Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 6
Energy Equation and its Applications
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
INTI University College

Energy of a Flowing Fluid

For an element of fluid whose weight W = mg

a) Potential energy = mgz
(or)
Potential energy/wt = z
b) Kinetic energy = mv2

(or)

Kinetic energy/wt = v2 /2g

c) Pressure energy (Work done by the fluid pressure)

Fig. 6.1: Energy of a flowing fluid

c) Pressure Energy

A flowing fluid can do work due to its pressure

Pressure at section AB = p
Cross-sectional Area = A
Force exerted on AB = pA

After the fluid has flowed along the streamtube, section (AB) will have
moved to (AB)

Volume passing section (AB) = Wt / g

= mg/g = m/
Distance AA = Volume/Area = m/A
m
(
pA
)(
)
Work done = Force x distance =
A
W.D./wt due to pressure =

( pA )(

p
m 1
)( )
A mg = g = Pressure energy/wt

Bernoullis equation

For steady flow of a frictionless fluid along a streamline, the total energy per
unit weight remains constant from point to point although its division
between the three forms of energy may vary:
Pressure Energy/Wt. + Kinetic Energy/Wt. + Potential Energy/Wt. =
Total Energy/Wt. = Constant (for frictionless fluid)
Pressure head + Velocity head + Elevation head = Total head

p
v2

z H
g 2g

(m)

Steady Flow Energy Equation

In general, energy could have been lost by doing work against friction
or energy loss in a turbine or energy could have been gained by
having a pump.

Bernoullis equation can be expanded to include these conditions,

such as,
Total energy/wt at 1 = Total energy/wt at 2 + Friction Loss/wt +
W.D./wt by a turbine Energy supplied/wt by a pump

p1 v12
p 2 v 22

z1

z 2 hf ht hp
g 2g
g 2g

Flow of water between Two Reservoirs

Energy lost due to pipe friction

Fig. 6.5: Flow between two reservoirs open to atmosphere

p1 v12
p 2 v 22

z1

z 2 hf
g 2g
g 2g

Energy subtracted by a Turbine

Fig. Energy subtracted by a turbine

p1 v12
p 2 v 22

z1

z 2 hf ht
g 2g
g 2g

Energy added by a Pump

Fig. Energy added by a pump

p1 v12
p 2 v 22

z1 h p

z 2 hf
g 2g
g 2g

Example 6.1

Pitot Tube

Fig. 6.10: Pitot tube

Pitot Tube

The pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and consists of a
simple L-shaped tube facing into the oncoming flow

Applying Bernoullis equation at A and B

Total energy/wt. at A = Total energy/wt. at B
u2 /2g + p/g = u02 /2g + p0 /g
u2 /2g + p/g = p0 /g
since u0 = 0
u2 /2g = p0 /g - p/g
u2 /2g = (h +z) z
u2 /2g = h

Velocity at A

Actual velocity u = C2gh

u = 2gh
where C is the coefficient of the instrument

Changes of Pressure in a tapering Pipe

Example 6.2
A pipe inclined at 45 to the horizontal (Fig. 6.12) converges over a length l of 2m from a
diameter d1 of 200 mm to a diameter of d2 of 100 mm at the upper end. Oil of relative density
0.9 flows through the pipe at a mean velocity v1 at the lower end of 2 m/s. Find the pressure
difference across the 2 m length ignoring any loss of energy, and the difference in level that
would be shown on a mercury manometer connected across this length. The relative density
of mercury is 13.6 and the leads to the manometer are filled with oil.

