic
reorient, foliation (layering). Ocean): Deepest ocean
Many layers are commonly referred environments like to "glue" them naturally occurring Ridge, East Pacific Rise,
Organisms: sea cucumbers, brittle trench in the world.
to as stratified rocks riverbeds, lakes, or together. mineral. Southwest Indian Ridge.
ocean floors. stars, and deep-sea fish.
 GUYOTS SUBMARINE 66.5°N
CURRENT LOCATION & FUNCTION
OCEAN
Kamchatka
Current

VOLCANO SEAMOUNTS Flows northward from the Straits of Florida and merges with the Gulf
Underwater volcanic
mountain with a flat top,
top, Volcano that erupts Underwater mountains
Rennel CURRENTS Okhotsk
Current
FLORIDA Stream near the southeastern United States.
formed by erosion when it beneath the ocean,
ocean, or volcanoes that rise 23.5°N CURRENT Function: Drives weather systems, supports marine ecosystems, influences
was once above sea level often forming seamounts steeply from the ocean South west hurricanes, and redistributes heat in the Atlantic.
or islands over time.
Monsoon
and later submerged.
submerged. floor but do not reach a
Floridnt Somali
Current
North East
Retreating
Tsushima
Current
Curre Current Monsoon

Flows along the northern edge of the Caribbean Sea, east of the
An
the surface.
surface. 0°
tille
s
Current

ANTILLES Bahamas, and eventually merges with the Florida Current.

ABYSSAL HILLS
VOLCANIC ISLANDS CURRENT Function: Influences regional weather, supports marine ecosystems, and
Small, rolling hills found
on the abyssal plains of
the ocean floor, generally
OCEANIC When an underwater
volcano erupts and its
23.5°S

Falkland
redistributes heat in the Atlantic.

BASIN
current
Flows eastward across the North Pacific Ocean, from the subtropics,
less than 1,000 meters lava builds up above the
(3,300 feet) in height.
height. ocean surface. 66.5°S
NORTH moving toward the west coast of North America and influencing
PACIFIC regions from Japan to the west coast of the U.S.
CURRENT Function: Moderates climates, fuels storms, redistributes heat, and
SUBMARINE CANYON DEEP SEA FAN supports marine ecosystems.
Steep, V-shaped valley
carved into the ocean floor,
Cone-shaped accumulation
of sediments deposited, on
WARM CURRENT
Flows northward along the eastern coast of Japan, moving towards the
on continental slope. continental rise.
rise. Influence regional climates,
climates, marine ecosystems,
ecosystems, & tropical cyclones.
cyclones. northern Pacific.
KUROSHIO
SALINITY Redistributing heat from equator toward poles,
poles, influencing global climate patterns. CURRENT Function: Influences climate and weather patterns, supports marine
TEMPERATURE Not directly linked to desert formation, they increase evaporation & precipitation. ecosystems, and plays a role in cyclogenesis (hurricane formation).
Salinity refers to the concentration
of dissolved salts in seawater. The factors that affect the
distribution of water the ocean: CURRENT LOCATION & FUNCTION Flows eastward along the southern coast of Alaska,
Alaska, extending from the
Salinity varies due to factors such as: Latitude Flows westward across the tropical regions of the Pacific, Atlantic,
ALASKA Aleutian Islands,
Islands, moves towards the Gulf of Alaska.

Evaporation and Precipitation Unequal distribution of land & water NORTH and Indian Oceans,
Oceans, driven primarily by the trade winds. CURRENT Function: Supports marine ecosystems, influences climate, and plays a
Freshwater Inputs Prevailing wind EQUATORIAL role in regional weather patterns.
Function: Influences weather, hurricanes, cyclones in North Atlantic &
Ocean Circulation Ocean currents. CURRENT
Pacific, Caribbean and supports marine ecosystems.
Ice Formation and Melting
Wind, Temperature, Density Flows northward through the Tsushima Strait,
Strait, which lies between
Begins in the Gulf of Mexico,
Mexico, flows along eastern coast of U.S., Kyushu (Japan) and Korea,
Korea, into the Sea of Japan (East Sea).
TSUSHIMA
GULF extends into the North Atlantic.
Highest salinity in water bodies: CURRENT Function: Supports marine ecosystems, influences regional weather
STREAM Function: Moderates climates, fuels storms, redistributes heat, and patterns, & contributes to fisheries and economic activities in the region.
Lake Van (Turkey) supports marine ecosystems.
Dead Sea (Middle East)
Great Salt Lake (United States)
Extends from the Gulf Stream and moves northeast towards Northern Flows along the eastern coast of Somalia, in the western Indian Ocean.
Lake Vanda (Antarctica) NORTH Europe. SOMALI
Red Sea Function: Influences regional weather patterns (Indian Ocean monsoon),
ATLANTIC CURRENT
Function: Moderates European climate, influences weather patterns, and supports marine ecosystems, and is integral to the monsoon system.
THERMOCLINE HALOCLINE PYNOCLINE DRIFT
supports marine ecosystems.
Highest salinity is recorded b/w A layer in the A layer in A layer in the
15° & 20° latitudes. ocean where the ocean ocean where
Flows along the coast of Norway, Iceland, and Svalbard in the North Flows in the Indian Ocean, particularly impacting the western coast of
Mediterranean Sea records higher temperature where salinity water density
NORWEGIAN Atlantic Ocean. It is a branch of the North Atlantic Drift. SOUTH WEST India and Sri Lanka, occurs between June to September.
salinity due to high evaporation. decreases increases increases
rapidly with rapidly with CURRENT MONSOON Function: Drives seasonal ocean circulation, influences rainfall and
rapidly with Function: Moderates temperatures, influences marine life, and
Lowest: Black Sea marine ecosystems, and is closely tied to the Indian monsoon.
depth. depth. depth. contributes to regional climate.
Indian Ocean: 35%

CURRENT LOCATION & FUNCTION COLD CURRENT

Flows westward across the tropical regions of the Pacific, Atlantic,
CURRENT LOCATION & FUNCTION
Bring water from polar or subpolar regions to the equatorial regions.
SOUTH and Indian Oceans, driven primarily by the trade winds.
EQUATORIAL Lower the temperature of coastal areas, leading to cooler and often drier climates, Flows northward along the southwestern coast of Africa in the South
Function: Influences weather, hurricanes, cyclones in Atlantic & Pacific, reducing the likelihood of rain and storms.
storms. BENGUELA Atlantic Ocean.
CURRENT
supports marine ecosystems. Formation of deserts on adjacent landmasses by reducing moisture content in the air. CURRENT Function: Formation of Namib Desert and Kalahari Desert,
Desert, supports
Associated with upwelling, a process where nutrient-rich deep water rises to surface. marine ecosystems & sustains one of the world's productive fishing areas.
Flows southward along the eastern coast of Brazil,
Brazil, from the Tropical
Atlantic to the Southern Ocean, merging with Falkland Current.
Current. .
BRAZIL
CURRENT Function: Influences climate, supports marine ecosystems, and
redistributes heat in the Atlantic.
CURRENT LOCATION & FUNCTION Flows northeastward along eastern coast of South America, affecting
FALKLAND the coasts of Argentina in the South Atlantic Ocean.

