Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
Third Edition
Louis Frenzel
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Chapter 8
Radio Transmitters
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Topics Covered in Chapter 8
8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
8-2: Carrier Generators
8-3: Power Amplifiers
8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks
8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits
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Objectives
Calculate the frequency tolerance of crystal oscillators
in percent and in parts per million (ppm).
Discuss the operation of phase-locked loop (PLL) and
direct digital synthesis (DDS) frequency synthesizers,
and explain how the output frequency is changed.
Calculate the output frequency of a transmitter given
the oscillator frequency and the number and types of
multipliers
Explain the biasing and operation of class A, AB, and
C power amplifiers using transistors
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Objectives
Discuss the operation and benefits of class D, E, and
F switching amplifiers, and explain why they are more
efficient.
Explain the basic design of L, , and T-type LC
circuits, and discuss how they are used for impedance
matching.
Explain the use of transformers and baluns in
impedance matching
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
A radio transmitter takes the information to be
communicated and converts it into an electronic signal
compatible with the communication medium.
This process involves carrier generation, modulation,
and power amplification.
The signal is fed by wire, coaxial cable, or waveguide
to an antenna that launches it into free space.
Typical transmitter circuits include oscillators,
amplifiers, frequency multipliers, and impedance
matching networks.
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
Transmitter
is the electronic unit that accepts the information signal
to be transmitted and converts it into an RF signal
capable of being transmitted over long distances.
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
Every transmitter has four basic requirements:
1. It must generate a carrier signal of the correct
frequency at a desired point in the spectrum.
2. It must provide some form of modulation that causes
the information signal to modify the carrier signal.
3. It must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure
that the signal level is high enough to carry over the
desired distance.
4. It must provide circuits that match the impedance of
the power amplifier to that of the antenna for
maximum transfer of power.
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
Transmitter Configurations
The simplest transmitter is a single-transistor oscillator
connected to an antenna.
This form of transmitter can generate continuous wave
(CW) transmissions.
The oscillator generates a carrier and can be switched
off and on by a telegraph key to produce the dots and
dashes of the International Morse code.
CW is rarely used today as the oscillator power is too
low and the Morse code is nearly extinct.
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
A more powerful CW transmitter
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
Transmitter Types
High-Level Amplitude Modulated (AM) Transmitter
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
Low-Level Frequency Modulated (FM) Transmitter
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8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals
Single-Sideband (SSB) Transmitter
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8-2: Carrier Generators
The starting point for all transmitters is carrier
generation.
Once generated, the carrier can be modulated,
processed in various ways, amplified, and transmitted.
The source of most carriers is a crystal oscillator.
PLL frequency synthesizers are used in applications
requiring multiple channels of operation.
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Crystal Oscillators
The only oscillator capable of maintaining the frequency
precision and stability demanded by the FCC is a
crystal oscillator.
A crystal is a piece of quartz that can be made to
vibrate and act like an LC tuned circuit.
Overtone crystals and frequency multipliers are two
devices that can be used to achieve crystal precision
and stability at frequencies greater than 30 MHz.
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Example
A radio transmitter uses a crystal oscillator with a
frequency of 14.9 MHz and a frequency multiplier
chain with factors of 2, 3, and 3. The crystal has a
stability of 300 ppm.
A. Calculate the transmitter output frequency
B. Calculate the maximum and minimum frequencies
that the transmitter is likely to achieve if the crystal
drifts to its maximum extreme.
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Answers
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Crystal Oscillators
The Colpitts-type crystal oscillator is the most
commonly used crystal oscillator.
Feedback is derived from a capacitive voltage divider.
Transistor configuration is typically an emitter-follower.
The output is taken from the emitter.
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8-2: Carrier Generators
An emitter-follower crystal oscillator
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Crystal Oscillators
Pulling, or rubbering capacitors are used to make fine
adjustments to the crystal oscillator frequency.
Field-effect transistors (FETs) make good crystal
oscillators. The Pierce oscillator is a common
configuration that uses a FET.
An overtone crystal is cut so that it optimizes its
oscillation at an overtone of the basic crystal frequency.
The term harmonic is often used as a synonym for
overtone.
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Frequency Synthesizers
Frequency synthesizers are variable-frequency
generators that provide the frequency stability of crystal
oscillators but the convenience of incremental tuning
over a broad frequency range.
Frequency synthesizers provide an output that varies in
fixed frequency increments over a wide range.
In a transmitter, a frequency synthesizer provides basic
carrier generation.
Frequency synthesizers are used in receivers as local
oscillators and perform the receiver tuning function.
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Phase-Locked Loop Synthesizer
The phase-locked loop (PLL) consists of a phase
detector, a low-pass filter, and a VCO.
The input to the phase detector is a reference oscillator.
The reference oscillator is normally crystal-controlled to
provide high-frequency stability.
The frequency of the reference oscillator sets the
increments in which the frequency may be changed.
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Basic PLL frequency synthesizer
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Direct Digital Synthesis
A direct digital synthesis (DDS) synthesizer generates
a sine-wave output digitally.
The output frequency can be varied in increments
depending upon a binary value supplied to the unit by a
counter, a register, or an embedded microcontroller.
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Basic concept of a DDS frequency source
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8-2: Carrier Generators
Direct Digital Synthesis
DDS synthesizers offer some advantages over PLL
synthesizers:
The frequency can be controlled in very fine
increments.
The frequency of a DDS synthesizer can be changed
much faster than that of the PLL.
