CHAPTER 6
MICROBIAL ENERGY SOURCES
OUTLINE
1) Introduction to energy sources
2) Basic bacterial metabolism
Catabolism
Anabolism
3) Production of ATP
4) Biosynthesis of carbohydrates, protein, fats, and
nucleic acids
Introduction to energy sources
Living cells require energy from outside sources
Some animals, such as the chimpanzee, obtain energy
by eating plants, and some animals feed on other
organisms that eat plants
WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?
It is important to have a basic understanding of
metabolism because it governs the survival and growth of
microorganisms.
The growth of microorganisms can have a direct effect on
infectious disease.
Good metabolic function makes pathogens more
successful at causing disease.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF METABOLISM
Metabolism is:
A series of chemical processes that go on in living
organisms / The sum of all chemical processes carried out
by living organisms.
Used to obtain energy.
Linked to growth.
Require the use of enzymes and coenzymes
Basic concepts of metabolism
2 major pathways in metabolic activity
Catabolism
Anabolism
Reactions that release
Reactions that require
energy by breaking
energy to synthesize
complex molecules
complex molecules
into simpler ones that
from simpler ones.
Needed for growth, can be reused as
building blocks.
reproduction and
Provides an organism
repair of cellular
with energy for its life
structures.
processes, including
movement, transport.
OXIDATION & REDUCTION REACTIONS
Metabolism is broken down
into two parts:
Catabolism – molecules are
broken down through metabolic
processes to release the energy
stored in their chemical bonds.
Anabolism – metabolic
processes in which the energy
derived from catabolism is used
to build large organic molecules
from smaller ones.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF METABOLISM
Carbon and energy are required for growth.
There are two processes by which carbon can be
obtained:
Autotrophy – carbon is obtained from inorganic
substances (e.g. plants using CO2 to make sugar)
Heterotrophy – carbon is obtained from other organic
molecules
Nearly all infectious organisms are chemoheterotrophs.
Chemoheterotrophs obtain energy by breaking
down other organic molecules and compounds.
OXIDATION & REDUCTION
REACTIONS
Both anabolism and catabolism involve electron transfer and
oxidation and reduction reactions – redox reaction.
An oxidation reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom,
ion or molecule loses one or more electrons.
A reduction reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom, ion
or molecule gains one or more electrons.
RESPIRATION
In metabolism, respiration occurs at the cellular
level and is not the same as breathing (respiration
at the macroscopic level).
Cellular respiration describes catabolic processes
and is divided into:
Aerobic respiration – metabolism that uses oxygen
Anaerobic respiration– metabolism that does not use
oxygen
Facultatively anaerobic respiration – metabolism that
can use oxygen but can also occur without it
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
Metabolic reactions occur in series of chemical reactions
called pathways.
The following is an example of a pathway. A is the initial
substrate and E is the final product of the pathway, with B,
C, and D being intermediates.
A B C D E
Each step in the pathway is mediated or facilitated by a
specific enzyme.
ENZYMES
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for metabolic
reactions, making the reaction go faster.
Enzymes work by lowering the energy of activation.
Each enzyme is specific for a reaction.
•Enzymes are found in all
living organisms and
most cells contain
hundreds of types which
are constantly being
manufactured and
replaced.
Overview of cell metabolism
CATABOLIC PROCESSES IN
METABOLISM
Catabolic processes in metabolism
cause the breakdown of large
organic molecules into smaller
ones.
These are called fueling reactions
because they cause a release of
energy.
CATABOLIC PROCESSES IN METABOLISM
There are three important pathways by which most
organisms release energy from nutrient molecules:
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Electron transport chain
GLYCOLYSIS
The catabolic pathway used by most organisms.
The best example of this pathway is glucose breakdown.
The process itself is a series of chemical reactions.
Glucose
• Glycolysis occurs in
the cytoplasm and does
not require oxygen.
• Four ATP molecules
are produced in
glycolysis
– The first steps of
the pathway
consume two ATP
molecules.
– The net gain is two
ATP molecules.
