EQUATIONS OF

CHANGE
CHAPTER - 3

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
BY
BIRD, STEWART AND LIGHTFOOT

EQUATIONS OF CHANGE

It is not necessary to formulate the shell momentum

balance for every new problems.
One could start with the most general equations for the
Conservation of mass (Equation of Continuity)
And
Conservation of momentum (Equation of Motion)
And
Then reduce them to suit the problem at hand
This will eliminate the steps 2 to 5 learnt earlier

USEFUL DERIVATIVES
PARTIAL TIME DERIVATIVE:
How things change with time observed by an observer standing
at a FIXED POSITION

c c

t t

x, y,z

TOTAL TIME DERIVATIVE

How things change with time as the observer moves around at
SOME VELOCITY

dc c
dx

dt t x , y , z t

y , z ,t

dy c
dz c


t y x , z ,t t z

x , y ,t

with dx/dt, dy/dt & dz/dt being velocities of the observer

USEFUL DERIVATIVES
SUBSTANTIAL TIME DERIVATIVE
It is the total derivative if the VELOCITY OF THE OBSERVER is
SAME as that of THE FLOWING MEDIUM

Dc c
c
c
c
vx
vy
vz
Dt t
x
y
z

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
(x+x,y+y,z+z)

vx(x,y,z)
z
z

vx(x+x,y,z)

(x,y,z)
x
y

y
x

Volume element xyz

Apply Law Of Conservation Of Mass On This Small Volume Element

Contd. -2
Rate of
Rate of mass
Rate of

accumulation
mass
in
mass
out

xyz
t

yz v x x xz v y y xy v z z

yz v x xx xz v y y y xy v z z z
Divide throughout by xyz and make the shell as thin as possible:

v x v y v z

t
x
y
z

Contd. -3
v x v y v z

t
x
y
z

This is the equation of continuity, describing the rate of

change of density at A FIXED POINT and observed from
A FIXED POINT resulting from the changes in the mass
velocity vector v
Vector form of the equation of continuity

g V
t
DIVERGENCE OF V:
The net rate of mass efflux
per unit volume

Mass flux vector

Contd. -4
OTHER FORM OF THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
v x v y v z

t
x
y
z

Expanding the derivative in RHS

v x v y v z

vx
vy
+v z

t
x
y
z

substantial time derivative of density

D
gV
Dt

This equation describes the rate of

change of density as seen by an
observer floating along with the fluid

Contd. -5
SPECIAL CASE OF STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

gV 0

OR

v x v y v z

0
gV
x
y
z

This form of continuity equation states the law

of conservation of mass i.e. the sum of the
change of flow rates in three directions is zero
We have dealt with the equation of continuity
(conservation of mass).
Now let us turn to the equation of motion,
which is the heart of the momentum transfer.

Equation of Motion
(x+x,y+y,z+z)

z
(x,y,z)
x
y

y
x

Volume element xyz

Apply Newtons 2nd Law Of Motion On This Small Volume Element

contd. -2
MOMENTUM BALANCE EQUATION
Rate of

Sum of

Rate of

Rate of

momentum
=

forces
acting

momentum in momentum out

accumulation

on the system

Note 1: The above is a vector equation for the x, y, and z

directions
Note 2: Momentum flows in and out of the volume element
by two mechanisms
a. convection (bulk fluid flow)
b. molecular transfer (velocity gradient)

contd. -3
X-COMPONENT:
a. By convection mechanism:
IN AT X-SURFACE:

v x yz v x

mass flux into

the x-surface

(x+x,y+y,z+z

area
mass per unit time

(x,y,z)

rate of momentum in
OUT AT X+X SURFACE:

v x yz v x

x x

-4
Y-COMPONENT:
a. By convection mechanism:
IN AT Y-SURFACE:

v y xz v x

mass flux into

the y-surface
(x+x,y+y,z+z)

area
mass per unit time
rate of momentum in
OUT AT Y+Y SURFACE:

(x,y,z)

v y xz v x

y y

contd. -5
Z-COMPONENT:
a. By convection mechanism:
IN AT Z-SURFACE:

v z xy v x

mass flux into

the z-surface
(x+x,y+y,z+z)

area
mass per unit time
rate of momentum in
OUT AT Z+Z SURFACE:

(x,y,z)

v z xy v x

z z

contd. -6
X-COMPONENT:
b. By Molecular Transfer:
IN AT X-SURFACE:

z
x

yz xx

area

Y-COMPONENT:
b. By Molecular Transfer:
IN AT Y-SURFACE:

xz yx y
area

normal stress by
the x-velocity at
the x-surface

x-directed tangential
shear stress on ysurface

rate of momentum in

rate of momentum in

OUT AT X+X SURFACE:

