The Digestive System
The Gastrointestinal System consists of the:
Digestive Tract
Accessory Organs
Oral Cavity
Teeth
Pharynx
Tongue
Esophagus
Salivary Glands
Stomach
Liver
Small Intestines
Pancreas
Large Intestines
GENERAL FUNCTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ingestion
Mechanical Processing
Digestion
Secretion
Absorption
Excretion
The Digestive Organs and the
Peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity found within the
abdominopelvic cavity, lined by a serous
membrane (mesothelium and areolar tissue)
Serous membrane Serosa (visceral
peritoneum) & Parietal Peritoneum
Peritoneal fluid separates the two layers
The Digestive Organs and the
Peritoneum
MESENTERIES
Sheets of serous membrane that suspend
portions of the digestive tract within the peritoneal
cavity
Double sheets of peritoneal membrane
Provides access routes for blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels and nerves
Stabilizes position of attached organs
Peritoneum and Mesenteries
Mesenteries
Mesenteries
Digestive tract &
Accessory Organs
suspended by dorsal
and ventral
mesenteries in
embryonic life
Mesenteries
Ventral Mesentery > Lesser Omentum &
Falciform Ligament
Dorsal Mesentery > Greater Omentum
Lesser and Greater Omentum
LAYERS OF THE WALL OF
THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Mucosa
2. Submucosa
Muscularis Externa
4. Serosa
1.
3.
Mucosa
Epithelial Layer & Lamina Propria
Epithelial Layer
The layer is folded to facilitate a large surface
area for digestion.
The epithelium may be simple or stratified.
Stratified Squamous- Oral Cavity, Pharynx and
Esophagus
Simple Columnar- Stomach, Small Intestine and
almost all the length of the large intestine.
Lamina Propria
Loose connective tissue
Blood vessels
Sensory nerve endings
Lymphatic vessels
Smooth muscle cells
Scattered lymphoid tissues
Secretory cells of mucus glands
Muscularis Mucosae (circular and longitudinal)
Submucosa
A layer of dense connective tissues that lies
below the mucosa consisting of:
Blood vessels
Lymphatic Vessels
Exocrine glands - buffers and enzymes
Sub mucosal plexus/Plexus of Meissner
Sensory neurons, parasympathetic ganglionic neurons and
sympathetic postganglionic fibers innervating mucosa and
submucosa
Muscularis Externa
Dominated by
smooth muscle cells
Forms an inner
circular and outer
longitudinal layer
Contraction facilitates
peristalsis and
segmentation
Muscularis Externa
Enteric Nervous System (ENS) coordinate
movements innervated by the ANS
Sympathetic fibers also innervate mucosa and
Myenteric Plexus
Myenteric Plexus lies between circular and
longitudinal muscle
Parasympathetic stimulation increases muscle
tone and activity
Serosa/Adventitia
Found along most portions of tract except in the
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus and rectum.
The areas consist of a dense network of
collagen fibers which attaches the digestive tract
to the adjacent structures.
Control of Digestive Functions
Neural Mechanisms
Hormonal Mechanisms
CNS and Enteric Nervous System
Enteroendocrine cells
Local Mechanisms
Release of chemicals in interstitial fluid
Digestive Systems and Their Functions
Oral Cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
ORAL CAVITY
Functions:
Analysis of material before swallowing
Mechanical processing by teeth, tongue
and palate surfaces
Lubrication with mucus and salivary
secretions
Limited digestion of carbohydrates and
lipids.
Salivary Glands
Salivary Gland
Submandibular Glands
-buffers, mucins & salivary amylase
Sublinguals
-contains mucus cells
Parotid Glands
-contains only serous cells salivary amylase
Saliva
Functions
Helps keep oral surfaces clean
Moistening and lubricating of mouth and food.
Aids in tasting.
Aids in Swallowing.
Helps in the metabolism of carbohydrate.
Helps to maintain the calcium phosphate matrix
of the teeth.
Four Major Components of Saliva:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mucus
Amylase
Lingual Lipase
Alkaline Electrolyte Solution
Note:
Saliva contains thiocyanates and lysozymes that can attack and destroy the mouth bacteria.
It also contains antibodies that destroy oral bacteria in certain people.
Control of Salivary Secretions
ANS control
PANS increases secretion
SNS produces small amounts of thick saliva
Other brain stem nuclei & higher centers
Chewing gum
Smelling or thinking about food
Irritating stimuli in esophagus, stomach &
intestines
Pharynx
Review Respiratory system
Esophagus
Definition
A hollow muscular tube that transfers solid food
and liquids to the stomach.