Fig. 6.12: Pressure change in a tapering pipe

Changes of Pressure in a tapering Pipe

Example 6.2

Fig. 6.12: Pressure change in a tapering pipe

Venturi meter

Fig. 6.13: Inclined Venturi meter and U-tube

Venturi meter

Assuming that there is no loss of energy, and applying Bernoullis eqn.

to section 1 and 2
p1/g + v12/2g + z1 = p2/g + v22/2g + z2
v22 v12 = 2g[(p1 - p2)/g + (z1 - z2)]

For continuity of flow

A1v1 = A2v2 or
v2 = (A1/A2)v1
Substituting in the energy equation
v12[(A1/A2)2 1] = 2g[(p1 - p2) /g + (z1 z2)]
v12[(A12 - A22)/A2)2] = 2g[(p1 - p2) /g + (z1 z2)]
v1

A2
p1 p 2
[
2
g
(
z1 z 2 )]
(A12 A 22 )1/ 2
g

Venturi meter

Discharge Q = A1v1 = [A1A2/(A12 A22)1/2](2gH)

where H = (p1-p2) /g + (z1 z2) or, if m = area ratio = A1/A2
Q[

A1
( m 1)
2

] 2gH

(6.15)

Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd Qtheoretical

Pressure at level X-X must be the same

Px = p1 + g(z1 - z) = p2 + g(z2 z - h) + mangh
p1 - p2 + g(z1 - z2) = -gh + mangh
H = (p1-p2) /g + (z1 z2) = h(man/ - 1)

Discharge Q [

A1
( m 2 1)

] [2gh(

man
1)]

(6.16)

Example 6.3

Discharge

Q[

A1
( m 1)
2

] [2gh(

man
1)]

(6.16)

Venturi meter

Fig. Venturi meter with a U tube manometer

p1/g + v12/2g + z1 = p2/g + v22/2g + z2
A1v1 = A2v2

Q[

A1
( m 2 1)

] [2gh(

man
1)]

Venturi meter

Fig. Venturi meter with piezometers

p1/g + v12/2g + z1 = p2/g + v22/2g + z2

A1v1 = A2v2
p1 - p2 = gh

Bourdon Gauge

Pipe Orifices

Fig. 6.14: Pipe orifice meter

Discharge

Q[

A1
( m 1)
2

] 2gH

where H = (p1-p2) /g + (z1 z2)

Q[

A1
( m 2 1)

] [2gh(

man
1)]

(6.15)

Theory of Small Orifices

Fig. 6.15: Flow through a small orifice

Theory of Small Orifices

Applying Bernoullis equation to A and B, assuming that there is no loss of

energy,
Total energy/wt at A = Total energy/wt at B
pA/g + vA2/2g + zA = pB/g + vB2/2g + zB
Putting zA zB = H, vA = 0, vB = V and pA = pB = patm = 0

Velocity of jet, V = (2gH)

This is called Torricellis theorem, that the velocity of the issuing jet is
proportional to the square root of the head producing flow.
Discharge, Q = Area x Velocity = AV = A(2gH)

Theory of Small Orifices

In practice, the actual discharge is less than the theoretical discharge,

which must be modified by introducing a coefficient of discharge Cd
Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd Qtheo. = Cd A(2gH)

There are two reasons for the difference between the theoretical and
actual discharges.
(1) velocity of the jet V is less than 2gH because there is a loss of energy
between A and B:

Actual velocity at B, Vactual = Cv V = Cv(2gH)

where Cv = coefficient of velocity.

Theory of Small Orifices

(2) The paths of the fluid particles converge on the orifice, and the area
of the issuing jet at B is less than the area of the orifice at C.

Fig. 6.16: Contraction of issuing jet

In the plane of the orifice, the pressure at C is greater than atmospheric

pressure. At B, the paths of the particles have become parallel. This section is
called the vena contracta.

Actual area of jet at B = Cc A

where Cc = coefficient of contraction and A = area of the orifice.

Theory of Small Orifices

Actual discharge = Actual area at B x Actual velocity at B

Actual Q = Cc A x Cv 2gH
Qactual = Cc Cv A 2gH

Therefore the relation between the coefficients is

Cd = C c . Cv

To determine the coefficient of discharge, it is necessary to measure the actual

volume discharged from the orifice in a given time and compare this with the
theoretical discharge given by equation, Q = A2gH

coefficient of disch arg e, C d

Actual disch arg e

Theoretical disch arg e

Theory of Small Orifices

Similarly, the actual area of the jet at the vena contracta can be measured,

coefficient of contraction, C c

In the same way, if the actual velocity of the jet at the vena contracta can
be found,

coefficient of velocity, C v

Area of jet at vena contracta

Area of orifice

Velocity at vena contracta

Theoretical velocity

If the orifice is not in the bottom of the tank, one method of measuring the
actual velocity is to measure the velocity profile.