OUT AT Y+Y SURFACE:

yz xx x x

xz yx y y

contd. -7
Z-COMPONENT:
b. By Molecular Transfer:
IN AT Z-SURFACE:

xy zx z
y

area

c. Sum of forces acting on the

element along x-direction:

yz p x p xx g x xyz
area

x-directed
tangential shear
stress on z-surface

pressure force
acting on area in
x-direction

rate of momentum in

gravity force
acting on volume
in x-direction

OUT AT Z+Z SURFACE:

xy zx z z

Volume of element

contd. -8
d. Accummulation of x-momentum

xyz v x
t

Volume of Element
Mass in the volume
rate of change
of momentum in
x-direction

contd. -9
FINALLY SUBSTITUTE ALL THE COMPONENTS IN THE
MOMENTUM BALANCE EQUATION:
x-component momentum equation:
vx
t

vx vx

v y vx
y

v z v x
xx yx zx
p

gx

z
y
z
x
x

y-component momentum equation:

vy
t

vx v y

vyvy
y

v z v y
xy yy zy
p

gy

z
y
z
y
x

z-component momentum equation:

vz
t

vx vz

v y vz
y

v z v z
xz yz zz
p

gz

z
y
z
z
x

contd. -10
Writing these three equations in a vector format

V
t

rate of increase of momentum per

unit volume

g VV

rate of momentum gain by

convection per unit volume

g
p
g

rate of momentum gain by viscous

transfer per unit volume
pressure force on element
per unit volume
gravitational force on element
per unit volume

Note that g VV and g are not simple divergence because

of the tensorial nature of VV and .

contd. -10

Another version of the equation of motion:

v x v x v y v x v z v x
vx
xx yx zx
p

gx

t
x
y
z
y
z
x

Expand

vx

vx
x

vx

vy
y

v z
vx
vx
v x

vx
vy
vz
vx

Use Eq. of Continuity

v x V v x

Expand

vx
vx
v x
vx
vy
vz

vx

vx
t
t

Combine to get

xx yx zx
Dv x
p

gx

Dt
y
z
x
x

Similarly for y & z components

contd. -10
Another version of the equation of motion:

DV

Dt
g
p
g

Mass per unit volume times

acceleration
Viscous force on element per unit
volume
pressure force on element
per unit volume
gravitational force on element
per unit volume

velocity gradient
= Viscous force on element per unit volume
1. This term arises due to
viscosity of the fluid
2. Hence can be expressed in
terms of velocity gradients

For Newtonian fluids,

this relationship is:

v x 2
xx 2
gV
x 3
v y 2
yy 2
gV
y 3
v z 2
zz 2
gV
z 3
v x v y
xy yx

x
y
v y v z
yz zy

y
z
v z v x
zx xz

z
x

of velocity

The x-momentum equation

Dv x
v 2
p
v x v y
v z v x

2 x gV

g x

Dt
x x
x 3
y y
x
z
x
z

The y-momentum equation

Dv y
Dt

vy 2

p v y v x

v z v y

2
gV

y x x
y
y
y 3
z
y z

gy

The z-momentum equation

Dv z
p v z v x
v z v y

v z 2

g
V

gz

Dt
z x x
z
y y
z
z
z 3

These equations along with the

equation of state p=p() and
density-dependence of viscosity
=() can be solved.

Equations in other
coordinate systems

Summary
It is a bit too much with mathematical equations so far.
But what we have achieved are:
1. Two versions for the equation of continuity.
2. Two versions for the equation of motion written in terms of stress.
3. Constitutive relations between stresses and velocity gradients for
Newtonian fluids.
4. The equation of motion written in terms of velocity for Newtonian
fluids

One could start with those general equations

BUT
In many engineering cases one could start with simpler
equations
SO LIFE IS NOT THAT BAD AFTER ALL.

