Introduction to Engineering
Thermodynamics
PCB 1043
Lecturers
Dr. Khalik M. Sabil
Ext: 7684
Email: khalik_msabil@[Link]
Room: 16-03-32
References:
Text book
Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach
(4 th edition)
Yunus A. Cengel & Michael A. Boles
Supplements:
1) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics
by Moran & Shapiro
2) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
by Sonntag, Borgnakke & Van Wylen
3) Engineering Thermodynamics
by J.B. Jones
Course Outlines:
Chapter 1: Basics Concepts of Thermodynamics
Chapter 2: Properties of Pure Substances
Chapter 3: Energy Transfer by Heat, Work and
Mass
Chapter 4: The First Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter 5: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter 6: Entropy
Chapter 7: Thermodynamic Cycles
Chapter 6: Introduction to phase equilibria
CHAPTER 1
BASIC
CONCEPTS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
What is Thermodynamics?
Greek Words
Therme
(heat)
Dynamis
(Power)
Early description: Convert heat into power
Current Definition: The study of energy and energy
transformations, including power
generation,
refrigeration and relationship
among the
properties of matter
1.1
What is Energy?
Ability to cause changes
One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the Conservation of
energy principle - during an interaction, energy can change from
one form to another but the total amount of energy remains
constant. E.g. a rock falling off a cliff & in the diet industry.
Laws of Thermodynamics:
Zeroth Law = dealing with thermal equilibrium
First Law = deal with conservation of energy
Second Law = energy has quality as well as quantity, and
actual processes occur in the direction of
decreasing quality of
energy.
Hot
heat
Cold body, spontaneous
Coldheat
Hot body, requires work
Third Law
=
entropy of pure crystalline substance at absolute
zero
temperature is zero
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
House-hold utensils appliances:
Air-cond, heater, refrigerator
humidifier, pressure cooker, water heater
computer & TV
Engines:
Automotive, aircraft, rocket
Plant/ Factory
Refinery, power plants, nuclear power plant
1.2
Dimension
Dimensions and Units
Primary
Secondary
Eg: Volume V
velocity v
energy E
Units
M - mass
L - length
T - temperature
t - time
n - mole
A - Ampere
SI - International System
- Commonly applied
English System - also known as United States Customary
System (USCS)
1.3
Closed and Open Systems
Thermodynamic system (system) - quantity of matter or a
region in
space chosen for study.
Surroundings - the mass or region outside the system
Boundary - the real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from
its surrounding
- is the contact surface shared by both the system &
surroundings
- has zero thickness & can either contain any mass nor occupy
volume in space.
- can be fixed or movable
fixed
Boundary
movable
Types of system:
(a) isolated - no heat/ mass transfer across boundary
(b) closed(control mass) - only heat transferred
(c) open system(control volume) - heat & mass
transferred
(b)
(c)
1.4
Energy
Forms of energy - thermal, mechanical, chemical, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic & nuclear
E = total energy i.e sum of all energy in a system
e = total energy = E (kJ/kg)
mass
m
Forms of energy that make up the total energy of a system :
Energy form
macroscopic
microscopic
energy of a system as a whole
with respect to some outside
reference frames, e.g. KE, PE
- related to molecular structure of a
system and the degree of molecular
activity
- independent of outside reference
frames
Sum of all microscopic forms of energy = Internal Energy (U)
Macroscopic forms of energy
Kinetic energy (KE)
- result of motion relative to
some
reference frame
KE = mv2/2 (kJ)
Potential energy (PE)
- due to elevation in a gravitational
field
PE = mgh (kJ)
where v = velocity of the system
relative to some fixed
reference frame (m/s)
m = mass of an object (kg)
Therefore, E
where g = gravitational acceleration,
9.81 m/s2
h = elevation of center of gravity of
a system relative to some
arbitrarily plane (m)
U + KE + PE
(kJ)
1.5
Internal Energy
Internal energy - sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a
system
related to - 1) molecular structure
2) degree of molecular activity
I. E
KE
PE
molecular translation
molecular rotation
electron translation
molecular vibration
electron spin
nuclear spin
a.k.a
sensible energy
depend on the
temperature
Latent heat - Internal energy associated to with the phase of a
system
- phase -change process can occur without a change in
the chemical composition of a system
1.6
Properties of a System
Property - any characteristic of a system or any quantity that
describe a system
Some familiar properties are P, T, V and m. But can be extended to
include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion coefficient and etc
Density (mass per unit volume), m
(kg/m3) depends on T & P
Specific gravity or relative density (ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature) e.g. for water, s
V
Specific volume,
m
H 2O
(m3/kg)
Intensive
independent of the
size/extent of the system
T, P,
age,
colour
Properties
Extensive
dependent on the
size/extent of the system
m
V
total E
Specific properties - extensive properties per unit mass
E.g. specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m)
1.7
State & Equilibrium
State
a set of properties that describe the condition of a
system at certain time
At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
If the value of one property changes, the state will change to a
different one.
