Epithermal Gold Deposits
Characteristics, classes & causes
Adapted from NC White, 1999
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Epithermal terminology
Is one of the most abused words in geology.
Is it?
a deposit style?
a genetic class?
a crustal environment?
a P-T environment?
something else?
A workable definition…
… epithermal deposits are considered to be those which
exhibit a low temperature of formation (100-300ªC,
typically 170ºC-280ºC) with characteristic hydrothermal
alteration, and with characteristic textures. A shallow
depth of formation may be inferred from these
characteristics, but may not be essential in all cases.
Contrasting epithermal styles
Ramsome (1907) recognized that there are two
contrasting styles of epithermal deposits.
He accurately interpreted the origin of gold deposits
associated with alunite (such as Goldfield, Nevada).
Those observations were largely ignored until 1980.
It is widely recognized that there are two major classes
of epithermal gold deposits.
What’s in a name?
Low sulfur/High sulfur. (Boeham, 1986)
Low sulfidation/High sulfidation. (Hedenquist, 1987)
Adularia-Sericite/Acid-sulfate. (Heald, 1987)
Adularia-Sericite/Kaolinite-alunite. (Berger & Henley, 1987)
Contrasting epithermal styles
Dominant Character Low sulfidation High sulfidation
Massive
Deposit form Veins disseminated
Common Very restricted
Textures
characteristic characteristic
Ore & Gangue Significantly Significantly
mineralogy different different
Alteration zoning Neutral pH Acid, neutral
Fluid chemistry reduced oxidized
Associated elements Zn, Pb, Hg, Cu, Pb, Hg,
with Au, Ag As, Sb, Se As, Sb, Te, Sn
Low us High Sulfidation
Low High
– Open-space veins dominant – Veins subordinate locally
dominant
– Disseminated ore mostly
minor – Disseminated ore dominant
– Replacement ore minor – Replacement ore common
– StockWork ore common – StockWork ore minor
Textures
Low High
– Banded veins – Massive Quartz
– Drusy cavities – Vuggy Quartz
– Crustification – Massive veins
– Lattice texture – Crudely banded veins
– Breccia veins
Mineralogy of Gange
Low Sulfidation High Sulfidation
Quartz Abundant Abundant
Chalcedony Common (variable) Uncommon (minor)
Calcite Common (variable) Absent (except overprint)
Adularia Common (variable) Absent
Illite Common (abundant) Uncommon (minor)
Kaolinite Rare (except overprint) Common (minor)
Alunite Absent (except overprint) Common (minor)
Barite Common (very minor) Common (minor)
Pyrophylite Absent (except overprint) Common (variable)
-diaspore
Mineral Stability us temperature
Mineral Tª (ºC)
0 100 200 300
Alunite
Jarosite
Kaolinite
Pyrophylite
Cristobalite
Quartz
Pyrite
Smectite
Illite
Epidote
Adularia
Calcite
Hidrothermal Alteration
Low Sulfidation High Sulfidation
Deep fluid – Acid-neutral
– Near neutral pH
(mineralizing) pH <1 to >3
– Alunite Kaolinite
– Illite (Sericite)
Mineral – Pyrophylite
assemblage – Interstratified clays
– Diaspore
– Illite-Smectite
– Zoned out to Illite
Alteration Zoning and Overprinting
Low High
Deep Sericite Central Vuggy Quartz
Shallow Illite-Smectite Marginal Kaolinite-Alunite
Very Shallow Kaolinite zoned to Sericite, then
Marginal Illite-Smectite Illite-Smectite, then
Peripheral Propylitic Peripheral Propylitic
OVERPRINTING ! OVERPRINTING !