ENGINEERING CASES
If acceleration
term goes to zero

For constant density and viscosity

If viscosity effects
are not there

DV

p 2 V g
Dt
0 p 2 V g

DV

p g
Dt

V 0

This is the Navier-Stokes equation, more

frequently used than the general form.
This is the Stokes flow equation
This is the Euler equation for inviscid fluids

solve problems
Falling film: Revisit
Take the falling film problem, with the fluid being incompressible and the
flow being one dimensional.
Equation of continuity
v x v y v z

t
x
y
z

v x v y v z

t
y
z
x

zero because of constant density (incompressible)

zero because there is no velocity in x-direction
zero because there is no velocity in y-direction
Thus, the velocity along the z- does not vary downstream direction

Falling film: Revisit

Equation of motion

Need to look at momentum at three direction

x-component momentum equation:

vx
vx
v x
vx
2 v x 2 v x 2 v x
p

vx
vy
vz
2 2 gx

2
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
t

zero, because there is no

velocity in the x-direction
Similar for the y-momentum equation

-2

z-component momentum equation:

vz
vz
v z
vz
2 v z 2 v z 2 v z
p

vx
vy
vz
2 2 gz

2
x
y
z
z
y
z
x
t

zero,
because of
steady state
zero: there is no
velocity in the x-direction
zero: there is no
velocity in the y-direction
zero: as no
Pressure gradient

zero: because of
Continuity
equation
zero: because vz
does not change
with z direction
zero: because vz does
not vary with y-direction

Falling film: Revisit, contd. -2

THUS
dp
gx
dx

d 2 vz
2 g z g cos
dx

This is exactly what we obtain earlier in the shell momentum analysis

Flow in pipe: Revisit

Take the Flow in a Pipe problem, with the fluid being incompressible and the flow
being one dimensional in cylindrical coordinates
Equation of continuity
1
1

r
v

vz 0
r
t
r r
r
z

THUS, VZ DOES NOT CHANGE WITH DOWNSTREAM DIRECTION

zero: because there is no variation with angle

zero: because there is no flow in r-direction
zero: because of steady state

Flow in pipe: Revisit,

contd.
-2
Equation of motion:
1 v z
v v z
v z
v z
v z
p
1 2 v z 2 v z

vr

vz

2 gz
r 2
2
t
r
r
z
z
r
z
r r r

zero: because of equation of continuity

zero: because of vz does not vary in direction
zero: because there is no variation with angle
zero: because there is no flow in r-direction
zero: because of steady state
THUS THE FINAL MOMENTUM EQUATION IS:

1 v z
p
r

gz

z
r r r

This is exactly what we had before

Flow Through Annular

pipe:

What do you think the final momentum equation be,

with the previous analysis in mind
1 v z
p
r

gz

Why do we get the same equation for a totally different

flow system
What do you think about the final velocity profile to be
same or different from that of simple pipe flow
Answer lies in the different Physical constraints
Zero slip at the two solid surfaces, vz = 0 both r= kR1 and R2

Flow Through Annular

pipe:
Boundary Conditions

at r = , v z 0

C1

Po PL 2 R 2

2L

at r = R, v z 0
C2 1

2
1

2 2
ln 1

Flow Through Annular

pipe:
vz

rz

Po PL R 2
4 L

1 2 R
r
ln
1
ln 1 r
R

Po PL R

4 L

2
r
1

R
2ln
1

Flow Through Annular

pipe:
Maximum velocity,
at r = 0

v z ,max v z

Average velocity

Po PL R 2

Mass flow rate

vz

r R

Po PL R 2

2
2

ln

4 L

1 4 1 2

2
1

ln
1

8 L

w R2 1 2 vz

Po PL R
4

8 L

1 4

r R

2 RL

rz r R

ln 1

Force exerted by the flowing fluid on the walls of tube

F 2 RL rz

2 2

Tangential annular flow

Stationary cylinder

Newtonian fluid in
the annulus region

Outer cylinder rotating with a

constant angular velocity

Tangential annular flow,

contd.
-2
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
1
1

r
v

vz 0
r
t
r r
r
Z

zero: because there is no flow in z-direction

zero: because there is no variation with angle
zero: because there is no flow in r-direction
zero: because of steady state

Tangential annular flow,

contd. -3
Velocities in the r and z directions are zero
r-component, momentum equation
zero: because steady state

zero: as no flow in r-direction

zero: as no flow in z-direction

v v r v2
v r
vr
vr
p

vr

vz

t
r
r
r
z
r
1 r v r
1 2 v r 2 v 2 v z

2
2 gr

2
2
r
r
z
r r r

zero: as no flow in r-direction

no gravity in r

zero: no variation of v in
FINAL R-MOMENTUM EQUATION:

v2
p

r
r

contd. -4
-component, momentum equation:
zero: because steady state

zero: no r velocity

zero: no z velocity

v
v
v v v r v
v
1 p
vr

v z
r
r
r
z
r
t
1 r v
1 2 v 2 v r 2 v

2
2 g

2
2
r
r
z
r r r

zero: no variation of v in or
z

FINAL -MOMENTUM EQUATION:

no gravity in

1 r v

r
r

contd. -5
z-component, momentum equation:

zero: no variation of v in or
z
v vz
v z
vz
v z
p
vr

vz

t
r
r
z
z
1 v z
1 2 v z 2 v z

2 gz
r
2
2
r
z
r r r

FINAL z-MOMENTUM EQUATION:

p
gz
z

FINAL -MOMENTUM EQUATION:

