FORGING
PROCESS
When a sufficient load(force) is applied to a
metal, it will cause the material to change
shape. This change in shape is called
deformation.
There are 2 (Two) types of deformation
[Link] Deformation
[Link] Deformation
A temporary shape change that is
self-reversing after the force is
removed, so that the object
returns to its original shape, is
called elastic deformation.
This type of deformation involves
stretching of the bonds, but the
atoms do not slip past each other.
When the force is sufficient to
permanently deform the metal,
it is called plastic deformation.
Plastic deformation involves the
breaking of a limited number of
atomic bonds by the movement
of dislocations.
Forging is defined as the
controlled plastic deformation of
metal into predetermined shapes
by applying pressure or impact
blows, or combination of both.
WHY FORGING ? ? ?
A forged component has the ability to withstand higher load during service.
A forged components can be produced to close tolerance.
It reduces the machining time, material and labor considerably.
It increase the strength and toughness of the metals by producing directional grains.
It refines the structure of the metal and thus renders it more dense.
The internal defects like segregation, cracks and porosity are eliminated.
TEMPERATURE
COLD
FORGING
WARM
FORGING
DIE
EXTRUSION
COINING
ROLLING
PUNCHING
HOT FORGING
PEARCING
THIXO
FORGING
BLANKING
HEADING
OPEN DIE
FORGING
IMPRESSION /
CLOSED DIE
FORGING
UPSET
FORGING
MACHINE
HAMMER
FORGING
PRESS
FORGING
RING
ROLLING
ORBITAL
FORGING
Cold forging refers to working metal at
room temperature.
The cold forging process was developed in Germany just
before the end of World War II. It was used to produce
artillery shells and other ordinance items for the war.
RAW
MATERIAL
Receipt, Inspection & Billet cutting etc
HEAT
TREATMENT
Annealing
to remove strain hardening
to set the desired mechanical properties
to normalize the microstructure
SURFACE
TREATMENT
Surface treatment
to remove dust & oil cleaning by acids and degreasers
Pre-Coating - Phosphating
Soaps Sodium / Calcium stearates
COLD
FORGING
Single or multi stage forging
Secondary Forming Thread rolling / Machining
COLD
FORGING
EXTRUSION
FORWARD EXTRUSION
COINING
BACKWARD EXTRUSION
ROLLING
PUNCHING
PEARCING
BLANKING
HEADING
Extrusion is the process of squeezing metal in a closed cavity
through a tool, known as a die using either a mechanical or
hydraulic press.
Forward Extrusion
Forward extrusion reduces slug
diameter and increases its length to
produce parts such as stepped shafts
and cylinders.
Backward Extrusion
In backward extrusion, the steel
flows back and around the
descending punch to form cupshaped pieces.
Coining is the squeezing of metal while it is confined in a
closed set of dies.
This process is used to produce coins, medallions and other
similar products on flat stock with relief features.
Very fine detail can be reproduced.
1-Die/2-punch method in producing headed fasteners.
The first blow combines coning with
shank extrusion.
Coning is a partial head upset.
The second blow finishes the head shape.
Piercing and blanking are essentially the same process, involving the
stamping of shapes out of sheet metal or metal strip.
In piercing a shaped hole is made in the metal,
Whereas in blanking a shape is stamped out of the metal and then used.
Better accuracy, Closer tolerances, Better surface finish.
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness.
Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product.
An ideal method for increasing hardness of those metals
which do not respond to the heat treatment.
A cold forging can generally achieve tolerance of 0.005.
Cold forging improves the finished
parts grain structure by making it
conform to the flow of the design.
The machined diagram shows how the
grain structure is weakened by cutting
operations.
Higher forces and power required for deformation.
Surfaces of starting work must be free of scale and dirt.
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done.
Metal must be annealed and pre-coated before
further deformation can be accomplished.
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to
be cold worked.
Arrangement of atoms is called the crystal structure
Microscopic structure of a crystal.
Purple is sodium ion
Green is chlorine ion
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
(FCC)
Close packed directions are face diagonals.
BODY CENTERED CUBIC
STRUCTURE (BCC)
Close packed directions are cube diagonals.
The change in the crystal structure of a substance that takes place upon
heating or cooling, without a changing the chemistry of metals.
The minimum temperature at which destroyed grains of a
crystal structure are replaced by the new strain free grains.
Above the recrystallization temperature the kinetic energy of atoms increases and
therefore they are able to attach themselves to the newly formed nuclei which in turn
begin to grow into crystals. This process continues until all the distorted crystals
have been transformed.
Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a
[Link] in the strength.
[Link] in hardness of a material.
[Link] increase in the ductility.
Performed at temperatures above room temperature, below
recrystallization temperature
Temperature, C
1536
Liquid
BCC Stable
1391
longer
heat up
FCC Stable
914
Tc 768
BCC Stable
cool down
shorter!
longer!
magnet falls of
shorter
HEATING AND COOLING OF IRON
950 0 C
550 0 C
WARM
FORGING
BAND
Reduced tooling loads, as compared to cold forging.