Extends from cricoid cartilage, along posterior
surface of trachea, through diaphragm to
stomach
Upper and Lower (Cardiac Sphincter)
Esophageal Sphincter Muscles
Histology of Esophagus
Mucosa nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium
Mucosa and submucosa thrown into folds
Submucosa contains mucus secreting glands
Esophagus
The Mechanism of Swallowing
Consists of three phases:
Oral Phase
Pharyngeal Phase
Esophageal Phase
The Mechanism of Swallowing
Oral Phase
Voluntary Phase
Hard palate compresses bolus
Tongue forces bolus into oropharynx
Soft palate elevated
The Mechanism of Swallowing
Pharyngeal Phase
Bolus enters pharynx
Tactile receptors on palatal arches and uvula
stimulated by bolus
Swallowing center of medulla oblongata receives
information
Pharyngeal muscles stimulated to contract
Larynx elevates
Respiratory centers inhibited
The Mechanism of Swallowing
Esophageal Phase
Bolus enters esophagus
Bolus pushed to stomach by peristalsis
Cardiac sphincter muscles open
Bolus enters stomach
The Stomach
Functions:
Bulk storage of ingested food.
Mechanical breakdown of ingested food.
Disruption of chemical bonds in food.
Production of intrinsic factor (for vitamin B12
absorption).
The Stomach
The Stomach
Histology
Epithelium simple columnar with goblet cells
Gastric pits open onto gastric surface
Gastric glands below gastric pits in fundus and
body
Gastric Glands
Consist of:
Parietal Cells
Intrinsic factor & HCl
Chief Cells Pepsinogen
Vit B12
Parietal Secretion Of HCl
Hydrochloric Acid
Functions:
Kills microbes.
Denatures proteins and inactivates most
enzymes in food.
Breaks down plant cell walls and connective
tissues in meat.
Provides an acidic environment for activation
and function of pepsin.
Chief Cells
Secrete pepsinogen
Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin in the
gastric lumen by HCl (pH 1.5 2.0)
Rennin and Gastric Lipase produced in infants
Pyloric glands
Produce:
Mucus
Hormones by Enteroendocrine cells
Gastrin by G cells stimulates parietal and chief cells
and promotes gastric mixing
Somatostatin by D cells inhibits gastrin release;
overridden by neural & hormonal stimuli
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Controlled by CNS
Regulated by short reflexes of the ENS in wall
of stomach
Regulated by hormones in the digestive tract
Regulation of Gastric Activity
There are three phases of Gastric Control:
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Cephalic Phase
Gastric Phase
Intestinal Phase
Cephalic Phase
-Begins before food enters the stomach, that is when we see, smell, think or
taste food.
Gastric Phase
-The presence of food in the stomach stimulates gastric secretions.
Intestinal Phase
-Distension and presence of protein fragments in the duodenum trigger the
release of gastrin.
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Cephalic Phase
Directed by CNS (Medulla)
Lasts one minute
Neural output via PANS and vagus nerves innervate
submucosal plexus
Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers innervate
mucous cells, chief cells, parietal cells and G cells
Gastric juice production accelerates (500ml/hr)
(Phase affected by emotional states)
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Gastric Phase
Initiated by stomach distension, increased
pH in stomach and undigested proteins in
stomach
3 4 hours
Mechanisms of Gastric Phase
Neural Response
Stretch receptors and chemoreceptors stimulated
Short reflexes triggered in submucosal and
myenteric plexuses
Postganglionic fibers leaving submucosal plexus
stimulate the release of Ach which stimulates
chief and parietal cells
Myenteric plexus stimulation produce mixing
waves
Mechanisms of Gastric Phase
Hormonal Response
Neural stimulation and the presence of peptides
and amino acids stimulate Gastrin secretion
Gastrin accelerates parietal and chief cell
secretion rates
Gastrin stimulates gastric motility
Mechanisms of Gastric Phase
Local Response
Distention of gastric wall stimulates the release of
histamine in the lamina propria
Histamine binds to receptors on parietal cells
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Intestinal phase
Neural Responses
Chyme leaves the stomach relieving stomach
distension
Stretch and chemo- receptors in duodenum stimulated
by the presence of chyme
Enterogastric reflex inhibits central and local
stimulation of gastrin production & gastric
contractions; also stimulating contraction of the pyloric
sphincter
Local reflexes stimulate mucus production at the
duodenum
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Intestinal phase
Hormonal Responses
Cholecystokinin (CCK) and Gastric Inhibitory
Peptide (GIP) secreted when lipids and
carbohydrates enter the duodenum
CCK inhibits acid and pepsin secretion
GIP targets the pancreas and inhibits gastric
secretion and reduces rate and force of gastric
contractions
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Intestinal phase
Hormonal Responses
Secretin secreted when pH drops below 4.5
Secretin inhibits parietal and chief cell activity
Stimulates production of bicarbonate ions by the
pancreas and bile by the liver
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Intestinal phase
Hormonal Responses
Gastrin is produced by G cells in duodenum when
partially digested proteins enter the duodenum
Accelerates acid and enzyme secretion in stomach
High fat, high protein meals slow gastric
emptying
Large, low fat, low protein, wine and caffeine
increases gastric emptying
Wine and caffeine increases gastric secretion
and motility
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION IN
THE STOMACH
Proteins break down in the presence of pepsin to form
polypeptides.
