Advanced Structural Systems
Prof. Karunakar
Structure and Forms
Basic Structural Forms
• The purpose of a building is to provide an envelope to
provide protection to the inhabitants and their contents. In
order to do this it needs to retain its structural integrity
under all loads or forces that it is likely to be subjected to.
• The form that the structure will take depends on a number
of factors such as purpose and location as traditionally
buildings have been constructed using locally sourced
materials i.e. houses in Scandinavia were made of wood
while those in Egypt would be constructed of mud bricks.
• The way it is constructed is therefore dependant on type of
materials and the structural concept that is used.
Solid Form
where the walls act both to enclose and
support. This means that the walls will have to
be of sufficient thickness in order to accept the
loads applied and transfer them to the
foundations. The type of houses that we are
probably most familiar with falls into this
category.
Skeletal Form
Consists of a framework which supports all loads
and resists any imposed loads and transmits
these to the foundations. This type of structure
consists of a system of beams and columns
which create a framework
The frame itself does not provide the enclosing
of the building so an additional system is
needed, thus panels can be placed over this
framework or between the external structural
members in order to enclose it.
Surface Form
These are either made of thin structure of solid
material which are curved to provide stiffness,
such as reinforced concrete shell where it acts as
both the supporting and enclosing element; or a
thin flexible membrane structure stretched
across supporting members.
Types of Structure
Definition:
A combination of members connected together
in such a way to serve a useful purpose is called
structure
Rigid Frame
Its is that type of structure in which the members
are joined together by rigid joints e.g. welded
joints.
Truss (Pin connected joints)
A type of structure formed by members in
triangular form, the resulting figure is called a
truss. In truss joints are pin connected and loads
are applied at joints. No shear force & bending
moment are produced. Only axial compression
and axial tension is to be determined while
analyzing a truss
Structural Members
Definition:
Those members that are interconnected in such
a way so as to constitute a structure are called
structural members.
Beam
Beam is a flexure member of the structure. It is
subjected to transverse loading such as vertical
loads, and gravity loads. These loads create
shear and bending within the beam.
Columns
A long vertical member mostly subjected to
compressive loads is called column
Strut
A compressive member of a structure is called strut.
Beam-Column
A structural member subjected to compression as
well as flexure is called beam column
Grid
A network of beam intersecting each other at right
angles and subjected to vertical loads is called grid.
Cables and Arches
Cables are usually suspended at their ends and are allowed
to sag. The forces are then pure tension and are directed
along the axis of the cable. Arches are similar to cables
except that they are inverted. They carry compressive loads
that are directed along the axis of the arch.
Plates and Slabs
Plates are three dimensional flat structural components
usually made of metal that are often found in floors and
roofs of structures. Slabs are similar to plates except that
they are usually made of concrete.
Construction Form
Introduction
Form refers to the shape or configuration of a building. Form and
its opposite, space, constitute primary elements of architecture.
The reciprocal relationship is essential, given the intention of
architecture to provide internal sheltered space for human
occupation. Both form and space are given shape and scale in the
design process. In addition, the placement of a building form in
relation to its immediate site and neighboring buildings is another
crucial aspect of this form/space relationship. Just as internal
space is created by voids in building form, exterior space can be
defined by the Construction form as well.
A number of aspects must be considered in order to analyze
or design an Construction form, including shape, mass / size,
scale, proportion, rhythm, articulation, texture, color, and light
Shape refers to the configuration of surfaces and edges of a
two- or three-dimensional object.
Primary shapes, the circle, triangle, and square, are used to
generate volumes known as platonic solids. A circle generates
the sphere and cylinder, the triangle produces the cone and
pyramid, and the square forms the cube. Combinations of
these platonic solids establish the basis for most
Constructional shapes and forms.
Volumetric shapes contain both solids and voids,
or exteriors and interiors. Some shapes are
formed through an additive process, while other
shapes are conceptually subtracted from other
solids.
Shape preferences may be culturally based or
rooted in personal memory, or convention. For
example, a dome or steeple may connote
religious architecture in some cultures
Relation between of Architecture and
Structure
Architectural form is dictated by architectural purposes, such as the
practicalities of spatial organization and control of the flow of
occupants. Architectural form is also concerned with the sense of space
a structure creates, its symbolism and its relationship to its setting.
