MONICA VALA

[Link] Civil Engg.

MEFGI
 INTRODUCTION
 “Engineering is the art based primarily upon the training in
mathematics and the physical sciences of utilizing
economically the forces and material of nature for the
benefit of man.” – Robert E. Doherty
 Engineering is concerned mainly with the designing,
fabricating, erecting, manufacturing, installing, operating,
controlling and maintaining engines, machines, instruments
and equipments, as well as constructing structures.
 American society of civil engineering defines, “civil
engineering as the profession in which a knowledge of the
mathematical and physical sciences gained by study,
experience and practice is applied with judgement to develop
ways to utilise economically the materials and forces of the
nature for the progressive well being of man.”
 Civil engineering is that field of engineering concerned
with planning, design and construction for environmental
control, development of natural resources, building,
transportation facilities and other structures required for
health, welfare, safety, employment and pleasure and
mankind.
 Civil engineering has emerged as separate engineering
discipline from military engineering during the 18th
century, chiefly in the construction of roads, bridges and
canals. John Smeaton was the first person to use “Civil
Engineer” term to differentiate the civil engineer from the
military engineer.
 Branches of Civil Engineering
According to the type of structure, and activities carried out,
main branches of civil engineering are classified as follows:
(1) Structural Engineering
(2) Surveying & Leveling
(3) Building, Planning & Construction
(4) Advance Construction
(5) Geotechnical Engineering
(6) Water Resources Engineering
(7) Transportation Engineering
(8) Environmental Engineering
(9) Town Planning Engineering
(10) Earthquake Engineering
1) Structural engineering
• It deals with the analysis and design of structures. Loads
acting on various elements of a structure are calculated. On
basis of loads and permissible stresses in materials, section of
structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, footings etc.
are decided.
• Now a days various computer software are used for structural
analysis and design like STADD PRO, STRUD etc. it includes
design of Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) and steel
structures, and design of structure should be earthquake
resistance.
2) Surveying and Levelling
• In the surveying the relative position of different objects on
the surface of the earth are measured on the ground and are
reproduced on the paper to certain scale. It deals with linear
and angular measurement along horizontal plane.
  In the levelling, the relative vertical distances of different
points are measured on the surface of the earth. Thus,
levelling is the measurement of heights in vertical plane.
Chain, Tape, Compass, Dumpy level, Theodolite, Total station,
E.D.M. etc. are the instruments used in surveying and
levelling.
 It also include measurement of areas and volumes. The basic
aim of surveying is to prepare a map of the area to some
scale.
3) Building, Planning & Construction
• Civil engineers are mainly concerned with different types of
structures but from which buildings have a prime
importance. The design of buildings involves functional
design and structural design. The functional design is related
with planning of different units of building to provide
suitable environment for activities. Various codes and bye-
laws are available to ensure the quality of materials and
construction.
  Building construction is the process of assembling materials
like brick, concrete, steel etc.. to form a building.
Construction activity should be managed in such a way that
best quality construction is achieved in the most economic
way by organizing labour, material, method and time.
4) Advance Construction
• Many structures requires extra ordinary construction
techniques and special care which comes in the category of
advance construction.
• Construction of dams, bridges, tunnels etc. required special
equipment. Under water construction, pile foundation,
foundation of bridge pier are comes in same category. Large
scale of earthwork in excavation requires equipment like
power shovel, bulldozers, dragline etc.
• Construction of power station, off shore oil rig and port is
also known as heavy construction.
5) Geotechnical Engineering
• Geotechnical engineering is that branch of civil engineering
which deals with soil investigation and design of proper
foundation of structure. All structure have to finally transfer
the load acting on them to soil safely, so sound knowledge of
geology and geotechnical engineering is necessary for
construction of earth related structures.
• The scope of geotechnical engineering includes, detailed soil
investigation, soil bearing capacity determination, design
and construction of various types of foundation like simple
footing, raft foundation, pile foundation etc. and construction
of tunnels, retaining walls, earthen dams, earthwork for
highways and railways.
6) Water Resources Engineering
• Water resources engineering means measurements,
utilization and development of water resources for
agriculture, municipal and power generation purpose. It
mainly includes irrigation engineering, design of hydraulic
structures like dams, canals etc.
• Hydrology is also a part of water resources engineering
which includes study of sources of water, measurement of
rainfall, study of rain fall, flood and flood control.
7) Transportation Engineering
• Transportation engineering involves movements of persons
and goods from one place to other. Economy and culture
progress of the country is dependent on safe and speedy
transport. Transportation system of the nation consists of
many sub systems like highways, railways, waterways and
airways.
  Transportation is that branch of civil engineering which
deals with planning, designing and construction of roads,
bridges, railways, tunnels, harbor, ports, docks, runways, and
airports.
8) Environmental Engineering
• Environmental engineering has mainly three branches
namely water supply engineering, waste water treatment
and pollution control. It is concerned with the health of
general public. Major environment problems which mankind
is facing now are pollution of environment, global warming,
acid rain, depletion of ozone layer and depletion in natural
resources.
• Environmental engineering includes design, construction
and maintenance of water treatment plant, waste water
treatment plant, water distribution networks and sewarage
system.
9) Town Planning Engineering
 Town planning means planned and controlled growth of town by dividing the land
of the town into different land use zones like residential, commercial, industrial
etc. and regulating building construction in these zones to provide better
environment for the people of the town. services like road network, water supply,
drainage networks are properly planned by civil engineers. Floor Space Index and
other building bye-laws are fixed by municipal authorities to regulate and control
the building construction