Flows southwestward along the northwest coast of Africa in the CURRENT Function: Supports marine ecosystems through No role in desert
Flows southward along the eastern coast of Australia, from the Coral upwelling, and contributes to productive fisheries.
EAST Sea near Queensland. CANARY North Atlantic Ocean. formation.
AUSTRALIAN CURRENT Function: Formation of the Sahara Desert and supports marine life
CURRENT Function: Influences marine ecosystems (Great Barrier Reef),
Reef), drives
through upwelling.
weather patterns, supports fisheries, & moderates coastal climates. Flows northward along the western coast of Australia,
Australia, from the
WEST Southern Ocean up toward the Indian Ocean,
AUSTRALIAN
Flows southward along the eastern coast of Mozambique, from the Flows southward along the eastern coast of Canada, from the Arctic Function: Formation of the Western Australian Desert and supports
Mozambique Channel to the southern coast of Africa,
Africa, near the Cape
CURRENT
MOZAMBIQUE Ocean, into the North Atlantic Ocean. marine life through upwelling & sustains fisheries.
of Good Hope & merge with agulhas current. LABRADOR
CURRENT Function:
Function: Foggy conditions when it meets the warm Gulf Stream
Function: Same as Agulhas Current. CURRENT (creating famous Grand Banks fog).
No role in desert
Supports rich fisheries. Iceberg Transport. Flows southward along the eastern coast of Japan in the North Pacific
formation.
Flows along the eastern coast of South Africa,
Africa, from the tropics down OYASHIO Ocean, meets Kuroshio Current (warm current) off the coast of Japan.
AGULHAS to the Cape of Good Hope. CURRENT Function: Foggy condition,
condition, supports marine No role in desert
CURRENT Function: Influences marine ecosystems, drives ocean circulation & Flows southward along the eastern coast of Greenland,
Greenland, merging into ecosystems, cooling affect on coastal regions(Japan). formation.
EAST the North Atlantic Ocean.
weather patterns, helps in the global thermohaline circulation.
GREENLAND
Function: Affects regional climate,
climate, transports No role in desert
Flows along the eastern coast of Madagascar,
CURRENT Flows southward along the eastern coast of Russia in the North
Madagascar, continues southward icebergs, and supports marine ecosystems. formation.
into the Mozambique Channel, moving from the tropical Indian Ocean OKHOTSK Pacific Ocean.
MADAGASCAR toward the southern Indian Ocean. CURRENT Function: Promotes high marine productivity & No role in desert
CURRENT Flows southward along the western coast of North America,
America, in the cooler temperatures (eastern Russian coast).
Function: Influences marine ecosystems, drives Indian ocean circulation formation.
Pacific Ocean.
and weather pattern. CALIFORNIA
CURRENT Function: Formation of Arizona and Sonoran deserts, supports marine
ecosystems, cools coastal climates, and contributes to the aridity. Flows southward along the eastern coast of Russia,
Russia, particularly near
MEETING POINT : WARM & COLD CURRENT
KAMCHATKA the Kamchatka Peninsula in the North Pacific Ocean.
Influence local precipitation and fogging environment,
environment, impacting coastal climates,
climates,
navigation problems,
problems, including storms and cyclones.
cyclones. Flows northward along the western coast of South America (Chile &
CURRENT Function: Influences the climate by cooling No role in desert
Convergence zones fostering high levels of marine biodiversity such as growth of
( PERU ) Peru), from the Southern Ocean flowing into the Pacific Ocean. coastal regions & supports marine ecosystems. formation.
planktons and supporting fisheries.
HUMBOLDT
Function: Formation of the Atacama Desert and supports marine life
CONVERGENCE OF CURRENT through upwelling of nutrient-rich waters.
MAJOR CURRENTS: Seasonal cold current that primarily affects Indian Ocean,
Ocean, particularly
Kuroshio Current (warm) and Oyashio Current (cold) the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, occurs between November &
Tsushima Current (warm) and Okhotsk Current (cold): Creates nutrient-rich areas, NORTHEAST
February.
that promote a productive fishing industry. Flows westward along the Atlantic Ocean,
Ocean, moving from the eastern MONSOON
SOUTH South Atlantic toward the western South Atlantic. CURRENT Function: Affects the climate, cooling & marine
Gulf Stream (warm) and Labrador Current (cold): Affects North Atlantic weather. ATLANTIC Function: Supports marine life through upwelling. conditions temporarily in coastal regions of Indian No role in desert
Agulhas Current (warm) and Benguela Current (cold): Affects weather along the CURRENT subcontinent,
subcontinent, like India, Sri Lanka, & Bangladesh. formation.
No role in desert formation.
southern African coast.
 CORAL REEFS TYPES OF CORAL REEFS
FRINGING REEFS Directly attached
to or very close
1 Examples
South Florida reefs
SALINE WATER SEMI-HARD
SURFACE
SHALLOW
WATER
to a coastline.
(Florida)
CLEAR WATER IDEAL CONDITIONS RICH SUPPLY OF
Most commonly Red Sea Reefs (Egypt,
FOR CORAL GROWTH NUTRIENTS
Made up of Symbiotic Maximum found reefs in the 2 Sudan, Saudi Arabia)
Underwater world.
thousands of relationship b/w coral reefs are Seychelles (Indian
structures made NOT FRESH ABUNDANT
tiny marine zooxanthellae found in the Ocean) WARM WATER
from calcium The reef forms a
3 Solomon Islands WATER PLANKTON
invertebrates (algae) & neritic zone of narrow band
carbonate. along the shore,
shore,
(Pacific Ocean)
(polyps). corals. the ocean. Gulf of Aqaba
often shallow &
near land.
4
(Jordan, Egypt, Israel) HIGH EXTREME LOW
TEMPERATURE TIDES
Coral polyps grow and CORAL REEFS Examples
Great Barrier Reef
1 Farther offshore
from the coastline,
BARRIER REEFS
OCEAN
multiply, building the
structure of the reef by 1 CYCLE (Australia)
Mesoamerican Barrier
separated by a
lagoon. ACIDIFICATION
OCEAN
POLLUTION
secreting calcium carbonate. Zooxanthellae algae enter Reef (Central
coral polyps, providing energy American countries) A larger and