Structural form is dictated by structural needs, primarily to support
gravity and lateral loads, and usually also the need to provide a building
envelope for shelter against the elements. Carefully designed structural
form can exhibit the stark beauty of controlled strength, even to the
point of excitement. Structure can define the visual impact of a
building, as in the case of large exposed columns which give the
appearance of strength and solidity, or the case of tall slender columns
which can create an elegant loggia effect.
Catenary
The word catenary is derived from the Latin word for
"chain.“
Jungius disproved Galileo's claim that the curve of a
chain hanging under gravity would be a parabola. The
curve is also called the alysoid and chainette.
The curve of a hanging flexible wire or chain assumes
when supported at its ends and acted upon by a uniform
gravitational force.
Spider Web
Catenary Suspension Bridge
Plane Suspension Bridge Stressed Ribbon Bridge
MIT
Dr. John Ochsendorf
Interesting Side-Note
This is a 500 year old Inca
bridge
Made completely of grass
strung Into cord. When the
Spanish came
To South and Central
America they
Realized that there was no
equivalent
To this type of structure in
One of Ochsendorf’s groups endeavors. Europe.
Gateway Arch
Arch
An arch is a pure compression form. It can span a large
area by resolving forces into compressive stresses and, in
turn eliminating tensile stresses. This is sometimes
referred to as arch action. As the forces in the arch are
carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the
base, called thrust. As the rise, or height of the arch
decreases, the outward thrust increases. In order to
maintain arch action and prevent the arch from
collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with
internal ties, or external bracing, such as abutments
Gateway Arch
The stainless steel-plated arch is in the shape
of an inverted, weighted catenary curve. It
spans 630 feet at ground level from outer
edge to outer edge and is 630 feet high,
making it the tallest man-made monument in
the US.
Designed by Eero Saarinen
King’s College Chapel
in Cambridge
• an image of the magnificent fan-vaulting on the ceiling
of King's College Chapel (completed in 1515), which
spans 42 feet and hovers 84 feet above the pavement,
yet its constituent blocks are only four inches thick.
• It's been standing for 500 years."
King's College Chapel is a splendid example of late Gothic (Perpendicular)
architecture. It was started in 1446 by Henry VI (1421-71) and took over a
century to build. It has the largest fan vault in the world and some of the
finest medieval stained glass.
Arch Configurations
Fixed Arch
Two Hinged Arch
Three Hinged Arch
Categories of Arches
Circular
Pointed
Parabolic
All other types will come under these three
categories only
Types of Arches
Simply Supported Beam
Simply Supported Beam
A beam is a structural element that is capable of
withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as a
result of the external loads, own weight, span and external
reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil
engineering structural elements, but smaller structures such
as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other
mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures
that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion
Internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and
shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them.
Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the
beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius
arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression,
while the same original beam length at the bottom of
the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger
radius arc, and so is under tension. The same original
length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway
between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial
arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression
nor tension, and defines the neutral axis. Above the
supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress.
There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the
concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces
taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as pre-
stressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce
a compression more than the expected tension under
loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are
stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when
the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released
and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial
loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal
moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying
capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on
highway bridges.
Characteristics of a Structure
• Strength
• Stability
• Economic Value
Structural System
• Made up of many smaller structural sub-
systems that work together to provide a
strong, stable, and cost-effective structure.
• Examples of these smaller structural sub-
systems include:
o Roof o Framing
o Walls o Foundations
o Floors
Structural Sub-System
• Made up of many structural elements that
work together to provide a strong, stable, and
cost-effective system.
• Basic structural elements include:
o Beam o Arch
o Column o Vault
o Truss o Dome
Structure of a Building
The primary function of a building structure is to
support and transmit the loads and forces to the
ground.
Characteristics of a Structure
• Stability – needed to maintain shape. The
structure is dependent upon balanced forces
and equilibrium
• Strength - ability of the structure to
withstand the applied forces, usually includes
a “factor of safety”
• Economic Value – includes choices made
about the design, materials, and function of
the structure
Beam Design
• Beams are used in floors and roofs.
• Maybe called floor joists, stringers, floor
beams or girders.
• Loads on beams are either concentrated or
uniform loads
• Beams are designed for Shear, Moment
(bending), and Deflection
Beams
• Beams are sized appropriately to safely
support the loads a structure will carry.
• Beams are primarily subjected to bending and
shear.
• Deflection and deformation can be calculated.
