Structural Geology
R. B. Schultz
Structural Geology
Rocks below the earth's surface are hot and tend to flow, whereas rocks at the surface are relatively cool and tend to be more brittle. Thus, rocks at the surface (or near-surface) fracture while rocks deep inside the earth flow.
Deformation: when rocks are subjected to stresses (forces) greater than their own internal strength. Caused by stress and resulting in strain Stress -- force acting upon an object to create deformation Strain -- resultant of the stress applied; end product
There are several types of stresses that can be applied to a rock unit: 1. Extension or tension (pulling apart) 2. Compression (pushing together) 3. Shearing or twisting (one portion in one direction, the other portion in another direction)
There can be two (2) resulting responses to stress: 1. Ductile deformation -- usually occurring deeper and with higher temperatures; flow 2. Brittle deformation -- usually occurring shallower and with cooler temperatures
Ductile deformation produces folds: 1. Anticline -- upwarping of rocks to produce an "A-like" structure 2. Syncline -- downwarping of rocks to produce "spoon-like" structure 3. Dome -- three-dimensional anticline resembling inverted cereal bowl 4. Basin -- three-dimensional syncline resembling upright cereal bowl *When brittle deformation occurs and rocks fracture, they can simply crack producing a fracture with no offset, called a joint. When brittle deformation occurs and rocks fracture, they can also crack producing a fracture with offset, called a fault.
There are four (4) major faults types in two (2) categories:
1.
Dip-slip faults: associated with vertical motion
Normal fault -- produced from tensional forces
Reverse fault -- produced from compressional forces 2.
Strike-slip faults: associated with horizontal motion
Right-lateral strike-slip fault -- right side comes towards you as you peer across Left-lateral strike-slip fault -- left side comes towards you as you peer across
Geologists must have a way of orienting the rock formations such that they can be visualized in a horizontal as well as a vertical frame of reference.
The measurement of rock unit orientation is called its attitude.
Strike -- measurement of horizontal attitude in relation to true north on a map. Dip -- measurement of vertical attitude as unit trends into the earth.
These two (2) components are always presented in the following notation: Strike: Where: Degrees measurement refers to the degrees deviating from north Direction (E or W) refers to the direction it is deviating towards Dip: Where: Degrees measurement refers to the degrees from horizontal ground surface trending into the earth Direction is always perpendicular to strike direction *This system is always written in the shorthand notation as above. Example: N 25o E, 13o NW means that the horizontal trend is 25 degrees east of north (strike) and dips 13 degrees from the horizontal into the earth (dip). (degrees< 90o) direction | to strike N (degrees< 90o) E or W
Key Terminology
Deformation Strain Compression Ductile Anticline Dome Joint Normal fault Dip-slip fault Right-lateral strike-slip fault Strike Attitude Stress Extension Shearing Brittle Syncline Basin Fault Reverse fault Strike-slip fault Left-lateral strike-slip fault Dip
Pertinent Web Sites
Active Tectonics Web Server
The Active Tectonics Web Server was established in order to effectively disseminate ideas resulting from the Active Tectonics initiative.
Fault Animations
Excellent animations of faults, plate subduction, earthquake wave propagation, and other processes from PBS' Savage Earth program.
Folds, Faults, and Mountain Links (Houghton Mifflin)
Links to several folds, faults, and mountain building sites, including class lecture notes, arranged by topic.
Geology Search Gallery
The University of British Columbia Image Gallery contains images related to the earth and ocean sciences, including some specialized subsets (e.g., Lithoprobe, Structural Geology).
Grand Teton National Park Field Trip
An illustrated walking trip through parts of Grand Teton National Park, including the geology of the area.
Hayward Fault
A walking tour of California's Hayward Fault.
Mountain Building Activity (Geosphere)
An excellent interactive activity on mountain building from the University of Montana's Geosphere. With this activity learners identify major mountain ranges, formation processes, and utilize plate tectonics to explain geologic formations.
National Parks Links
Links to all U.S. National Parks arranged alphabetically by name.
Structural Block Diagrams by Stephen J. Reynolds
Block diagrams illustrating various types of inclined bedding and how geology is expressed in the landscape.
Structural Geology and Tectonics Division (GSA)
The Geological Society of America (GSA) Structural Geology and Tectonics Division home page includes links to several related sites.
Structural Geology and Tectonics Groups
An alphabetical listing of university research groups in structural geology by country.
Structural Geology Links (NAGT)
A listing of structural geology links from the National Association of Geology Teachers.
Structural Geology on the Web
A great site to begin your investigation of a folds and faults.
Structural Geology Tutorial
Structural geology tutorial from Texas A & M University.
Structures Page, The
This page contains great information, images, and links to information on structural geology.