When the coral

2 through photosynthesis, Florida Barrier Reef
2
more expansive
DISEASES
CAUSES OF CORAL OVERFISHING
reef system that
die, the polyps shed their aiding coral growth.
(USA)
Chagos Archipelago forms a barrier
BLEACHING
skeleton [coral] on on which 3 between the open
Barrier Reef (Central
New polyps grow.
Over time, corals build Indian Ocean) 3 ocean and the
GLOBAL CORAL MARINE
lagoon.
massive reef structures, WARMING BLEACHING POLLUTION
Examples 4 supporting diverse marine ATOLLS Examples Circular or oval-
Lakshadweep (Complete Island)
life. Lakshadweep Atolls 1 shaped reefs that OZONE THREATS TO CORAL OCEAN
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
5 (India) encircle a lagoon, DEPLETION ACIDIFICATION
(Maximum Corals)
Environmental stress can Suvadiva Atolls usually far from REEFS
Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Maldives) land.
cause corals to expel
Gulf of Mannar
zooxanthellae, leading to
Aldabra Atoll
Remains of a
INVASIVE OVER EXCESS
Rainbow Reef (Fiji) 6 (Seychelles)
2
submerged ALIEN SPECIES EXPLOITATION TOURISM
Swaraj Islands (India) bleaching,
bleaching, healthy reefs can
Tarawa Atoll volcanic island,
island,
Gulf of Kutch recover if conditions improve. (Kiribati) with the lagoon
Midway Atoll (USA) 3 in the center. MARINE COASTLINE
NERITIC ZONE PATCH REEFS
DIVERSITY PROTECTION
The shallow area of the ocean 200m deep,
deep, extending from the low Examples Smaller, isolated
1 reefs scattered
tide mark to the continental shelf. MEDICINAL
Bahamas Patch Reefs
within lagoons or OCEAN
As part of the photic zone,
zone, which is the upper layer of the ocean.
ocean. Florida Keys Patch other reef systems. PROPERTIES HEALTH
Sunlight penetrates and supports abundant marine life, coral reefs. Reefs (USA) 2 They form patches
Maldives Patch Reefs of coral that are
often part of a TOURISM WHY CORAL HEALTH FISHING
Philippines Patch Reefs 3
larger reef system. IMPORTANT?

TIDES
The vertical movement of water in tides .
high tide

new moon

SPRING TIDE
Refers to the rise(up) & fall(down) of ocean
Next number will be yours water level along coastline, caused by the
gravitational pull of the moon & sun.
low tide

have faith in yourself, High Tide: when water is at its highest point.
Low Tide: when water is at its lowest point.
Occur due to the alignment of the Strong combined gravitational
Earth, Moon, and Sun. pull of sun and moon.
Be consistent to your
commitment... 🎯 Wavelength SURGE
Also known as storm surge.
Occur twice a month, during the
new moon and full moon phases.
Spring tides have the greatest
tidal range, (16 m / 53 feet).

Update your daily targets on Sudden increase in water Spring tide experiences two high

💙
The biggest tidal range is found
Amplitude level that occurs during a tides and two low tides. in the Bay of Fundy, Canada .
9198151228. CREST
storm

A crest is the highest EBB TIDE

point of a wave.
The gap or change
between a high tide &
TROUGH a low tide
A trough is the lowest Apprx. 6 hr & 12 min.
point of a wave.
NEAP TIDE
AIR 1 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE last-quarter

NEXT
YOU FOR TIDES
Occur when the Sun & Moon are Reducing the gravitational pull
at right angles cancel out each of sun and moon creating a
Centrifugal other relative to Earth. weaker tidal force.
Force Earth’s Shape
& Rotation Occur during the first and last Neap tides have the smallest tidal
quarter phases of the moon. range, (less than 1 m / 3 feet)).

Gravitational Gravitational
Neap tide experiences two high
Pull of the Moon Pull of the Sun Occur after 7 days of spring tide.
tides and two low tides.
Main Extent Less Extent
 During a opposition, spring
tides occurs.
Opposition happen once every
month, coincide with the full moon.
TIDES BASED ON FREQUENCY ATMOSPHERE
Two high tides and two low SEMI-DIURNAL OXYGEN (O₂)
tides per day of equal heights.
Occurs when the TIDES NITROGEN (N₂) 21%
ARGON
Moon and Sun are on 78% 0.93%
Time Interval b/w (High &
opposite sides of the
Low): Approx. 12 hr. 25min
HOUSE GA
Earth.
EEN SE NEON
GR
WATER VAPOR (H₂O) S
SYZYGY Most common in the Indian
Ocean, in Bay of Bengal. 0.25%
0.00
18%

OPPOSITION
Occurs most commonly 0.0000
worldwide. 0.04% 6%

CARBON DIOXIDE OZONE (O₃)

SYZYGY Sola (CO₂)
r Ecli
CONJUNCTION pse DIURNAL TIDES One high tide and one low tide
per day of equal heights.
0.0000
3%
0.000
18%
Occurs when the NITROUS OXIDE
Moon and Sun align Time Interval 24 hr. 50min b/w METHANE (CH₄) (N₂O)
on the same side of successive high tides. 0.000
1%
the Earth.
1% DUST PARTICLES CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCS)
Occurs commonly in Gulf of
Mexico, parts of Southeast Asia.
During a conjunction, spring Conjunctions happen once every NOTE: Above given values are approx.
tides occurs. month, coincide with the new moon.
Less frequent compared to semi-
diurnal tides. ROLE OF ATMOSPHERE ALBEDO
Protection from Harmful
Two high tides and two low tides
per day of unequal heights. MIXED TIDES ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The proportion of sunlight
reflected by the earth’s surface
Protection from Space
back into space.