Carbohydrate and lipid digestion continue until pH
throughout the material in the stomach falls below 4.5.
The only substances absorbed by the stomach are fatsoluble (incl. alcohol and aspirin) in small amounts.
NB: The stomach lacks the absorptive surfaces contained in
the small intestine.
Small Intestines and Accessory Organs
Extends from the pyloric
sphincter to the cecum.
(Approx. 2.5 cm in diameter &
7m long)
Enzymes are secreted in the
small intestines by the
pancreas.
These are:
Pancreatic Amylase
Pancreatic Lipase
Nucleases
Proteolytic Enzymes
The liver and gall bladder
secretes bile into the small
intestine.
Consists of three parts:
DUODENUM
JEJUNUM
ILEUM
NB
-9O% of absorption occurs in
the small intestine.
Histology
Structural features of the Small intestines:
Plicae circulares
Villi
Microvilli
Components
of the villi:
Lamina propria has capillaries that transports gases and
absorbed nutrients to the hepatic portal vein.
Lacteals transport substances too large to diffuse into the
bloodstream eg.Chylomicrons (protein-lipid packages).
Muscularis mucosae and smooth muscle of intestinal villi move
villi for maximum absorption of nutrients and squeeze lacteals
therefore moving lymph out of villi
Histology
Structure of Duodenum, Jejunum and
ileum.
Duodenum- has few plicae, numerous villi and
mucous glands
Jejunum- has plicae and villi (prominent in its
proximal portion).
Ileum- has scattered villi but lacks plicae
altogether; lymphoid tissue (Peyers Patches) at
terminal portion
Intestinal Secretion
Intestinal secretions contain
Mucus
Brush border enzymes (enterokinase,maltase,
sucrase, lactase, dipeptidases, peptidases)
Intestinal secretion is controlled by
Local reflexes
Enterocrinin secretion
Parasympathetic stimulation
Intestinal Movements
Myenteric reflexes stimulate weak peristaltic
contractions
PANS stimulation accelerates peristalsis and
segmentation
Affects short segments of small intestine
Intestinal Movements
Two reflexes coordinate activities along the
entire length of the small intestine:
Triggered by stretch receptors in stomach
Gastroenteric reflex stimulates motility and secretion
along entire small intestine
Gastroileal reflex stimulates relaxation of ileocecal
valve; enhanced by gastrin secretion
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Pancreas
When acidic chyme enters the duodenum,
pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct enters
as well.
Functions of the pancreas
Endocrine
cells of the pancreatic islets
produce insulin and glucagon
Exocrine cells including acinar and
epithelial duct cells produce pancreatic
juice
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Pancreas
Pancreatic juice consists of:
Sodium bicarbonate (pH 7.5 -8.8)
Buffer solution secreted when chyme enters duodenum
and secretin produced
PANCREATIC ENZYMES:
CHOLECYSTOKININ stimulates their production
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Pancreas
PANCREATIC ENZYMES
Pancreatic amylase carbohydrates to tri- and disaccharides
Pancreatic lipase lipids to fatty acids and
monoglycerides
Nucleases nucleic acids to simple sugars and
nitrogen bases
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Pancreas
PANCREATIC ENZYMES (Proteolytic enzymes)
Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
procarboxypeptidase and proelastase
In the duodenum enterokinase converts
trypsinogen to trypsin
Trypsin activates the other enzymes to
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase
These enzymes produce dipeptides, tripeptides
and amino acids from proteins
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Liver
The liver has numerous functions which may
be categorised as:
Metabolic regulation
Carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism, waste
product removal, vitamin & mineral storage, drug
inactivation
Hematological regulation
Bile production
The Liver
Metabolic Regulation
The liver regulates:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Composition of circulating blood
Nutrient metabolism
Waste product removal
Nutrient storage
Drug inactivation
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The Liver
Composition of Circulating Blood
All blood leaving absorptive surfaces of digestive tract
Enters hepatic portal system
Flows into the liver
Liver cells extract nutrients or toxins from blood
Before they reach systemic circulation through hepatic veins
Liver removes and stores excess nutrients
Corrects nutrient deficiencies by mobilizing stored reserves or
performing synthetic activities
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The Liver
Metabolic Activities of the Liver
Carbohydrate metabolism
Lipid metabolism
Amino acid metabolism
Waste product removal
Vitamin storage
Mineral storage
Drug inactivation
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The Liver
Functions of Hematological Regulation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Phagocytosis and antigen presentation
Synthesis of plasma proteins
Removal of circulating hormones
Removal of antibodies
Removal or storage of toxins
Synthesis and secretion of bile
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The Liver
The Functions of Bile
Dietary lipids are not water soluble