However, a DDS synthesizer is limited in its output
frequencies.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
The three basic types of power amplifiers used in
transmitters are:
Linear
Class C
Switching
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Linear Amplifiers
Linear amplifiers provide an output signal that is an
identical, enlarged replica of the input.
Their output is directly proportional to their input and
they faithfully reproduce an input, but at a higher level.
Most audio amplifiers are linear.
Linear RF amplifiers are used to increase the power
level of variable-amplitude RF signals such as low-level
AM or SSB signals.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Linear amplifiers are class A, AB or B.
The class of an amplifier indicates how it is biased.
Class A amplifiers are biased so that they conduct
continuously. The output is an amplified linear
reproduction of the input.
Class B amplifiers are biased at cutoff so that no collector
current flows with zero input. Only one-half of the sine
wave is amplified.
Class AB linear amplifiers are biased near cutoff with
some continuous current flow. They are used primarily in
push-pull amplifiers and provide better linearity than Class
B amplifiers, but with less efficiency.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Class C amplifiers conduct for less than one-half of
the sine wave input cycle, making them very efficient.
The resulting highly distorted current pulse is used to
ring a tuned circuit to create a continuous sine-wave
output.
Class C amplifiers cannot be used to amplify varyingamplitude signals.
This type amplifier makes a good frequency multiplier
as harmonics are generated in the process.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Linear Amplifiers
Class A Buffers
A class A buffer
amplifier is used
between the carrier
oscillator and the final
power amplifier to
isolate the oscillator
from the power
amplifier load, which
can change the
oscillator frequency.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Linear Amplifiers
Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
In a class B push-pull amplifier, the RF driving signal
is applied to two transistors through an input
transformer.
The transformer provides impedance-matching and
base drive signals to the two transistors that are 180
out of phase.
An output transformer couples the power to the
antenna or load.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
A push-pull class B power amplifier
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Class C Amplifiers
The key circuit in most AM and FM transmitters is the
class C amplifier.
These amplifiers are used for power amplification in
the form of drivers, frequency multipliers, and final
amplifiers.
Class C amplifiers are biased so they conduct for
less than 180 of the input.
Current flows through a class C amplifier in short
pulses, and a resonant tuned circuit is used for
complete signal amplification.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Tuned Output Circuits
The primary purpose of a tuned circuit is to form the
complete AC sine-wave output.
A parallel tuned circuit rings, or oscillates, at its
resonant frequency whenever it receives a DC pulse.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Tuned Output Circuits
The pulse charges a capacitor, which then discharges
into an inductor.
The exchange of energy between the inductor and
the capacitor is called the flywheel effect and
produces a damped sine wave at the resonant
frequency.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Class C amplifier operation
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Any class C amplifier is capable of performing
frequency multiplication if the tuned circuit in the
collector resonates at some integer multiple of the
input frequency.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Frequency multiplication with class C amplifiers
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Linear Broadband Power Amplifiers
Newer wireless systems require broader bandwidth
than the previously mentioned amplifiers can
accommodate.
Two common methods of broad-bandwidth amplification
are:
Feedforward amplification
Adaptive predistortion amplification
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Linear Broadband Power Amplifiers
Feedforward Amplification
With this technique, the distortion produced by the
power amplifier is isolated and subtracted from the
amplified signal, producing a nearly distortion-free
output signal.
The system is inefficient because two power
amplifiers are required.
The tradeoff is wide bandwidth and very low
distortion.
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8-3: Power Amplifiers
Feedforward linear power amplifier
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
Matching networks that connect one stage to another
are very important parts of any transmitter.
The circuits used to connect one stage to another are
known as impedance-matching networks.
Typical networks are LC circuits, transformers, or
some combination.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
The main function of a matching network is to provide
for an optimum transfer of power through impedance
matching techniques.
Matching networks also provide filtering and
selectivity.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
Impedance Matching in RF Circuits
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
Networks
There are three basic types of LC impedance-matching
networks. They are:
L network
T network
network
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
L networks consist of an inductor and a capacitor in
various L-shaped configurations.
They are used as low- and high-pass networks.
Low-pass networks are preferred because harmonic
frequencies are filtered out.
The L-matching network is designed so that the load
impedance is matched to the source impedance.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
L-type impedance-matching network in which ZL < Zi.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
T and Networks
To get better control of the Q, or selectivity of a circuit,
matching networks using three reactive elements can
be used.
A network is designed by using reactive elements
in a configuration that resembles the Greek letter
A T network is designed by using reactive elements
in a configuration that resembles the letter T.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
network.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
T network.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
Transformers and Baluns
One of the best impedance-matching components is the
transformer.
Iron-core transformers are widely used at lower
frequencies to match impedances.
Any load impedance can be made to look like the
desired load impedance by selecting the correct
value of transformer turns ratio.
A transformer used to connect a balanced source to
an unbalanced load or vice versa, is called a balun
(balanced-unbalanced).
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
Transformers and Baluns
Although air-core transformers are used widely at RFs,
they are less efficient than iron-core transformers.
The most widely used type of core for RF transformers
is the toroid.
A toroid is a circular, doughnut-shaped core, usually
made of a special type of powdered iron.
Single-winding tapped coils called autotransformers
are also used for impedance matching between RF
stages.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
A toroid transformer
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
Transmission Line Transformers and Baluns
A transmission line or broadband transformer is a
unique type of transformer widely used in power
amplifiers for coupling between stages and impedance
matching.
It is usually constructed by winding two parallel wires (or
a twisted pair) on a toroid.
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8-4: Impedance-Matching
Networks
A transmission line transformer
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