>
IMPORTANCE FISHERIES Time Interval b/w (High & Low):
Hazards like meteors.
GROW & SUSTAINS Albedo
MARINE ECOSYSTEM OF TIDES around 12 hours. Regulation of temperature &
weather systems,
systems, including of white
Albedo
of black
rain, storms, and winds. object. object.
Having both semi diurnal and
diurnal oscillations.
ADVECTION CONVECTION ALBEDO ALBEDO
NAVIGATION WHITE OBJECT BLACK OBJECT
U.S. West Coast, Pacific Ocean Horizontal transfer Vertical transfer of
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT of heat, moisture, or heat, moisture, or High, as it reflects Low, as it absorbs
regions.
other atmospheric other atmospheric most of the most of the
SUSTAINABLE RENEWABLE ENERGY properties by wind. properties by wind. sunlight. sunlight.

Fresh snow Venus LAYERS OF EARTH'S

Thick cloud Jupiter
Maximum
albedo ATMOSPHERE
Water Uranus Tundra Extends from the Earth's surface to
ISS about 8 – 18 km, depending on latitude
Old snow Saturn Taiga and season.
Temperature decreases with altitude
SA
TE

Tropical (normal lapse rate about 6.5°C per km.

LL

AU
ITE

RO
Deciduous RA
S

Concreate Earth JET FL

S All weather phenomena occur
Y (clouds, rain, storms).
Tropical
Desert Mars Evergreen 8KM
RA
DIO
ME
TE

WAV
OR

ES
S

Soil Mercury Minimum

albedo WEATHER PHENOMENA
Extends from about 15 km to 50 km.
OZONE

Grass
Contains the ozone layer,
layer, which
OPAUSE

ATOPAUSE

absorbs and scatters ultraviolet (UV)

radiation, (increases
(increases temperature
OPAUSE

RMOPAUSE

The amount of solar radiation received with altitude).

TROP

18K
STR

SOLAR RETARDATION by a specific area on Earth's surface. M

Jets fly in the lower stratosphere.
50K
MES

INSOLATION
M
Earth receives short-wave 80K
THE
RE

M
radiation from the sun. 620
HE

KM
SP
ER

Hotter objects have a shorter SPA

wavelength. PO P H CE Solar Wind: Sun emits a stream of

TRO OS
charged particles, called the solar
Lon

Extends from about 50 km to 85 km.

RAT
Greenhouse gases is wind.
E
ER

ST
Coldest atmospheric layer (-90°C or
PH
transparent (allows)
g W aves

RE

Earth's Magnetosphere: These

lower).
OS
incoming solar radiation.
particles are drawn toward the
MES OSP
s
HE

ve Temperature decreases with altitude. Earth's magnetic poles due to the

a

planet's magnetic field.

RM
tW

Meteors burn up in this layer due to

THE R
E

Aurora Borealis
HE
friction with atmospheric particles.
or

Short-wave radiation (Northern Lights):

Sh

from the sun is TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

X O SP in the northern
do

E
absorbed by Earth. be
Al hemisphere.
Earth emits long-wave
Absorb
radiation.
Oz

Short-wave radiation
one

Cooler objects have a longer Atmospheric Interaction: When these

reflected back by the Extends from about 85 km to 620 km.
wavelength. particles collide with gases in the
Earth's surface(Albedo). Temperature increases with altitude,
Greenhouse gases is opaque Earth's atmosphere (like oxygen and Aurora Australis
Extends from about 600 km to due to solar radiation absorption. nitrogen), they excite the atoms, (Southern Lights):
(trap) outgoing terrestrial
10,000 km,
km, gradually merges with releasing energy as light. in the southern
CO₂ radiation. Home to the auroras (northern and
outer space. hemisphere.
southern lights), radio waves &
The outermost layer, where Satellites High-latitude regions under clear
International Space Station (ISS).
skies and low light pollution.
CO₂

Long-wave radiation orbit within this layer.

Also known as ionosphere.
₂
CO

CO₂ trapped by greenhouse Composed mainly of hydrogen and

ses

Greenhouse gases increase CO₂ CFC gases in the atmosphere. helium atoms,
atoms, temperature increases.
ga

the Earth's temperature. G reen hous

e
 POLAR HIGH-
PRESSURE BELTS
CORIOLIS ffect
SUBPOLAR LOW-
FORCE lis E Found at 90°N and 90°S (poles). PRESSURE BELTS
Located at 66.5°N and 66.5°S

io
Northern Extremely cold air sinks, creating

Cor
Hemisphere: Right latitude.
high pressure.
Warm air from the subtropics
Minimum (zero) Coriolis Winds here are dry and weak meets cold polar air, causing the
force at equator. (Northeast and southeast polar air to rise and form low pressure.
easterlies).
Associated with stormy weather
Southern and strong winds.
Hemisphere: Left
SUBTROPICAL HIGH-
90°N PRESSURE BELTS
Maximum Coriolis force POLA
R HIGH PRESSURE BE
LT
at the poles. 60°N Found at 23.5°N and 23.5°S
latitude.
Coriolis force: The deflection of winds
SUB
POLAR
LO W PRESSURE B
ELT
Air from the equatorial regions WARM WIND COLD WIND
or currents, due to Earth's rotation. descends here, creating high-
pressure zones.
Coriolis effect increases with wind speed. 30°N Planetary westerlies winds blow Warm wind: Blows from Low-pressure Cold wind: Blows from high-pressure
SUBTR
O PIC A L U D E S) from the west to the east. towards High-pressure. towards low-pressure.
HIG H P RE S S U R E BELT (H O R S E L A TIT

Known for calm, dry weather (e.g.,

Warm, dry winds. Cold, dry winds.
POLAR 80° - 90°N deserts like the Sahara).
0° Carry more moisture,
moisture, can lead to rain. leads to snowfall.
CELL 45°- 66.5°N EQUA
T O RIA L T C Z)
D O L D R U M S L O W P R E S S U R E B E L T (I
PRESSURE Originates from warmer regions, Originates from colder regions, like
FERREL BELT
EQUATORIAL DOLDRUMS
LOW PRESSURE BELT
such as tropical or equatorial areas. polar or high-altitude areas.
CELL 30°S
23.5° - 35°N
SUBTRO
PIC A L HIG H P
R E S S U R E B E L T (H O R S E L A TIT U D E S)
Located near Equator (0° latitude). High temperature (Can cause snow Low temperature (Frost
(Frost or freezing
to melt).
melt). conditions)
Warm air rises due to intense solar
SUBPOL 60°S heating, creating a zone of low
Chinook: North America (Rocky) Bora: Hungary (Adriatic coast)
AR LO W PRESS URE BELT