Alteration Zoning and Overprinting
Low sulfidation Steam-heated overprint High sulfidation
(Neutral pH, reduced) H2O + 2O2 H2SO4 (acidic, oxidized)
smectite Cristobalite-kaolinite- smectite
kaolinite-
alunite alunite Ore
Ore illite/smectite
vein kaolinite ± smectite Illite/smectite vuggy
illite ± adularia vein
propylitic propylitic illite
(Not to scale) CO2, H2SO4, H2S, HCl
Boiling
CO2, H2S,
NaCl Meteoric water 3H2SO4 + H2S
circulation
Equilibration
with rock 4 SO2 + 4H2O
H2O, CO2, SO2, H2S, HCl, metals
Magma
High Sulfidation Stage Process
Early stage Magmatic
fluids
Wall rock
Magmatic source
system
High Sulfidation Stage Process
Late stage
Ground wall
fractures
Meteoric water
circulation
Water condensed in
Ground wall fractures
Vuggy texture Magmatic
fluids
Mineralization time
Time
Early Late
Fluid flux
Phase G
Phase L
Hydrothermal alteration
Intense acid leaching Clay alteration
Mineralization
Metal dispersed Metals
(low pH) deposited
Main Alteration Stage
Meteoric water
0
Heated
ground water 300
400
1 Magmatic
vapors SO,
500
HCl
Magmatic brine
2
Shallow intrusion
Main ore deposition Stage
Meteoric
water
Adsorption high Heated
Pressure vapor ground
water
convective
cell
Volatile Transport
Main ore deposition Stage
Meteoric
water
Heated Mixing with
ground shallow meteoric
water water
Metal bearing
hypersaline liquid
Hypersline liquid transport
Geothermal Hot Spring Environment
Champagne pool, New Zeland Hishikari deposit, Japan
Hot Spring deposits Low sulfidation quartz adularia veins
Geothermal Hot Spring Environment
Yellowstone, USA
Sinter Terrace
Boiling of hydrothermal fluids
Associated with
Lowering of temperature.
Associated with
Loss of gases (mostly H2O, CO2, H2S)
Increase in pH
Increase in oxidation state (slight)
Boiling of hydrothermal fluids
Cristallizing Magma
Deep low salinity CO2-bearing
Magmatic Fluids
Fracture system open to surface
Depressurization at high
temperatures
Magmatic brine 29-45 wt% NaCl & low salinity vapor
Silica Deposition
0
Sinter
Lithostatic
200
Calculate for:
Water 400
+ Hydrostatic
CO2 1wt%
600
800
100ºC 200ºC 300ºC
Silica Deposition
Silica
solubility
1500
1000
500
100 200 300
T (ºC)
Gold deposition by Boiling
Au (HS-)2 + 2 H+ Au0 + 2 H2S
Adularia deposition by Boiling
HS- + H+ H2S
CO2 + H+ CO2 + H2O
Zeolite
(Epidote)
10
Wairakite Boiling
8 Ca-mont K-mica (Illite)
K-feldspar
Kaolinite
(Adularia)
6
0 2 4 6 8
Log aK+/aH+
Calcite deposition by Boiling
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + C2O
0.70
0.60
Calcite solubility
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
100 150 200 250 300
Tª (ºC)
General Characteristics of epithermal Gold deposits
Low sulfidation (LS) High sulfidation (HS)
(Adularia-sericite) (Acid-sulfate)
Open-space veins dominant, Disseminated ore dominant,
Deposit stockwork ore common replacement ore common
form Disseminated and replacement Stockwork ore minor, veins
ore minor commonly subordinate
Veins, cavity filling (bands, Wall rock replacement,
Textures
colloforms, druses), breccias breccias, veins
Pyrite, electrum, gold, Pyrite, enargite, chalcopyrite,
Ore
sphalerite, galena tennantite, covellite, gold,
minerals
(arsenopyrite) tellurides
Gangue Quartz, chalcedony, calcite, Quartz, alunite, barite,
adularia, illite, carbonates kaolinite, pyrophyllite
Au, Ag, Zn, Pb (Cu, Sb, Cu, Au, Ag, As (Pb, Hg, Sb, Te,
Metals
As, Hg, Se) Sn, Mo, Bi)
Are there different styles?
Gold-Silver deposits with calc-alkaline volcanic
Hichilari, Maclaughlin, Panglor
LS Gold-Silver deposits with alkaline igneous rocks
Cripple Creek, Porgera, Ladolam, Emperor
Silver-Gold-base metal deposits
Fresnillo, Guanajuato, Comstock, Creede
Tin-Silver-base metal deposits
Cerro Rico, Dzhalin, Akenobe
Gold-Silver-copper with vuggy quartz
Nansatsu, Chinkuashik, Lepanto, Goldfield, Summitville
HS Gold-Silver-copper with pyrophyllite sericite
Peak Hill, Pueblo Viejo
Bedded Gold-copper-barite submarine
Levakin
Key economics factors for ore deposits
– Size (tonnage) – Mineralogy
– Grade – Mineral chemistry
– Shape – Grain size
– Geomechanical properties – Texture