FINAL R-MOMENTUM EQUATION:

v2
p

r
r

1 r v

0
r r r

contd. -5
Boundary conditions:

stationary
cylinder;
r=kR; v =0

rotating
cylinder;
r=R; v =R 0

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
kR r

r kR
v o R
1

contd. -5
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION
r
Hence

v
r
r r

1
2 o R 2
r
2

k2

2
1

Force acting on the inner cylinder

F Area r

r kR

1
2
1 k

2 kRL 2 o

Torque acting on the inner cylinder

k2
T moment arm F k F 2 o R L
2
1

contd. -6
What if the inner cylinder is rotating and the outer cylinder is stationary
rotating
cylinder;
r=kR; v =kR 0

stationary
cylinder;
r=R; v =0

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
R r

r
R
v o kR
1
k
k

By measuring torque and

angular velocity, the viscosity
can be calculated, only if the
Fluid is not in turbulent regime

Immiscible Fluids
Fluid I
Fluid 1

Assumptions
1. Fluid 1 and 2 flow in such a manner that half of the volume is filled by each
2. The velocities are so slow that the interface is assumed to be planer
3. Fluid 1 is denser than fluid 2 but the fluids are incompressible
4. The two fluids are Newtonian having different but constant viscosities
5. Flat plates are of length L, Width W and 2b apart
6. Flow is steady state and one dimensional
1. 2b << W and L

Immiscible Fluids
Equation of continuity
v x v y v z

t
x
y
z

v x v y v z

t
y
z
x

zero because of constant density (incompressible)

zero because there is no velocity in x-direction
zero because there is no velocity in y-direction
Thus, the velocity along the z- does not vary downstream direction

Immiscible Fluids
z-component momentum equation for one fluid:
vz
vz
v z
vz
2 v z 2 v z 2 v z
p

vx
vy
vz
2 2 gz

2
x
y
z
z
y
z
x
t

zero,
because of
steady state
zero: there is no
velocity in the x-direction
zero: there is no
velocity in the y-direction
Pressure gradient
Po - P L

zero: because of
Continuity
equation
zero: because vz
does not change
with z direction
zero: because vz does
not vary with y-direction

Immiscible Fluids
z-component momentum equation any fluid:
d 2 v z
d xz dp Po PL

2
dx
dz
L
dx

z-component momentum equation for fluid 1 or 2:

d xzI / II dp Po PL

dx
dz
L

Shear Stress
distribution for fluid 1

Po PL
I

x

c
1

Shear Stress
distribution for fluid 2

xzII

I
xz

Po PL
II
x

c
1

Stress continuity BC, Second Kind

OR Newmann BC

at x = o, xzI xzII
Hence c1I c1II c1

Immiscible Fluids
z-component momentum equation for Newtonian fluid:

I / II

dv zI / II Po PL

x c1
dx
L

Integrating for the fluid 1

Po PL 2 c1
I
v
x I x c2
I

2 L

Integrating for the fluid 2

v zII

I
z

Po PL 2 c1
II
x

c
2

II
II
2 L

3 constant of integration, 3 BC needed

BC 2

at

x 0 v zI v zII

BC 3

at

x b v zI 0

BC 3

at

x b v zII 0

Immiscible Fluids
Final Shear stress and velocity distributions
xz

Po PL b
L

I
z

Po PL b2

vzII

Po PL b2

2 I
I
II

I II x

I
II
b

2 II
I
II

I II x

I
II

x

b

2 I L

2 II L

I
II
x 1
I

II
b
2

Similarly one can find the following

1. Average velocities in each layer
2. Maximum velocity
3. Velocity at the interface
4. Plane where shear stress is zero
5. The force acting on the slit walls

Immiscible Fluids
Fluid I
Fluid 1

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY IN DIFFERENT COORDINATE SYSTEMS

EQUATION MOTION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATER (r, ,z)

IN TERMS OF

EQUATION MOTION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATER (r,,z)

IN TERMS OF VELOCITY GRADIENTS FOR NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

EQUATION MOTION IN SPHERICAL COORDINATER (r,,)

IN TERMS OF

EQUATION MOTION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATER (r,,)

IN TERMS OF VELOCITY GRADIENTS FOR NEWTONIAN FLUIDS