pressure.
P O LA R HIG H
PRESSURE BELT

HADLEY 90°S
Northeast and southeast trade
Foehn: Europe (Alps) Mistral: France (Rhone Valley)
CELL PRESSURE BELT winds meet along equator (ITCZ)).
0° - 10°N/S Sirocco: North Africa to Europe Pampero: Argentina (Pampas region)
Belt of calm winds and frequent Harmattan: West Africa Levanter: France & Spain
THESE PRESSURE BELTS DRIVE
GLOBAL WIND SYSTEMS: thunderstorms.
Loo: Northern India and Pakistan Buran: Siberia and Central Asia
HADLEY Trade Winds: Blow from subtropical Santa Ana: Southern California, USA Blizzard: Polar & temperate regions
CELL highs to the equatorial low. Roaring - 40°s
Westerlies: Blow from subtropical highs Brickfielder: Australia Gregale: Mediterranean region
23.5° - 35°S to subpolar lows. Khamsin: Egypt (Persian Gulf) Purga: Russia
Furious - 50°s
Polar Easterlies: Blow from polar highs
FERREL to subpolar lows. Shrinking - 60°s Nor’wester: New Zealand Nor’easter: Canada & U.S.A
CELL Zonda: Argentina (Andes) Norther: North America & Mexico
45° - 66°S Also known as Planetary winds or
POLAR 80° - 90°S permanent winds Screaming - 70°s
CELL

SEASONAL WINDS
Periodic winds that change their direction with onsets of
FACTORS INFLUENCE SPEED,
DIRECTION OF WIND
CYCLONES
different seasons and due to changes in atmospheric pressure.

CORIOLIS FORCE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

Stabilizes atmospheric pressure.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Significant in cyclones (low pressure)& EARTH’S ROTATION AND
anticyclones (high pressure). AXIAL TILT
Geostrophic Winds: When isobars are straight and friction is
L absent, the Pressure gradient is balanced by Coriolis, and the
H L H resultant wind blows parallel to the Isobar.

SEA BREEZE LAND BREEZE 1020mb

Isobar
1020mb
Isobar

Pressure
Gradient Force
Pressure
Occurs: During the daytime. Occurs: During the night time. Gradient Force
Coriolis Force perpendicular Geostrophic
Winds
Direction: From sea to land. Direction: From land to sea. Frictional Force Coriolis Force to Pressure Gradient Force

1040mb
Land heats up faster than sea, warm air Land cools down faster than sea, creating 1040mb
Isobar Cori
olis
Isobar

over the land rises & creating (low pressure). (low pressure) moves toward sea to replace Forc
e
rising warm air.
Cooler air (high pressure) over the sea PRESSURE FRICTION FORCE
moves in to replace the rising warm air. Warm air over sea rises, creating low pressure. GRADIENT FORCE
Brings cooler, dry air from land to sea. Slows down winds and alters their
Brings cooler, humid air from sea to land. Direction: From high pressure direction, particularly near the surface.
Provides relief from daytime heat. to low pressure.
L
Friction reduces the Coriolis effect's
Air starts moving, other forces like the Coriolis influence, causing winds to cross
force and friction modify its direction and speed. isobars at an angle toward low pressure.
H

H
PGF determines the strength of wind, while
the Coriolis force influences its direction.
GEOSTROPHIC
L
ANABATIC WIND (VALLEY BREEZE) High-altitude winds that flow parallel to
WINDS ANTICYCLONE Fair & calm weather. Stormy weather CYCLONE
isobars. High-pressure system where air Low-pressure system where air
Occurs: During the daytime. EXAMPLES converges and rises at the center.
KATABATIC WIND (MOUNTAIN BREEZE) Direction: Valley upward to mountain slopes. diverges and sinks at the center.
Friction from the Earth's surface is minimal
Occurs: During the Nighttime. or absent.
Mountain slopes heat up faster than the JET STREAMS
Direction: Mountain slopes downward to valley. valley floor. rn Hemisph rn Hemisph
the
High-altitude geostrophic winds form
Geostrophic wind is proportional to the
powerful jet streams that influence H L
the

ere
spacing of the isobars:

Sou

ere
Sou
Mountain slopes cool down more quickly than Warm air rises along the slopes, creating a weather patterns globally.
the valley floor. low-pressure area.
CLOSE ISOBARS H L
N or
WIDE ISOBARS TRADE WINDS

re

N or
Cooler air from valley floor flows upward

re
Cold, dense air from mountain slopes flows he

he
Stronger winds due Weaker winds due to Near the equator, the geostrophic t r n H e m is p he

he
downward into valley, creating gentle wind. toward the slopes to replace the rising air. r n H e m is p

t
to a steeper pressure a gentler pressure balance contributes to the steady
gradient. gradient. trade winds.
Brings cooler air into the valley and can Sometimes lead to the formation of
Rotate clockwise. Rotate Rotate Rotate clockwise.
lead to frost during colder seasons. clouds near mountain peaks.
counterclockwise. counterclockwise.
 TROPICAL CYCLONE Formed in low 1
INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE
latitude-8-20°
2
Strong winds, and West pacific: Typhoon
thunderstorms
Unpredictable, producing heavy rain.
most dangerous 3
& destructive. originate over
4 oceans in tropical Indian Ocean: Cyclone
Cyclone U.S.A: Tornado
East to west areas during summer.
movement 100- 5
200 km/h. 6 Elliptical shape. CYCLONE NAMES IN
TEMPERATE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES SNOW COVERED AREA

Formed in middle 1
CYCLONE
latitude-30-50°
2
Maximum speed on Philippines: Typhoon
sea. Atlantic Ocean: Hurricane
Predictable &
Less dangerous 3
Originate over oceans
4 during winter.
West to east 5
movement 30-50
“V" shape.
Western Australia: Willy-Willies
km/h 6

EXTRA-TROPICAL CYCLONE 1 Clear Frontal System

IDEAL
2 Originate - seas and land CONDITIONS FOR
INVERSION
3 Affect much larger area.