10) Earthquake Engineering

 Earthquake engineering is the scientific field concerned with protecting society,
the natural and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the
seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable levels. Traditionally, it has been
narrowly defined as the study of the behavior of structures and geo-structures
subject to seismic loading, thus considered as a subset of
both structural and geotechnical engineering. However, the tremendous costs
experienced in recent earthquakes have led to an expansion of its scope to
encompass disciplines from the wider field of civil engineering and from the social
sciences, especially sociology, political sciences, economics and finance.
 The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:
 Foresee the potential consequences of strong earthquakes on urban areas and civil
infrastructure.
 Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake exposure up to
the expectations and in compliance with building codes.
Functions of Civil Engineering
 Before construction
 During construction
 After construction

 Before construction
i. Feasibility study
ii. Surveying
iii. Site investigation
iv. Planning
v. Design and drawing
vi. Estimating
vii. Planning and scheduling
 During construction
i. Dealing with clients, consulting engineer and
contractors
ii. Execution and supervision
[Link] control
[Link]

 After construction
i. Maintenance and repairs
ii. Valuation
 According to the function of civil engineering
a) Surveying
b) Planning
c) Structural analysis and design
d) Professional practice
i. Estimating
ii. Costing and accounts
iii. Valuation
iv. Contracts
e) Construction management
i. Planning and scheduling
ii. Construction execution and supervision
f) Quality control and research
g) Maintenance of structure
 Role of civil engineers
 Civil engineers main role is in surveying, planning,
designing, estimation and execution of structures like
building, roads, railways, ports, airports, dams, canals,
water and waste water treatment plants, water
distribution network and sewerage system.
 To implement management techniques for better
management of man, material, machine and money.
 To carry out surveying and leveling with survey
instrument for setting out of work and preparing map.
 To carry out soil investigations for the design of
foundation of structures.
 To carry out planning of building as per its functional
needs, as suggested by clients or user.
 To carry out the design of structures as per the
principle of structure analysis and design.
 To carry out the quantity survey and to prepare
estimate to know the probable cost of completion of
works.
 To invite tenders and to select contractor for the
work.
 To carry out valuation of land or building for the
purpose of finding its sale or purchase price.
 Construction materials

 Variety of materials are used for building construction

 Strength and stability of any building depends upon
construction materials
 Approximately 35% of the total cost is the cost of
materials.
 Transportation cost of material may increase the cost
of material
Construction materials