Equilibrium state steady state/ state of balance
& no change in time
Thermal equilibrium
T is the same throughout the system
Mechanical equilibrium
P is the same throughout
Phase equilibrium
m of each phase unchanged
Chemical equilibrium
chemical composition unchanged
Thermal equilibrium
(uniform temperature)
1.8
Processes & Cycle
Process
any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another
Path
Series of states through which a system
passes during a process
need to specify the initial & final states of the process, as well as
the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
1.9
Quasi-equilibrium/ Quasi-static
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system
remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium state at all times.
Sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust to
itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do
not change any faster than those at other parts.
Slow compression
(quasi-equilibrium)
very fast compression
(non-quasi equilibrium)
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
Isothermal Process a process when T remains constant
Isobaric
P constant
Isochoric/ Isometric specific volume v remains constant
P
Process
B
Process
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial
state at the end of the process.
For a cycle, the initial & final states are identical
1.10
Pressure
F
Force
Area
A
P ==
Unit = N/m2 or Pa
Gas or liquidPressure
Solids
Stress
Common units
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/ cm2 = 0.9807 bar = 0.96788 atm
English unit Ibf/in2 or psi
Absolute pressure
Actual pressure at at given position & measured relative to absolute
vacuum
Gage pressure Difference between absolute pressure & local
atmospheric pressure
Vacuum pressure
Difference between atmospheric pressure & absolute pressure
Absolute, gage & vacuum pressures are all +ve quantities & related to
each other by:
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
(for pressure above Patm)
Pvac = Patm - Pabs
(for pressure below Patm)
In thermo, absolute pressure is always used unless stated.
Example 1-1
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location
where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute
pressure in the chamber.
Using Pvac = Patm - Pabs = 14.5 - 5.8 = 8.7 psi
Manometer
Small to moderate pressure difference are measured by a manometer
and a differential fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure
difference between the system and the surrounding of the
manometer.
P g h
( kPa )
Other Pressure Measurement Device
Bourdon Tube
Modern pressure sensors:
1) Pressure transducers
2) Piezoelectric material
Example 1-2
A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where
the atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in
the tank?
Solution:
Pabs = Patm - Pgage
= 98 kPa - 30 kPa
= 68 kPa
Example 1-3
A pressure gage connected to a valve stern of a truck tire reads 240
kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is
the absolute pressure in the tire, in kPa and in psia?
Solution:
Pabs = Patm - Pgage
= 100 kPa + 240 kPa
= 340 kPa
The pressure in psia is
Pabs = 340 kPa 14.7 psia = 49.3 psia
101.3kPa
What is the gage pressure of the air in the tire, in psig?
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
= 49.3 psia - 14.7 psia
= 34.6 psig
Example 1-4
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure
its pressure. If the pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the
distance between the two fluid levels of the manometer if the fluids
is mercury whose density is 13,600 kg/m3.
P
h
g
103 N / m3
80 kPa
kPa
h
kg
m
1N
13600 3 9.807 2
m
s kg m / s2
0.6 m
Temperature
Measure of hotness and coldness
Transfer of heat from higher to lower temp. until both bodies attain
the same temp. At that point, heat transfer stops and the two bodies
have reached
thermal equilibrium
requirement: equality of temperature
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached the
same temperature. If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Temperature scales:
Celcius (C)
Fahrenheit (F)
Kelvin (K)
Rankine (R)
Conversion:
T(K) = T(C) + 273.15
T(R) = T(F) + 459.67
T K = (T2C +273.15) - (T1C + 273.15)
= T2C - T1C
= TC
T R = TC
Temperature Scale Comparison
Example 1:
Consider a system whose temperature is 18C. Express this
temperature in R, K and F.
Example 2:
The temperature of a system drops by 27 F during a cooling process.
Express this drop in temperature in K, R & C