4 West to east movement.

5 Less destructive.

HUMIDITY
? ? DID YOU Centre of cyclone. 1
?
KNOW?
? Clear sky, no rain. 2
Bay of Bengal experience more
cyclone than Arabian sea. Calm weather. 3
Reasons: RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Maximum river drainage. Diameter of eye: 4 ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
10-30 km.
Fresh water.
Less Saline. Extremely low 5
Strong low pressure. pressure area.
EYE OF CYCLONE

FOG

2
3

DEW

MIST
FROST
Clouds Stratus Nimbus
Nimbostratus
PRECIPITATION
RAINFALL:
Occurs when the temperature is
Solid

DRIZZLE:
Solid

Fine
Droplets
Heavy
above freezing (0°C or 32°F). Droplets Drizzle consists of very fine
Air temperature is typically warm enough to droplets that fall slowly.
keep precipitation in liquid form as it falls. Droplets are smaller, giving
Raindrops can vary in size depending on the it "misty" appearance.
intensity of the rain.

Low Clouds Middle Clouds

Stratocumulus SLEET
Solid

SNOWFALL:
Solid

Clouds Cumulus
Occurs when layer Semi-
solid
Forms when the temperature is below
freezing (0°C or 32°F).
Solid

Sun halo of cold air at the

surface is deep enough to Moisture released in the form of hexagonal
freeze the raindrops before crystal form snowflakes.
High Clouds they hit the ground.
Altostratus Altocumulus Solid

Cirrus VIRAGE HAILSTONES:

Evaporates before reaching Forms in thunderstorms when temperature
Freeze
the ground. is below freezing in upper atmosphere. Droplets

It appears as streaks or Can grow to various sizes, from small pellets to

trails below clouds.
large, damaging stones.
8

CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
Cirrostratus Cirrocumulus Sun

Precipitation

2,000 - 8,000 Condensation

Evaporation

Cumulonimbus
Rivers

Lake

CONVECTIONAL RAIN ( Argentina ) ( North America ) ( Brazil )

Heavy rainfall with lighting & thunderstorms.

Heavy
rainfall
COLD FRONT
The warm air rises due to its lower density Occurs when a cold air mass moves into & under
(a process called convection). a warmer air mass, forcing warmer air to rise.

Common in tropical and equatorial regions where intense solar Associated with quick, intense storms (e.g.,
heating occurs. thunderstorms or heavy rain)
Give rise to Cumulonimbus clouds
Does not last for extended periods of time.
Example: Rainfall in tropical rainforests like the Amazon. ( East Africa )
( South Africa ) ( Colombia & Venezuela )
WARM FRONT
Occurs when a warm air mass moves over and
OROGRAPHIC RAIN (RELIEF RAIN) Dry gradually displaces a cooler air mass.
Heavy
Moist air from a water body is pushed by wind rainfall
Usually produces light rain or drizzle over a
towards a mountain range. wide area before the front arrives.
Cooling causes water vapor to condense, forming clouds & precipitation Generates Nimbostratus cloud.

GRASSLANDS
on the windward side of the mountain.
The air descends on the leeward side of the mountain, warming and
drying, often creating a rain shadow area.
Heavy rain on windward side; dry conditions on leeward side. OCCLUDED FRONT
Common in mountainous regions. Occurs when a cold front catches up to a warm
Example: Rainfall on the windward side of the Western Ghats in India, front, forcing the warm air mass upward and
with dry conditions in the rain shadow region like the Deccan Plateau. creating a mix of air masses.
Often results in prolonged precipitation and
variable weather.

( Mongolia & China ) ( Eurasia )

( Australia )

STATIONARY FRONT
Occurs when two air masses meet but
neither is strong enough to displace
the other, leading to little movement.

OROGRAPHIC RAIN Brings cloudy skies and prolonged

periods of rain or snow.

Weather conditions may last for

several days.
( Hungary & Austria )
( New Zealand )
 LANDFORMS
MOUNTAINS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO SEVERAL TYPES:
ENDOGENIC FORCES
DENUDATION FOLD BLOCK RESIDUAL PLATEAU
Earth movements shape the Earth's landforms over time. Denudation is the process of wearing away or lowering the Earth's MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS
Earth movements are the changes that occur on the Earth's surface surface through the combined action of weathering, erosion,
due to internal and external forces. transportation, and deposition. FOLD MOUNTAINS

Earth movements can be classified into two major types: It involves the gradual destruction of landforms due to external
Formed by the collision of tectonic plates
forces, mainly driven by wind, water, ice, gravity, etc.
(Convergent Boundaries).
Long, linear ranges with peaks and valleys.
WEATHERING DEPOSITION Ex: Himalayas – (India, Nepal,
ENDOGENIC FORCES EXOGENIC FORCES EROSION Bhutan, China, Pakistan)
(INTERNAL FORCES) (EXTERNAL FORCES)
Breakdown of rocks into Removal & transportation Accumulation of eroded Youngest mountains on earth.
smaller particles due to of weathered material by material in new locations,
Endogenic forces originate from Exogenic forces act on the Earth's
temperature changes, natural agents like wind, leading to the formation MAJOR FOLD MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD
within the Earth's interior due to surface and wear down landforms
water, etc. rivers, glaciers, & waves. of landforms like deltas
heat and pressure. through external processes.
and sand dunes.
Zagros: AFRICA
Major groups of weathering: Major groups of erosion: (Iran, Iraq) ASIA
Responsible for processes like These forces are driven by agents N. AMERICA Atlas
Major groups of deposition: Urals: Drakensberg
mountain building, earthquakes, like wind, water, ice, and human Chemical Wind Rockies Himalayas
(Russia) Appalachians
and volcanic activities. activities. Mechanical Running water Wind Zagros
Physical Ground water Ocean Elburz
Biological River River Hindukush
EUROPE
ENDOGENIC FORCES Oxidation Gravity (Mass Gravity (Mass Arakan
Alps
Hydration Movement) Wasting) Kunlun
Carbonation Glacial Glacial
Ural AUSTRALIA
DIASTROPHIC MOVEMENTS SUDDEN MOVEMENTS Caucasus S. AMERICA Altai
Heat & pressure Waves Great Dividing
Pyrenees Andes Karakoram range
(SLOW MOVEMENTS) (FAST MOVEMENTS)

Epeirogenic Movements Earthquakes:

(Vertical Movements): Caused by the movement of
Cause the upliftment or subsidence tectonic plates.
of large landmasses (continental
building) FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS
e.g., plateau
formation. Formed by tectonic movements that create
blocks of rock.
Orogenic Movements Volcanic Eruptions:
Steep slopes, separated by valleys or rifts.
(Horizontal Movements): Magma erupts from inside the
Examples:
Earth, creating volcanic mountains. Satpura & Vindhya ranges – (India)
Lead to mountain formation due to
folding or faulting. Sierra Nevada – (USA: California)
e.g., Harz Mountains – (Germany)
e.g.,
Mount Vesuvius, Teton Range – (USA: Wyoming)
Himalayas,
Mount St. Helens. Vosges Mountains – (France)
Alps. Rift Valley Mountains – (East Africa:
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania)