• Beams are sized to provide the maximum
result with the minimum materials. A factor
of safety is included in the design.
Beam Types
• Simple
• Continuous
• Cantilever
Moment
(fixed at one end)
Beam Types
• Fixed
Moments at each end
• Propped- Fixed at one end supported at other
• Overhang
Forces and Supports
• Supports are translated into forces and moments in a free
body diagrams. The following are three common supports
and the forces and moments used to replace them.
Roller:
Fy
Fx
Pin Connection:
Fy
Fixed Support: Mo
Fx
Fy
Columns
• Columns carry primary Axial Loads and
therefore are designed for compression.
• Additional loads from snow, wind or other
horizontal forces can cause bending in the
columns.
• Columns then need to be designed for Axial
Load and Bending.
F (External)
Column Forces
Horizontal loads caused by
wind, snow, seismic or
internal building load WCOL (External)
R1 (Internal)
R2 (Internal)
WFTG (External)
RSoil (External)
Slabs
Used for covering spaces in the form of roof or
floor
Slab may be supported on walls or beams or columns .
Slab supported directly by columns are called flat slab
One Way Slab
Two Way Slab
Slabs
Slabs could be simply supported, continuous or
cantilever
In two way slab the corners may be held down
by restraints or may be allowed to lift up
Additional torsion reinforcement is required at
corners when it is restrained against uplifting
Shell Structures
• Shells can be defined as curved structures
capable of transmitting loads in more than
two directions to supports.
• Loads applied to shell surfaces are carried
to the ground by the development of
compressive, tensile, and shear stresses
acting in the in-plane direction of the
surface.
Types of Shells
Large span Domes
• Constructions of spherical domes by using
inflated membranes as forms have proven to
be a viable solution to many problems.
• The largest shells constructed are now less
than 300 feet in diameter.
• For very large spans, a grid constructed with
panes is necessary so that the dome will be
stiff enough and still weigh less than a
uniform depth.
Vaults
A vault may be defined as a single barrel shell,
supported on its side by walls or columns.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SPACE FRAMES CAN SPAN LONG DISTANCES
SPACE FRAMES
• A space frame is a truss-like, lightweight rigid
structure constructed from interlocking struts
in a geometric pattern.
SPACE FRAMES
Space frames usually utilize a multidirectional
span, and are often used to accomplish long
spans with few supports.
SPACE FRAMES
They derive their strength from the inherent
rigidity of the triangular frame; flexing loads
(bending moments) are transmitted as tension
and compression loads along the length of each
strut.
Simplified space frame roof with the half-
octahedron highlighted in blue
Space frames are an increasingly common
architectural technique especially for large roof
spans in modernist commercial and industrial
buildings
Some space frame applications include:
• Hotel/Hospital/commercial building
entrances
• Commercial building lobbies/atriums
• Parking canopies
• Toll Plaza
Advantages of space frame systems over
conventional systems:
• Random column placement
• Column-free spaces
• Minimal perimeter support
• Controlled load distribution
• Design freedom
• Supports all types of roofing
Trusses
Load Load not Load
Transferred Transferred Transferred
Truss Types
• Trusses are categorised into 3 groups
depending on the shape of the top chord
1. Triangular Roof Trusses
2. Crescent roof Trusses
3. Other Types
Triangular Roof Trusses
• Simple Triangular geometric shape
• Web Bracing
• Straight Top Chord
Triangular Roof Trusses
Crescent Roof Trusses
•Top Chord is manufactured with a curved top chord
• The Harbour bridge is a good example
Other Types of Trusses
• Top Chords may be parallel – such as floor joist
trusses
• Or they may be nearly parallel – such as
bridges
Other Types of Trusses
Terminolgy
Roof Truss Members
Roof Truss Panel Points
Roof Truss Stress Types
Parallel Chord Trusses
Top Chord & Bottom Chord are parallel
Used as Rafters
Advantages
•Lighter
•Larger Spans
•Allow for easy access for
services
Disadvantages
•Cannot be site modified
Parallel Chord Trusses
Top Chord & Bottom Chord are parallel
Used as Rafters
Advantages
•Lighter
•Larger Spans
•Allow for easy access for
services
Disadvantages
•Cannot be site modified
•Generally Deeper
Parallel Chord Trusses
Camber
Trusses are manufactured with camber in the
bottom chord
1. To allow for calculated deflection while dead
loads such as Roof Covering & Ceiling Linings
2. Bottom chord should not be supported
between supports, unless specifically designed
GEODESIC DOMES
• A geodesic dome is a sphere-like structure
composed of a complex network of triangles.