Theory of Small Orifices

Example 6.4

Velocity profile of a jet ( in x and y ordinates)

Fig. 6.17: Determination of the coefficient of velocity

Equations of motion:

x = vt and y = gt2

Theory of Small Orifices

Example 6.4

Let t be the time taken for a fluid particle to travel from the vena contracta A to
the point B. Then
x = vt and y = gt2
v = x/t and t = (2y/g)0.5
Eliminating t,
Actual velocity of the jet (at the vena contracta), v actual = (gx2/2y).
Theoretical velocity of the jet, vtheo. = (2gH)

gx 2 / 2 y
Actual velocity
x2
Coefficient of velocity, C v

Theoretical velocity
4 yH
2gH

Putting x = 1.5 m, y = 0.5 m, H = 1.2 m, A = 650x10-6 m2, Q = 0.117 m3 /min.

Coefficient of velocity, Cv = 0.968
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qactual/A(2gH) = 0.618
Coefficient of contraction, Cc = Cd/Cv = 0.639

Theory of Large Orifices

Example 6.5

Fig. 6.18: Flow through a large orifice

Theory of Large Orifices

Velocity of flow will be greater at the bottom than at the top of the orifice opening.

Consider a horizontal strip across the opening of height dh at a depth h

below the free surface:

Area of strip, dA= Bdh

Velocity of flow through strip, v = (2gh)
Discharge through strip, dQ = Area x velocity = B(2g)h1/2dh
For the whole orifice opening, integrating from h = H1 to h = H2,
H2

Disch arg e, Q B 2g h 2 dh
H1

2
Disch arg e, Q B (2g) ( H 32 2 H13 2 )
3

Example 6.5: Large Orifice

Putting B = 0.7 m, H1 = 0.4 m, H2 = 1.9 m

2
Q

B ( 2g ) ( H 32 2 H 13 2 )
Theoretical discharge,
3

Q= (2/3)x0.7x(2x9.81)1/2 (1.93/2 0.43/2)

= 4.891 m3/s

For a small orifice, Q = A(2gH)

where A = area of orifice and h = head above centreline of orifice.
A =BD = 0.7x1.5 = 1.05 m2
h = (H1+ H2) = (0.4 + 1.9) = 1.15 m
Q = 1.05x(2x9.81x1.15) = 4.988 m3/s
% error = (4.988 4.891)/4.981 = 0.0198 = 1.98%

Flow under varying head

Time required to empty a Reservoir
Diameter D, Surface Area A

dh

h dh

orifice diameter d, area a

Time required to empty a Reservoir

At time t, let the head is h

At time (t+dt), let the level fallen dh

Change in volume of tank = Amount discharge through the orifice

A(h dh) Ah = Q {(t + dt) t}
A
- Adh = Qdt

A
dt dh
Q

Discharge from an orifice, Q = Cd a 2gh

A
A
dt
dh
h 1/ 2 dh
C d a 2gh
C d a 2g

dh

h - dh

Time required to empty a Reservoir

If H1 and H2 are initial and final values of h, then the time required to empty
the reservoir is,

A
dt (
)h 1/ 2dh
Cd a 2g
H2
H1

2A
( H11/ 2 H12/ 2 )
Cd a 2g

where T = time required to empty a reservoir (sec)

H1 = initial head and H2 = final head in m
A = surface area of reservoir and a = orifice area in m2
Cd = coefficient of discharge