RESIDUAL MOUNTAINS LANDFORMS FORMED BY WIND DEPOSITIONAL

Older mountains that have been worn down by weathering and

EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL
erosion over millions of years.
Low height with flat & smooth top. Deflation Hollows Yardang Barchan
Mushroom Rock Zeugen Mesa Loess
Examples: Playa SEIF DUNES BARCHAN
Stone Lattice Inselberg Seif Dunes
Aravalli Hills: (India) Long, narrow ridges or
Dreikanter Pediment Sand Dunes Crescent-shaped dunes with
Nilgiri: (India) ridged dunes, often
SAND DUNES the horns (tips) facing
Nallamalla hills: (India) extending for several downwind.
Palkonda range: (India) EROSIONAL kilometers Sand dunes are mounds, Formed in areas with
Monadnock: (USA) Parallel to the prevailing ridges, or hills of sand limited sand supply and
Scottish Highlands: (Scotland, UK) wind direction, creating a constant unidirectional
Formed by the wind’s
linear form. winds.
action
PLATEAU Occur in areas with Found in deserts, coastal
irregular or changing regions, and areas with
Formed by erosion of mountains. AISO known as - Table land. wind patterns, such as loose, dry sand.
desert regions Shift position and shape
Flat & rough top surface with steep walls. DEFLATION HOLLOWS MUSHROOM STONE LATTICE
Aka Longitudinal (Seif) due to continuous wind
Examples: Small depressions or A wide top (cap) and a Network of holes or movement.
narrow base. honeycomb- like structures. Dunes.
large basins. LOESS
Kimberley (Australia) Patagonian Massif (Argentina & Chile) Aka pedestal rock. Formed from sandstone,
Katanga (D.R Congo) Loess (China) Found in sand deserts Found in sand deserts limestone, or other Wind-deposited sediment made of fine particles of silt and clay.
Colorado (USA) Bavarian (Germany) and semi-arid regions. and semi-arid regions. sedimentary rocks.
Abyssinian (Ethiopia) It is highly fertile and often forms thick, soft deposits that can
Mascarene (Indian Ocean)
cover large areas.
Laurentian (Canada) Anatolian (Turkey)
Massif (France) Iberian (Spain & Portugal, Europe) Typically yellowish or light brown due to the mineral content.

TYPES OF PLATEAUS ATTRITION

HYDRATION ABRASION
CONTINENTAL DREIKANTER MESA The force of River particles
INTERMONTANE GLACIAL YARDANG Solid River load
running water collide against
Three distinct, smooth, Streamlined, elongated A large, flat-topped striking against
and polished surfaces. elevated landform with wearing down each other &
ridge of hard rock rocks & wearing
sculpted by wind erosion. steep, vertical sides rocks. break down.
Formed from hard rocks them down.
like quartzite or Can be small or massive. Found in arid and semi-
sandstone. arid regions.
PIEDMONT VOLCANIC AEOLIAN TERMS RELATED TO RUNNING
WATER AND EROSION

HEADWARD EROSION DOWNCUTTING

River erodes LATERAL EROSION
River erodes
INSELBERG PEDIMENT ZEUGEN upstream, extending River erodes the vertically into its
Isolated hill, mountain, Gently sloping bedrock Long, narrow ridges or its channel further sides of its bed, deepening its
Topographic extent in India: or rock outcrop. surface found at the base pillars with steep sides. into the land. channel, widening channel over time.
43% plains 18.6% hilly area Steep, abrupt sides of mountains or hills. Made of resistant rocks. it over time.
27.7% plateau 10.7% mountains compared to the Can extend for several Can form in tropical or
surrounding terrain. kilometers in length. temperate climates.
 LANDFORMS FORMED BY RUNNING WATER DEPOSITIONAL

EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL
V-Shape Valley Monadnock
Alluvial cones
Braided channels Pot holes
Alluvial fans Delta
Gorges Terraces
Flood plain Estuary MONADNOCK POT HOLES TERRACES
Canyon Gully & Rills
Levees Ox-Bow lakes Cylindrical or bowl- Step-like landforms found
Waterfalls Peneplain Formed by the erosion of LEVEES POINT BARS DELTA
Point Bars softer surrounding rocks, shaped depressions in a along river valleys.
Rapids Plunges riverbed. Formed at the mouth of
leaving behind a resistant Formed by the downcutting, Natural or artificial Crescent-shaped deposit
rock mass. leaving behind remnants of embankments built of sand or gravel. river, where it meets a
Formed by the swirling standing body of water
EROSIONAL action of water carrying older floodplains at different along the banks of a (lake, sea, or ocean).
pebbles and sediments. elevations. Forms on the inner
river to prevent flooding.
curve of a meander. Sediment carried by the
Erode the rock over time When a river overflows
through abrasion. The river slows down, river as the flow
its banks and deposits dropping its sediment velocity decreases.
material along the edges. load where the water Forms a triangular or
flow is less forceful. fan-shaped area.
PENEPLAIN
V-SHAPE VALLEY BRAIDED CHANNELS GORGES Nearly flat, low-relief
A steep, narrow valley land surface formed by RILL
Narrow, steep-sided River channels that consist prolonged erosion.
valley. of multiple interwoven, with vertical cliffs on Small, shallow channels
shallow channels separated either side. Reducing mountains GULLY (less than 30 cm deep)
Erosion: River or stream, by small islands or sandbars. Found in mountainous or and hills to a gently Larger, deeper channels formed formed by the flow of
in its youthful stage. hilly regions. undulating plain, close when rills merge and expand surface water during
Formed in areas with high to sea level. due to continued erosion. heavy rainfall. ESTUARY
Downcutting dominates sediment load and variable Erosion: River over a long OX-BOW LAKES
Coastal area where MEANDER
over lateral erosion. water flow. period. freshwater from rivers A bend or curve in a river
or streams meets and Curved lake formed when
DEPOSITIONAL or stream a meander in a river is cut
mixes with saltwater
from the sea. Result of erosion on outer off from the main flow.
Creating a unique and bank and deposition on
River's course changes,
highly productive inner bank.
the old meander forms a
ecosystem. crescent-shaped lake.
River's middle to lower
Estuaries are important courses as the water
WATERFALLS RAPIDS CANYON for wildlife, provide flows more slowly.
nurseries for many
Vertical or nearly vertical water flows swiftly over Canyons are larger and ALLUVIAL CONES ALLUVIAL FANS FLOOD PLAIN marine species. MEANDER IS CONSIDERED A
drop of water over a more dramatic than LANDFORM THAT IS BOTH
rough, uneven terrain, EROSIONAL AND DEPOSITIONAL
steep face creating turbulence gorges. Fan-shaped deposit of Triangular or fan-shaped a flat, low-lying area
sediment. deposit of sediment adjacent to a river
Formed when a river or fast-moving water due to A deep, steep-sided LANDFORMS FORMED BY GROUND WATER
stream flows over a shallow water, rocks, or valley, in arid or semi- Formed at the base of a Formed where a river or formed by the deposition
resistant rock layer. drops in elevation. arid regions. steep slope where a river of sediments during
(KARST TOPOGRAPHY)
stream exits a steep
Prolonged Erosion: or stream loses energy. mountainous area. periodic flooding.
Erosion: Softer rock EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL
below eroding more Running River. Drops its load of sand, Spreads out onto a It is highly fertile and
quickly, creating a drop. PLUNGE gravel, silt, in plays a crucial role in Swallow | Sink hole
flatter plain, losing Stalactite
Plunge in a waterfall occurs when water mountainous or arid energy and depositing agriculture & ecosystem Valley sink
Erodes the base of the balance. Stalagmite
falls vertically into a pool below, with no regions. sand, gravel, and silt. Lapies
waterfall, creating Column/ Pillar
plunge pools. contact with the surface between. Caves