 Materials are divided  Artificial or industrial

into two parts materials
 Cement, Bricks, Steel,
 Naturally available
Tiles, Glass, Plastic, Stone,
materials
Lime, Paints and
 Clay, soil varnishes, Ceramic
 Timber
 Sand
 Rock
 CEMENT
 Cement is a product obtained by burning a well
proportioned mixture of siliceous(containing silica),
argillaceous (containing alumina) and calcareous
(containing lime) materials and crushing the same
into grey colour fine powder.
 Requirements of cement

 Cement should not posses excess of alumina which may

reduce the strength and weakens the cement.
 Cement should not have amount of alkali oxides more than
1%,which cause failure of concrete made from cement.
 Cement should be free from lumps. It should be stored in
proper closed room without dampness and should be
protected from rainwater.
 It should found cool when touched by hand.
 It should be in fine power form while checking with first
finger and thumb.
Requirements of cement
 Cement should not contain more silica otherwise its
setting time is prolonged.
 Cement should not possess excess lime otherwise it makes
cement unsound and cause the cement to expand and
disintegrate.
 Types of cement

 Normal Portland cement

 This type of cement is about 66% of total
production of cement
 This is the most important type of cement and is
widely used
Ingredients of Portland cement
 Lime 60-67%
 Silica 17-25%
 Alumina 3-8%
 Iron oxide 0.50-6%
 Magnesia 0.10-4%
 Soda and potash 0.20-1%
 Sulphur trioxide 1-2.75%
 Free lime 0-1%
Normal Portland cement
 About 70 to 80% of cement is contributed by C3S and C2S
which provides strength of cement
 C3S has property of hydrating rapidly and to provide early
strength
 C2S has property to provide strength after duration of 7
days
 C3A gets hydrated rapidly and is also to provide early
strength.
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
 Initial and final setting times of this cement are the
same as those of ordinary cement
 It attains high strength in early days
 Lime content is more in this cement than ordinary
cement
 Burning is carried out higher temperature
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
 Grinding is very Fine
 It attains strength in short period. Compressive
strength at the end of one day is about 115kg/cm2 and
that at the end of 3 days is about 210kg/cm2
 This cement is costlier than ordinary cement
 This cement requires short period of curing
 Quick setting cement
 This cement is produced by adding a small percentage of
aluminum sulphate and by finely grinding the cement
 Setting action of this cement starts within five minutes
after addition of water and it becomes hard like stone in
less than 30 minutes
 This cement is used to lay concrete under static water or
running water
 Pozzuolana Portland cement
 Pozzuolana is a volcanic power
 By adding 10 to 30% of Pozzuolana this cement is prepared.
 This cement is used to prepare mass concrete of lean mix and for
marine structure
 It is cheap
 It offers great resistance to expansion
 It possesses higher tensile strength
 It imparts higher degree of water tightness
 Its compressive strength in early is less
Low heat cement
 In order to reduce heat, lower percentage of C3A and
higher percentage of C2S is mixed to get low heat
cement
 This cement has less compressive strength
 Initial setting time is about one hour
 It is used for mass concrete work.
Blast Furnace slag Cement
 About 60 to 70% of slag obtained from blast furnace is
used to prepare blast furnace cement
 Waste like slag is used, hence cheap and economical
 Its strength in early days is less hence curing period is
more
 White cement
 It is white in colour and it is used for floor finish,
plaster work, ornamental work etc.
 It is more costly than ordinary cement
 White cement
 For burning of this cement, oil fuel is used instead of
coal
 The raw material used for this cement should be free
from colouring oxides of iron, manganese or
chromium