Reduced press loads, as compared to cold forging.
Increased steel ductility.
Elimination of annealing prior to forging.
Favorable as-forged properties that can eliminate heat
treatment.
Transmission Shafts
Transmission Gears
Hot forging is the plastic deformation of metal at a
temperature and strain rate such that recrystallization occurs
simultaneously with deformation, thus avoiding strain
hardening.
For this to occur, high work piece temperature (matching the
metal's recrystallization temperature) must be attained
throughout the process.
- Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is easier to work and takes
less energy (force).
- Increase in ductility.
- Elevated temperatures increase diffusion which can remove or
reduce chemical inhomogeneity.
- Pores may reduce in size or close completely during deformation.
Lower dimensional accuracy due to thermal contraction &
wrapping from uneven cooling.
Grain structure may vary through out the metal for various
reasons.
Higher total energy required, which is the sum of
The thermal energy needed to heat the work piece
Energy to deform the metal
Work surface oxidation (scale)
Thus, poorer surface finish
Shorter tool life
Dies and rolls in bulk deformation
Two dies are brought together and the work piece undergoes plastic
deformation until its enlarged sides touch the die side walls.
Some material begins to flow outside the die impression, forming flash.
Impression die forgings may be produced on a
horizontal forging machine (Up setter) in a
process referred to as upsetting.
A work piece may be forged by a series of punch and die operations (or by several
cavities in the same die) to gradually change its shape.
Amount of energy is imparted by impulsive load,
Close tolerances are not much important
1. Starting stock cut to size by weight is first rounded, then upset
to achieve structural integrity and directional grain flow.
2. Work piece is punched, then pierced to achieve starting
"donut" shape needed for ring rolling process.
3. Completed pre-form ready for placement on ring mill for
rolling.
4. Ring rolling process begins with the idler roll applying
pressure to the pre-form against the drive roll.
5. Ring diameters are increased as the continuous pressure
reduces the wall thickness. The axial rolls control the height
of the ring as it is being rolled.
6. The process continues until the desired size is achieved.
Forming Type
Cold
Warm
Hot
Temperature
Room
550 - 950oC
950 - 1250oC
1020 - 1740oF
1740 - 2300oF
Accuracy
High
Good
Low
Formability
Restricted
Good
Good
Material
Restricted
Large variety
Large variety
Energy Costs
Low
Moderate
High
Surface Quality
High
Good
Low
Tolerances
Close
Closer
Low
Grain Structure
Good
Good
Variable
Heat Treatments
Few
Few
Necessary
Machining
Least
Less
Necessary
Forged components are shaped either by a hammer or press.
Forging on the hammer is carried out in a succession of die impressions using
repeated blows.
The quality of the forging, and the economy and productivity of the hammer
process depend upon the tooling and the skill of the operator.
In a press, the stock is usually hit only once in each die impression, and the
design of each impression becomes more important while operator skill
is less critical.
In the most basic example of impression die forging, which
accounts for the majority of forging production, two dies
are brought together and the work piece undergoes plastic
deformation until its enlarged sides touch the die side
walls
Then, some material begins to flow outside the die
impression, forming flash. The flash cools rapidly and
presents increased resistance to deformation, effectively
becoming a part of the tool. This builds pressure inside the
bulk of the work piece, aiding material flow into unfilled
impressions.
Impression die forging
Grain Structure
Parts have good strength
High toughness
Forgings require additional heat treating
grain flow (a) casting (b) machining (c)
Forging Defects
Unfilled Section: In this some section of the die cavity
are not completely filled by the flowing metal.
Cold Shut: This appears as a small cracks at the corners
of the forging.
Scale Pits: This is seen as irregular depurations on the
surface of the forging.
Die Shift: This is caused by the miss alignment of the
die halve, making the two halve of the forging to be
improper shape.
Forging Defects
Flakes: These are basically internal
ruptures caused by the improper cooling
of the large forging.
Improper Grain Flow: This is caused by
the improper design of the die, which
makes the flow of the metal not flowing
the final interred direction.
Crack:
Cracks are two types
Surface Crack
Micro Crack
Reason
Ingot Cracks
Improper Heating and Forging @ Low temperatures
Incorrect cooling of Alloy steel forgings
Incorrect Forging methods
Lap:
Reason
Due to folding of metal over itself during forging, laps are usually found
where vertical and horizontal section intersect, when fillet radius is less.
Unfilling:
Reason
Inadequate Forging pressure
Chilled die or forge metal
Short supply of feed metal from either web or blocker
Inadequate Preform Design
Pitting:
Depression on component surface due to
scale imbedded during forging
ReasonIncomplete cleaning of dies & scales.
Dents:
ReasonImproper positioning of stock on the die.
Hot forgings are thrown from place to place.
Mismatch
Reason
Improper alignment of dies
Buckling:
ReasonIn upsetting forging. Subject to high
compressive stress.
Thank You