EROSIONAL
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS FORMED BY GLACIAL

EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL
Drumlin
Glacial valleys Cirque
Eskers
Hanging valleys Horn
Outwash plain ARETES FJORD
Corrie lake/ Tarn lake Aretes
SINK HOLE VALLEY SINK LAPIES Glacial till Narrow, sharp ridges, & Long, narrow, steep-sided coastal valley.
Roche moutonnee Fjord
Depression or hole in When water erodes the Moraines steep, jagged slopes.
Irregular, jagged surfaces When a glacier moves through a valley,
ground caused by ground in a valley, formed on limestone or carving out a deep depression
creating a depression or Form between two
collapse of surface chalk bedrock due to EROSIONAL glaciers or along the
sinkhole. chemical weathering by Later, when the glacier retreats, seawater
material. sides of a single glacier. floods the valley.
Dissolution of the rock water.
Can vary in size, from leads to the collapse of
small depressions to Carbonation: water
the surface, forming a dissolves the soluble rock,
large, deep craters. hollow or basin. creating deep grooves and
channels across the DEPOSITIONAL
surface.
CAVES
Acidic water from rainfall or underground streams ROCHE MOUTONNEE HANGING VALLEYS GLACIAL VALLEYS
wears away the rock Glacier scours the rock Aka U-shaped valleys
Occur when a smaller
Creating tunnels, chambers, and other unique formations. surface, leaving it with glacier flows into a
larger glacier, eroding Wide, flat-bottomed, and
a steep, jagged side steep-sided,
the smaller valley less
facing the direction of deeply.
DEPOSITIONAL ice movement. Glaciers move slowly DRUMLIN ESKERS OUTWASH PLAIN
Runs above and through the landscape,
Gentle, smooth side on perpendicular to grinding away at the rock Streamlined, oval- Long, winding ridges of Meltwater spreads the
the opposite side. another glacial valley. beneath them. shaped hill sand and gravel sediment across a wide
deposited. area, creating a layered
Shaped by glacier into
Sediment that was carried surface.
a smooth, elongated
mound, with steepest by these meltwater
streams is left behind in a
side. snake-like ridge.
STALACTITE STALAGMITE COLUMN
Mineral formation that Mineral formation that Large, continuous mineral
hangs from the ceiling grows upward from the formation in a cave.
of a cave. floor of a cave. CORRIE LAKE CIRQUE HORN
When stalactite and
Formed by the deposition Created by the deposition stalagmite grow towards Small mountain lake that Bowl-shaped depression, Sharp, pyramid-shaped
of minerals (usually of minerals (usually each other & eventually forms in a corrie—a bowl- carved into the side of a peak
calcium carbonate) from calcium carbonate) from merge. shaped depression. mountain.
dripping water over dripping water. Occurs when glaciers
Creates a vertical structure carve away the sides of a GLACIAL TILL MORAINES
thousands of years. Lakes form when the When a glacier erodes
Accumulate over time that connects cave ceiling glacier melts and leaves rock at the head of a mountain, leaving behind Dense and poorly sorted
Gradually build up into and form these upward- to the floor, forming a behind a deepened basin valley, creating a steep- a steep, pointed summit. due to the way glaciers Ridges or mounds of
icicle-like structures. pointing structures. solid, cylindrical feature. that collects water. walled, curved basin. transport and deposit debris (mainly rocks,
Matterhorn in the Alps. gravel, and soil).
the material.
 LANDFORMS FORMED BY SEA WAVE

EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL
Wave cut cliffs Beaches and dunes
This time I want your roll no. in PDF
Terraces Bars
Caves Barriers
Stacks Spits
EROSIONAL

WAVE CUT CLIFFS TERRACES STACKS

steep, rugged cliffs with Flat platforms at various Larger rock formation, but
vertical face. elevations. as waves erode the rock,
Coastline is uplifted or sea arches may form
constant wave action retreats, new terraces form,
erodes the rock at the Arch collapses, leaving a
while older ones become free-standing stack.
waterline, elevated above current
water level.
CAVE Natural cavities or hollowed-out spaces in coastal
rock formations.
Range in size from small hollows to massive.

DEPOSITIONAL

For CDS & NDA (1) 2025

BEACHES BARS BARRIERS
Sandy or pebbly shorelines
that form where waves and
Deposition of sand, gravel,
or other sediments that
Long, narrow landforms
made of sand or gravel that
1640 SELECTIONS IN NDA & CDS (2) 2024
run parallel to the coastline,
currents deposit sediments
along the coast.
forms in a river, lake, or
coastal area separated from the
mainland by a body of
2119 SELECTIONS IN AFCAT (2) 2024
water, like lagoon or bay.
SPITS
Narrow, elongated sandbar or shingle formation that सर नीचे, बस अपनी मेहनत।
extends from the shoreline into the ocean.