Sulphate Resisting Cement
 In this cement, tricalcium aluminate is kept below 5 to
6% to increase resistance against sulphates.
 This cement is used for structures like canal linings,
culverts, syphones etc.
Coloured Cement
 Cement of desired colour may be obtained by mixing 5
to 10% percent pigments with ordinary cement
 Coloured cements are widely used for finishing of
floors, external surface, window sill slab, textured
panel faces, etc.
Uses of cement
 It is used to prepare cement mortar for building
construction works like masonry, plaster, painting,
flooring etc.
 It is used to prepare cement concrete for various
construction works.
 It is used to prepare R.C.C. structure of building by
using reinforcement with cement concrete
BRICK
 Brick are rectangular blocks made from clay.
 Clay is molded to form rectangular blocks of standard
size, which are dried and latter burnt to high
temperature to make them dense and compact
 The clay should be free from pebbles, gravel, Alkalis,
organic matter, vegetation etc.
COMPOSITION OF BRICK
 20-30% Alumina
 50-60% Silica
 <5% Lime
 0.1% Magnesia
 5-6% Iron oxide
Requirements of brick
 The colour of brick should be red or copper and
uniform
 It should be well burnt in kilns
 The surface should be even and free from cracks
 The edges should be sharp
 Table moulded bricks should be preferable
 The clay used for bricks should be free from organic
matter, salts pebbles.
Requirements of brick
 When two bricks are struck, there should be metallic
ringing sound
 They should be hard enough and when scratched by a
finger nail, no scratch mark should be found
 They should not absorb water more than 20% of the
weight
 They should not break when dropped to the ground
from the height of 1 m
 Crushing strength between 3 to 15 N/mm2
Types of brick
 Conventional/Traditional brick
 Size 23 cm x 11.4 cm x 7.6 cm
 Standard brick
 Size 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm
 Brick are classified as per manufacturing
 Hand moulded
 Machine moulded
Types of brick
 Bricks are classified as per quality and utility
 1st class brick (A grade)
 The surfaces and edges of the brick are sharp, smooth
and straight
 These bricks are of best quality and used for superior
work and exposed brick work
 2nd class brick (B grade)
 The surface of these bricks are somewhat rough and
shape is slightly irregular and used for ordinary work
Types of brick
 3rd class brick (C grade)
 The surfaces and edges of the bricks are irregular and
distorted and used for temporary work
 4th class brick (D grade)
 These bricks are strong but over burnt.
 These bricks are used to prepare broken bats.
 These brick bats are used as aggregate for concrete work
in foundation and floors.
Special Bricks
 Perforated Bricks
 These bricks have perforations through their entire
thickness
 These bricks are light weight and providing better
thermal insulation than common bricks
 They are used for partition walls, panel walls of
multistoreyed building.
Special Bricks
 Heavy Duty Bricks
 These types of bricks have high durability and high
compressive strength
 They are used in bridge constructions and industrial
foundations
 They have water absorption maximum 10%
Special Bricks
 Sand Lime Bricks
 These bricks are made from a mixture of clean sand(90-95%)
and lime (5-10%)
 These types of bricks have good strength and hardness with
uniform colour, size, texture and shape and used for
ornamental work
 Refractory Bricks
 These bricks are made of fire clay and pure sand and are burnt
to a high temperature in kilns.
 Refractory bricks shall not fuse even when heated to 1700 c.
Uses of brick
 Bricks are used in wall masonry construction of
building.
 Brick are used in brick lintel construction
 Bats of bricks are used in concrete in foundation work.
AGGREGATE
 Aggregate Are The Naturally occurring Materials Like
Sand, crushed Rock And Gravel
 Broken Bricks And Crushed Blast Furnace Slag Are Also
Used As Aggregates
Requirements of aggregate