4 – 2 = 2 ATP produced
Per glucose molecule (Net)
After a series of steps, the 6-carbon glucose molecule is
broken into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules -> Krebs cycle.
NAD+ carries electrons to the electron transport chain.
1 molecule of glucose
Produces:
2 ATP (net)
2 reduced NAD+
2 molecules of Pyruvate
Glycolysis can lead to further
energy producing pathways.
Krebs cycle and cellular
respiration (aerobic)
Fermentation (anaerobic)
THE KREBS CYCLE
The Krebs cycle or the citric acid cycle or Tri-
Carboxylic Acid cycle (TCA).
It is an aerobic catabolic pathway seen in aerobic
cellular respiration.
Pyruvate is further metabolized in this process.
Pyruvate is oxidized to reduce NAD+ and modified
with coenzyme A to produce Acetyl-CoA complex.
THE KREBS CYCLE
The Krebs cycle is a series of reactions in which
chemical changes occur.
Within these reactions, hydrogen atoms are
removed and their electrons are transferred to
coenzyme carrier molecules.
The hydrogen atoms are carried by NAD+ and FAD
to the electron transport system.
Three important things happen in the
Krebs cycle:
Carbon is oxidized as CO2.
Energy is captured and stored
when ADP is converted to ATP.
Electrons are transferred to
coenzyme carrier molecules that
take the electrons to the electron
transport chain.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The electron transport chain is a sequence of molecules.
In eukaryotes, they are found in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
In prokaryotes, they are organized in the plasma membrane.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Electrons are transferred to a final electron acceptor.
In aerobic respiration, the final acceptor is oxygen.
In anaerobic respiration, the final acceptor is an inorganic oxygen-
containing molecule.
CHEMIOSMOSIS
As electrons move from one molecule to another in the chain, energy
is released via a process called chemiosmosis.
As electrons are transferred along the electron transport chain, protons
are pumped out of the cell.
This causes the proton concentration outside the cell to be higher than
inside the cell, causing a concentration gradient to form.
CHEMIOSMOSIS
Specialized membrane proteins allow protons to re-enter the cell.
Energy is released as protons re-enter the cell.
This energy is used to bind phosphate to ADP, making the high-
energy molecule ATP.
The difference in proton concentration in this process is called the
proton motive force.
CHEMIOSMOSIS
Cells using anaerobic respiration generate two molecules of
ATP from one glucose molecule.
Cell using aerobic respiration generate thirty eight total
molecules of ATP from one glucose molecule.
Aerobic respiration: 38 ATP / glucose molecule
Anaerobic respiration: 2 ATP / glucose molecule
ANABOLISM
Anabolic reactions are classified as biosynthetic reactions
because they are used to synthesize all the biological
molecules needed by the cells of living organisms.
Biosynthetic reactions form the network of pathways that
produce the components required by the cell for growth
and survival.
These reactions are fueled by the energy stored in high-
energy bonds in ATP.
ANABOLISM
Production of ATP
3 major process of cell metabolism/cellular respiration
that can produce ATP including :
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Fermentation
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic
Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages
Glycolysis
(breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate)
The citric acid cycle
(completes the breakdown of glucose)
Oxidative phosphorylation
(accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
Electrons
carried
via NADH
Glycolysis
Glucose Pyruvate
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2
Pyruvate
Glycolysis Citric
oxidation
acid
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl CoA cycle
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
ATP ATP
Substrate-level Substrate-level
phosphorylation phosphorylation
Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2
Oxidative
Pyruvate
Glycolysis Citric phosphorylation:
oxidation
acid electron transport
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl CoA cycle and
chemiosmosis
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
ATP ATP ATP
Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative
phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation
The process that generates most of the ATP is called oxidative
phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions
RED-OX
Reduction Oxidation
Oxidant + e- product Reductant product + e-
Electron gained, Electrons lost,
Oxidation number decreased Oxidation number increased
Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of
the ATP generated by cellular respiration
A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and
the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation
For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and
water by respiration, the cell makes up to 38 molecules
of ATP
In total, one sugar molecule can produce about 38 ATP
through the process of :
1) Glycolysis – 2 ATP
2) Citric Acid Cycle – 2 ATP
3) Oxidative Phosphorylation – 34 ATP
Total equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ------> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
Cell Respiration : Anaerobic & Fermentation
Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to
produce ATP without the use of oxygen.
• Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP.
• Without O2, the electron transport chain will cease to
operate.
In that case, glycolysis couples with fermentation or
anaerobic respiration to produce ATP.
Anaerobic respiration – A bacterial
alternative
Some bacteria use only parts of the Krebs cycle and the
ETC. They are anaerobes that do not use free O2 as
their final acceptor.
Anaerobic respiration -they use inorganic oxygen-
containing molecules such as nitrate, nitrite and
sulfate.
Produce fewer ATP molecules than aerobic organisms.
Anaerobic respiration - uses an electron transport
chain with a final electron acceptor other than O2, for
example sulfate.
Fermentation - uses substrate-level phosphorylation
instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP.
FERMENTATION
Fermentation is the enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates
in which the final electron acceptor is an organic molecule.
•Different microorganisms use different
fermentation pathways.
Lactic acid fermentation
A biological process by which glucose and other six-carbon
sugars are converted into cellular energy and the
metabolite lactate. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction
that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such
as muscle cells.
In homolactic fermentation, one molecule of glucose is
ultimately converted to two molecules of lactic acid.
Lactic acid fermentation is used to produce foods such as
yogurt and kimchi.
The most commercially important genus of lactic acid-
fermenting bacteria is Lactobacillus, though other bacteria
and even yeast are sometimes used.
2,3-Butanediol fermentation
Anaerobic fermentation of glucose with 2,3-butanediol as
one of the end products. The overall stoichiometry of the
reaction is
2 pyruvate + NADH --> 2CO2 + 2,3-butanediol.
Butanediol fermentation is typical forKlebsiella and
Enterobacter.
Alcoholic fermentation (Ethanol fermentation)
A biological process which converts sugars such
as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy,
producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as a side-effect.
Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence
of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered
an anaerobic process.
Ethanol fermentation has many uses, including the
production of alcoholic beverages, the production of ethanol
fuel, and bread baking.
Mixed acid fermentation
An anaerobic fermentation where the products are a complex
mixture of acids,
particularly lactate, acetate, succinate and formate as well
as ethanol and equal amounts of H2 and CO2. It is
characteristic for members of the Enterobacteriaceae family
Propionic acid fermentation
The end product of this fermentation is propionic acid carried
out by propionic acid bacteria with lactic acid as a substrate.
It is used in the production of Swiss cheese which makes
holes in the cheese structure and gives its characteristic
flavour.
Butyric acid fermentation
This fermentation carried out by Clostridium. Different
species form a variety of end products with pyruvate being
converted to either acetone and carbon dioxide, isopropanol
and carbon dioxide, butyrate or butanol.
Many of this fermentation products are good organic solvents
used for nail polish remover.
Biosynthesis of carbohydrates, protein, fats,
and nucleic acids
The body uses small molecules to build other
substances
These small molecules may come directly from food,
from glycolysis, or from the citric acid cycle.
For most organisms, including microorganisms,
glucose is a major source of energy.
Microorganism can degrade (catabolize) any organic
substance for energy – microbes found almost
everywhere on our planet, able to degrade dead and
decaying remains and wastes of all organisms.
Fat metabolism
Most microorganisms, like animals, can obtain energy
from lipids.
Fats are hydrolyzed to glycerol and three fatty acids.
The glycerol is metabolized by glycolysis.
Fatty acids are in turn oxidized by beta oxidation,
which results in the release of acetyl CoA then enters
the Krebs cycle.
Protein metabolism
Proteins also can be metabolized for energy.
They are first hydrolyzed into individual amino acids
by proteolytic (protein-digesting) enzymes. Then the
amino acids are deaminated.
The resulting deaminated molecules enter glycolysis,
fermentation or the Krebs cycle.