GEODESIC DOMES
• Geodesic domes are usually
hemispheres (parts of spheres, like
half a ball) made up of triangles. The
triangles have 3 parts:
– the face - the part in the middle
– the edge - the line between corners
– the vertex - where the edges meet
The triangles create a self-bracing
framework that gives structural strength
while using a minimum of material.
DOMES
A dome’s design is dependent upon many
factors, including:
• Needed area and span, or distance between
supports;
• Budget and building schedule;
• Architect’s and /or client’s aesthetic
preferences;
• Forces, such as compression and tension,
acting on the structure; and
• Building materials.
EXAMPLES OF GEODESIC DOMES:
• Spaceship Earth, the AT&T Pavilion at Epcot in
Disney World, Florida, is an adaptation of
Buckminster Fuller's geodesic dome
• Tacoma Dome in Washington State
• Milwaukee's Mitchell Park Conservatory
• Biosphere desert project in Arizona
• Des Moines Arboretum, a self contained
ecosphere
Different Arches and Domes
Different Arches and Domes
Different Arches and Domes
Portal Frames
A portal frame consists of vertical member called
Columns and top member which may be horizontal,
curved or pitched.
Rigidly connected
They are used in the construction of large sheds, bridges
and viaducts.
The base of portal frame may be hinged or fixed.
Large unobstructed floor space
Portal frames are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are
usually made from steel, but can also be made from concrete or
timber. The portal structure is designed in such a way that it has no
intermediate columns, as a result large open areas can easily be
created within the structure.
Portal Frames are generally used for single storey construction
which require a large unobstructed floor space ie.
Factories
Shopping Centres
Warehouses
Internal view of a portal framed
Advantages and disadvantages of Steel Portal
Frames
Advantages
• Speed and ease of erection
• Building can be quickly closed in and made water tight.
• Framework prefabricated in a workshop and not affected by weather.
• Site works such as drainage, roads etc. can be carried out until framework is ready
for erection.
• No weather hold up during erecting the framework.
• Connected together in factories by welding and site connections should be
bolted.
Disadvantages
• Although steel is incombustible it has a poor resistance to fire as it bends easily
when hot.
• Subject to corrosion
Roofing for Portal Frames
• A high percentage of roofs are covered with composite
profile metal sheets with a coloured external skin.
• These composite sheets have approximately 50mm of
insulation sandwiched between two thin metal sheets
or aluminium sheets. Coated steel is lowest in cost but
limited in life due to the durability of the finish.
Aluminium develops its own protective film. Profile
sheets are quick to erect, dismantle and repair.
• Galvanised steel purlins span between the steel rafters.
Typical Portal Frame
Portal Frame for Rectangular bldg
Portal Frame for Bridge
Portal Frame for Viaduct
Design of Portal Frames
The portal frames have high stability against lateral forces
A portal frame is a statically indeterminate structure.
In the case of buildings, the portal frames are generally
spaced at intervals of 3 to 4m
Reinforced concrete slab cast monolithically between the
frames
Design of Portal Frames..
Frames used for ware house sheds and workshop structures are
provided with sloping of purlins and asbestos sheet roofing
between the portal frames.
The base of the columns of the portal frames are either fixed or
hinged.
Analysis of frames can be done by any standard methods
Columns are designed for axial force and bending moment,
whereas beam is designed for bending moment and shear force
Relation between Structure and Architecture
• Structural Engineering and Architecture are two different sciences that
are inter-related. Structural Designing deals with the study of design of
steel/Concrete in a structure i.e., the internal skeleton of the structure
that helps to keep the structure durable, sound and stiff.
• Whereas Architectural Design deals with design of spaces meant for a
particular function. It helps to create ambient environment that is
pleasing to eye. The Architect designs the building keeping all the
functional aspects in mind that are to be incorporated into the design.
• The structures and structural members are designed to
meet the functional and structural aspects. Both the
aspects are inter-related. The functional aspect takes
into consideration the purpose for which the building or
the structure is designed. The functional aspect includes
the determination of the amount and arrangement of
space necessary for the structure.
• A good design is one which is able to perform
satisfactorily the services for which it is designed. The
functional aspect includes the determination of location
and arrangement of operating utilities, special
equipment, machinery or other features, incident to the
proper functioning of the structures.