 Aggregate should be strong, hard, tough and durable

 Shape of aggregate should not be elongated. Angular shape is preferred
instead of rounded aggregate
 Aggregate should have good soundness (resistance to volume change)
 They should be clean and free from clay, grass, roots.
 Water absorption is less
 Aggregate should have good adhering with binding material
Types of aggregate

 Fine aggregate ( <4.745 mm)

 Coarse aggregate ( >4.75 mm)
Uses of aggregate
 Fine aggregate are used to prepare to lime mortar, cement
mortar and cement concrete
 Coarse aggregate is used to prepare cement concrete,
bituminous pavement etc
 Fine aggregate are used in masonry, plaster, flooring etc.
 Fine and coarse aggregate are used in construction of
beams, columns, slabs, lintel.
CONCRETE

 Cement Concrete May Be Defined As A Building Material

Obtained By Mixing Cement , Fine Aggregate, Coarse
Aggregate And Water In Definite Proportion
 Lime Concrete May Be Defined As A Building Material
Obtained By Mixing Lime , Fine Aggregate, Coarse
Aggregate And Water In Definite Proportion
Types of Cement concrete

 Plain cement concrete(P. C.C.)

 Reinforced cement concrete(R.C.C.)
 Precast concrete
 Prestressed concrete (P.S.C.)
 Plain cement concrete
 It is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and
water
 The proportions of ingredients for various mixes can be
decided by using nominal mixes i.e. mix [Link] means 1 part of
cement, 2 parts of fine aggregate and 4 parts of coarse
aggregate
 Its tensile strength is less so not used for structural members
 Its use is more common in levelling course over plinth or
below footing and used to fill columns in the terraces.
 The concrete is manufactured either by hand mixing or
machine mixing.
Reinforced cement concrete
 As P.C.C. has a little tensile strength it is reinforced with a
tensile material like steel
 Composition= Cement+sand+aggregate+reinforcement
Precast concrete
 The term precast concrete is applied to individual concrete
members of various types, which are cast in separate forms
before they are placed in the structure
 Precast members are cast either to the site or in factories
and transported to the site and then placed in position by
cranes or other devices if they are heavy like beam or slab
 It is used for manufacture of compound wall, electricity
poles, water tank girders, pipes etc
Prestressed concrete

 This is a reinforced concrete in which concrete is subjected

to compressive stresses, before the external loads are
applied, by including tensile stresses in reinforcement to
counteract tensile stresses caused in the concrete by
external loads
 The Prestressed concrete member are generally precast.
The prestressing is either pre-tensioning or post-
tensioning
 The prestressing force is applied using hydraulic jacks.
STONE
 Stones are obtained from naturally occurring rocks
 By blasting of rocks the stones are obtained in the
form of blocks, slabs and broken pieces
 Shaping and dressing of stone is essential to use it as
building materials
Types of stone
 Rocks may be classified on the basis of geological
formation are
Igneous rock, sedimentary rock, Metamorphic rock
 Rocks may be classified on the basis of their
structure are
Stratified, Unstratified,foliated
 Rocks may be classified on the basis of their
chemical composition are
Siliceous, Argillaceous, Cal carious
 Requirements of stone

 Structure
 They may be crystalline or amorphous.
 Unstratified rocks are good as building material
 Stratified rocks are liable to get separated along the
planes of the strata and hence require to be placed
properly
 Appearance
 Stone of light shades are preferred to dark stone
 Weight
 Light weight stones are preferred for domes and arches.
Heavy stones are preferred for structural stability
Requirements of stone
 Fineness of grains
 Non crystalline stones are difficult to handle. For
moulding and carving works fine grained stones are very
suitable.
 Durability
 Stone must have the property to resist loads. Alternate
cooling and heating at certain location
 Strength
 Minimum crushing strength is 100N/mm2. Igneous rocks
have 100 to 350 N/mm2 crushing strength
 Hardness
 Facility of working and dressing
Uses of stone
 They are used in foundation, walls, column, arches etc.
 They are used in ornamental features and to provide
fine smooth faces of walls
 They are used in hydraulic structures like dams and
bridges
Uses of stone
 They are used in retaining wall masonry to retain the
soil
 They are used as road metal in road construction
 They are used as ballast for permanent way in railway
 They are used to make concrete in the form of coarse
aggregate.
Stone works used in construction work
Name of Type Uses
stone
Granite Igneous For steps, Floors, platform
Basalt Igneous For foundation, as road
metal
Laterite Metamorphic For masonry work
Limestone Sedimentary In footing and flooring
Marble Metamorphic For flooring, kitchen platform
Sandstone Sedimentary Floors, walls, facing work
Slate Metamorphic For roofs and sills
 TIMBER

 Requirements of good Timber

 The annual rings of the section must be close to each
other.
 Freshly cut log surface should emit sweet smell
 It should have dark uniform colour
 TIMBER

 It should be dense
 It should be workable, good machinability
 It should have uniform texture
 When it is struck it should produce a sonorous sound
 TIMBER

 The medullary rays should be compact

 It should be free from defects like dead knots, shakes,
rapture.
 There should not decay of timber due to fungi and
insect like white ants and termites
Types of Seasoning
 Natural Seasoning.
[Link] , [Link]