Mechanical processing in stomach creates large drops
containing lipids
Pancreatic lipase is not lipid soluble
Interacts only at surface of lipid droplet
Bile salts break droplets apart (emulsification)
Increases surface area exposed to enzymatic attack
Creates tiny emulsion droplets coated with bile salts
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Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Liver
Functions of Bile
Emulsification of fats increase surface area for
pancreatic lipase to work
Facilitates absorption of lipids by intestinal
epithelium
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Gallbladder
Stores bile
Concentrates bile
End of Digestion in Small Intestines
Brush border Enzymes complete digestion
Maltase maltose to glucose
Sucrase sucrose to glucose and fructose
Lactase lactose to glucose and galactose
Dipeptidases and Peptidases dipeptides and
tripeptides to amino acids
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Substances absorbed in the small intestines are:
Monosaccharides-absorbed by the duodenum and
upper jejunum; co-transport with sodium
Amino Acids- absorbed by the end of the jejunum;
co-transport with sodium and facilitated diffusion
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Fatty acids and Monoglycerides
absorbed in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum
diffusion in water-soluble micelles which diffuse into
epithelial cells of villi
Fatty acids and monoglycerides combine to form
triglycerides
Triglycerides combine with cholesterol, lipoprotein and
phospholipids to form chylomicrons
Chylomicrons then diffuse into lacteals
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Vitamins
- C and B by passive diffusion
- B12 with intrinsic factor active transport
- A,D,E & K with micelles
Large Intestine
Parts of the Large Intestine
Cecum
Colon - Ascending, Transverse, Descending
and Sigmoid
Rectum
Anal canal
The Large Intestine
Anal Sphincters
Internal anal sphincter
Circular muscle layer of muscularis externa
Has smooth muscle cells, not under voluntary control
External anal sphincter
Encircles distal portion of anal canal
A ring of skeletal muscle fibers, under voluntary control
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The Large Intestine
Histology of the Large Intestine
Lack
villi
Abundance
Presence
of mucous cells
of distinctive intestinal glands
Are
deeper than glands of small intestine
Are
dominated by mucous cells
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The Large Intestine
Histology of the Large Intestine
Does
not produce enzymes
Provides
Large
lubrication for fecal material
lymphoid nodules are scattered throughout
the lamina propria and submucosa
The
longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa is
reduced to the muscular bands of taeniae coli
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The Large Intestine
Figure 2424 The Mucosa and Glands of the Colon.
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The Large Intestine
Absorption in the Large Intestine
Reabsorption
of water
Reabsorption
of bile salts
In
the cecum
Transported
in blood to liver
Absorption
of vitamins produced by bacteria
Absorption
of organic wastes
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The Large Intestine
Vitamins
Are
organic molecules
Important as cofactors or coenzymes in
metabolism
Normal bacteria in colon make three vitamins that
supplement diet
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The Large Intestine
Three Vitamins Produced in the Large Intestine
1.
Vitamin K (fat soluble):
Required by liver for synthesizing four clotting factors,
including prothrombin
2.
Biotin (water soluble):
3.
Important in glucose metabolism
Pantothenic acid: B5 (water soluble):
Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and some
neurotransmitters
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The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria
convert bilirubin to urobilinogens and
stercobilinogens
Urobilinogens
absorbed into bloodstream are excreted
in urine
Urobilinogens
and stercobilinogens in colon convert to
urobilins and stercobilins by exposure to oxygen
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The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria
break down peptides in feces and
generate
Ammonia:
as soluble ammonium ions
Indole
and skatole:
nitrogen compounds responsible for odor of feces
Hydrogen
sulfide:
gas that produces rotten egg odor
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The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria
feed on indigestible carbohydrates
(complex polysaccharides)
Produce
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flatus, or intestinal gas, in large intestine
Large Intestine
Simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells
Mucus
Protects intestinal wall and holds fecal matter
together
Contains sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes
acids produced by bacterial metabolism
Large Intestine
Produces large amounts of water and
electrolytes when irritated
Movement of fecal matter is due to peristalsis,
segmentation and contraction of longitudinal
muscle bands