Theory of Notches and Weirs

Fig 6.19 Discharge from a notch

Area of strip, dA = bdh

Velocity through strip, v = (2gh)
Discharge through strip, dQ = Area x Velocity = bdh (2gh)
Integrating from h = 0 at the free surface to h = H at the bottom of the notch,
the total theoretical discharge,

Q 2g bh1/ 2 dh
0

Rectangular Notch (or) Weir

Theoretical discharge,

Q 2g bh1/ 2 dh
0

For a rectangular notch (Fig. a), put b = constant = B gives, Q B

Theoretical discharge

2
Q B (2g )H 3 / 2
3

(6.25)

2 g h1/ 2 dh
0

V - notch (or) Triangular Weir

1/ 2
Theoretical discharge, Q 2g bh dh
0

For a V-notch with an included angle (Fig. b), put b = 2(H-h) tan/2 in
the equation,
H
Q 2 2g (tan / 2) ( H h )h1/ 2 dh
0

Theoretical discharge

2g (tan )H 5 / 2
15
2

(6.26)

Example 6.6

Velocity of approach (to the weir)

in the rectangular channel
Consider flow over a weir at the end of a long rectangular channel
Velocity of approach to the weir will be substantial
Total head x = h + v2 /2g
where = K.E. correction factor = 1.1

energy line
free surface

v2/2g

channel bed

weir

channel bed

Considering Velocity of approach (to the weir)

Energy line
v2/2g

x
h

Fig 6.19 Discharge from a notch

Total head x = h + v2/2g

x = h

Mean Velocity v = Q/A where A = cross-sectional area of the channel

Discharge through strip, Q = A. V

= b h 2gx
= b x 2g x1/2
Q = b 2g x1/2 x

(6.28)

Considering Velocity of approach (to the weir)

Limits:
At the free surface, h = 0 and x = v2 /2g
At the sill level, h = H and x = H + v2 /2g
We have

Q = b 2g x1/2 x

Integrating (6.28) between these limits

H v 2 / 2 g

2g

1/ 2
bx
dx

v 2 / 2 g

(6.28)

Velocity of approach (to the weir)

in the rectangular channel

Considering velocity of approach to the weir, total discharge is,

H v 2 / 2 g

2g

1/ 2
bx
dx

v 2 / 2 g

where x = h + v2 /2g

For a rectangular notch, b = B = constant, and the discharge is,

2
2
2

v
Q B (2g) H 3 / 2 [(1
)3 / 2 (
)3 / 2 ]
3
2gH
2gH

(6.29)

Example 6.7: Velocity of Approach

v2/2g

energy line

H = 0.25 m

weir

0.2 m
1.2 m

Example 6.7

Example 6.7

Francis formula for rectangular weir

If L is the length of the weir and H the head over sill, the Francis formula for
the discharge is,
Q = 1.84(L 0.1nH)H3/2
where n = number of end contractions.

Power of a stream of fluid

Total energy per unit weight (head) H of the fluid is

Total Head

H = p/g + v2/2g + z

If the weight per unit time of fluid flowing is known, the power of the
stream is,
Power = Energy/time = (Weight/time)(Energy/weight)
If Q is the volume rate of flow, weight /time = gQ

Power = gQH = gQ (p/g + v2/2g + z)

(6.30)

Example 6.8

z = 240 m

Q = 0.13 m3/s

Pelton wheel

Datum level
v = 66m/s

bucket

Example 6.8
a)

Power of a jet = K.E/s = mv2 = Qv2

= x103 x0.13x 662 = 283140 W = 283.14 kW

b)

Power supplied from reservoir:

At the free surface, pA = 0, vA = 0 and using equation (6.30)
Power supplied = gQz =103 x0.13x 240 = 306072 W = 306.07 kW

c)

Power lost in transmission = Power supplied Power of jet

gQhf = 306.07 283.14 = 22.93 kW
head lost, hf = 22.93x103/103x9.81x0.13 = 17.98 m

d)

Efficiency of transmission = Power of jet / Power supplied

= 283.14/306.07 = 0.925 = 92.5%

The End