Co-relation of Architectural Design and
Structural Design
• At first, the preliminary layout of the structure
is made which is a part of Architectural Design.
• Then the layout of the structure is then
handed over to the structural engineer. This
layout is useful in determining the type of the
structure to be used, the general size, shape
and arrangement of the various parts of the
structure.
• The approximate dimensions of the structures are
established. These dimensions are used for the
structural design.
• In the structural aspect, it is ensured that the building
or the structure is structurally safe, strong, durable and
economical. Many structures are built to shelter
humans and to protect them from the forces of nature.
• Occupants of the buildings should feel safe with regard
to their lives and properties. The safety of many
individuals at one time depends on the structural
safety of the structure. The structures are designed
between two limits namely the structural safety and
economy.
• The structures and structural members are designed to
satisfy three basic principles of design. The structures
should be strong, stable and stiff.
• All sections of the structures should have strength at least
equal to the structural effects of design loads and forces
that occur during the construction and use. All the loads
should be taken into consideration which a building or a
structure would be required to bear.
• A structure may be required to withstand any loads out of
the various loads or combination of various loads. These
loads include overhead and other cranes, equipment, etc.,
in industrial buildings, occupancy etc. in buildings; vehicles
on bridges; water in hydraulic structure; loose materials for
bins and bunkers and so on.
• For the purpose of determining the
maximum stresses in any structure or
member of a structure, the various loads
have to be taken into account such as:
• Dead load of the structure
• Live Load of the structure
• Wind Load
• Snow Load
• Seismic Load
• Temperature effects
• Once the required calculations for the
structure are done, certain checks are
performed to make sure that the structure
remains durable, sound and stiff.
• Architectural Design and Structural Design are
meaningless without each other. It is a
combination of creativity and technicality.
Technology is advancing and so are the
techniques of Architectural and Structural
Design. More variety of construction is
possible without much hassle.
Geometric Forms
Form , Function, and Materialization
About form, function, and materialization.
Form: Seeking geometrical order and
expression of formal qualities
Function: Seeking adequate performance and
expression of spaces
Materialization: Seeking adequate performance
and expression of material elements
Design is a balancing act: wishing versus needing
FORM: SEEKING GEOMETRICAL ORDER AND EXPRESSION OF
FORMAL QUALITIES
FORM: SEEKING GEOMETRICAL ORDER AND EXPRESSION OF
FORMAL QUALITIES
FUNCTION: SEEKING ADEQUATE PERFORMANCE AND
EXPRESSION OF SPACES
FUNCTION: SEEKING ADEQUATE PERFORMANCE AND
EXPRESSION OF SPACES
MATERIALIZATION: SEEKING ADEQUATE
PERFORMANCE AND EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL
ELEMENTS
The materialization of the Enclosure is the creation of the
physical shell around the building spaces.
This materialization is concerned with the relationships
between:
MATERIALIZATION: SEEKING ADEQUATE PERFORMANCE
AND EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL ELEMENTS
MATERIALIZATION: SEEKING ADEQUATE PERFORMANCE
AND EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL ELEMENTS
MATERIALIZATION: SEEKING ADEQUATE PERFORMANCE
AND EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL ELEMENTS
DESIGN IS THE BALANCING ACT: WISHING
VERSUS NEEDING
DESIGN IS THE BALANCING ACT: WISHING
VERSUS NEEDING
DESIGN IS THE BALANCING ACT: WISHING
VERSUS NEEDING
Designing
INFERRING A PRIME DESIGN IDEA: USING
METAPHORS WITH A HUMANISTIC APPROACH
THEORY OF CONTRAST FOR AIDING DESIGN
MORE ABOUT THE THEORY OF CONTRAST FOR AIDING DESIGN
MORE ABOUT THE THEORY OF CONTRAST FOR AIDING DESIGN
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: INSIDE AND OUTSIDE
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: MORE ABOUT INSIDE AND
OUTSIDE
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: EXPOSED AND TEMPERED
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: MORE ... EXPOSED AND
TEMPERED
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: UP AND DOWN
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: MORE ABOUT UP AND
DOWN
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: MORE ABOUT UP AND
DOWN
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: SOMETHING AND NOTHING
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: MORE … SOMETHING AND
NOTHING
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: MORE … SOMETHING AND
NOTHING
SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONTRAST: ORDER AND MYSTERY