 Kiln Seasoning
 Chemical Seasoning
 Seasoning by boiling water
 Electrical Seasoning
Seasoning of timber

 When a tree is fresh cut, the wood contains

considerable quantity of water in the form of sap
and moisture.
 It is necessary to remove this water from the wood
before it can be use in any construction work
Preservation of timber
 Timber is used to make doors and windows and
furniture of building
 It is covered by coal tar, oil paint or varnish to get
weather resistance
 Certain chemicals like copper sulphate, mercuric
chloride, sodium fluoride etc. are also use to preserve
woodwork from fungi, insects, termite etc.
Types of timber

 Natural timber
 Babul, Deodar, Oak, Sisum, Pine, Neem, Sandal
etc.
 Industrial timber
 Veneers
 Veneers are thin sheets of wood of superior quality
obtained by rotating a log of wood against sharp cutter
of saw
 The thickness of veneers varies from 0.4 mm to 6 mm
or even more
Types of timber

 Plywood
 Plywood are made by gluing together the thin sheets of
veneers.
 The sheets are kept one over the other such that the
grains of one layer are at right angles to the other
 Plywood is light in weight and hence it is easy to
transport
 it is not affected by moisture
 It is resistance to cracking and splitting
 Variety of decorative finishes are available
Types of timber

 Fiberboards
 It is prepared from wood fibers by applying
pressure.
 The pieces of wood and vegetables fibers are
collected and heated in a hot water boiler to
separate the fibers.
 They are cleaned and pressed between steel bars to
obtain
Types of timber

 Impreg timber
 Timber which is fully or partially covered with resin
is known as Impreg timber
 Sunmica and Formica are the examples of this
timber
 Compreg timber
 Timber which is fully or partially covered with resin
and curing is carried out under pressure is called
Compreg timber
Cross section of timber
 Outer bark
 Inner bark
 Cambium layer
 Sap wood
 Heart wood
 Medullary rays
 Pith
 Uses of timber
 It is used as centering material or formwork material in
R.C.C. structure
 It is used to make doors, windows and shutters
 It is used for railway sleepers and also used for making
railway coach
 It is used for boat construction and temporary bridges
 It is used for making small house in a region where there is
a heavy snow fall
TYPES OF METALS
 Ferrous metals
 It contain iron as the main constituent
 Pig iron
 Cast iron
 Wrought iron
 steel
 Non-Ferrous metals
 It do not contain iron as the main constituent. Aluminum, cobalt,
lead, magnesium, tin, zinc, copper etc. are belong to this type
Types of iron
 Pig iron
 The crude impure iron which is extracted from iron ores is known
as pig iron
 Cast iron
 Cast iron is made by remolding pig iron with coke and limestone in
a cupola furnace
 It contains about 2 to 4% of carbon and various impurities
 Wrought iron
 It is almost pure iron and it contains carbon less than 0.15%
 It is used where a tough material is required
Types of iron
 Steel
 Steel forms an intermediate stage between cast iron and
wrought iron with carbon contain 0.25 to 1.5%
 Types of steel
 Mild steel(0.10 to 0.25% carbon)
 Medium carbon steel(0.25 to 0.60 %)
 High carbon steel(0.60 to 1.10%)
Properties of cast iron
 Cast iron is weak in tension and strong in compression
 Two pieces of cast iron cannot be connected by riveting or
welding
 Under the effect of salt, cast iron becomes soft
 It can not be magnetized
 It does not rust easily
 It is not ductile
 It can not absorb heavy shocks
Properties of wrought iron
 It can be easily forged and welded under heat at soft
stage
 It cannot be used for making castings
 It is ductile
 It is malleable
 It is tough and elastic
 It has corrosion resistance
 It is nor affected by saline water
Properties of steel
 Mild steel
 It can be forged and welded
 It is malleable and ductile
 It has resistance to salt
 It is tough and elastic
 It rusts easily and rapidly
 Melting points are about 1400 c
 Specific gravity is 7.80
Properties of steel iron
 Hard steel
 It can not be forged and welded
 It has granular structure
 It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel
 It can absorb shocks and vibration