Position, Displacement, and Proximity sensors
By position we mean the determination of the object’s
coordinates (linear or angular) with respect to a selected
reference.
Displacement involves movement from one position to
another (the original position of the object acts as the
reference).
Proximity involve detecting the presence of nearby objects
without any physical contact.
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Types of sensors (some of them) are:
• Potentiometric Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
• Ultrasonic Sensors
• Optical/Optoelectronic Sensors
Potentiometric Sensors
An electrically conductive
wiper slides against a fixed
resistive element.
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A known voltage is applied to the resistor ends. The contact is
attached to the moving object of interest. The output voltage at
the contact is proportional to the displacement.
Capacitive Sensors
Use the electrical property of "capacitance" to make
measurements.
Capacitance is a property that exists between any two
conductive surfaces within some reasonable proximity. 3
Changes in the distance or area between the surfaces changes the
capacitance. It is this change of capacitance that capacitive sensors use to
indicate changes in position of a target.
The sensor is one of the conductive objects and the target object is another.
Mathematically;
Where;
C → Capacitance
Ԑ → Dielectric constant between plates
A → Overlap area
D → Distance btn plates 5
Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
Are based on the use of magnetic fields and the related
currents and voltages induced. E.g.,
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Has three solenoid coils placed end-to-end around a tube.
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LVDT cont…
The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the
secondary's.
A cylindrical ferromagnetic core is attached to the object
whose position is to be measured and slides along the axis of
the tube.
An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a
voltage to be induced in each secondary proportional to its
mutual inductance with the primary.
As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing
the voltages induced in the secondary's to change.
The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output
voltage is the difference (hence "differential") between the two
secondary voltages.
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LVDT cont…
When the core is at the centre position, the out put voltage is
zero. At any position left or right from the centre, the voltage
in one coil increases as the other decreases, causing the output
voltage to increase from zero to a maximum
The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the
distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel),
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Linear position inductive sensors
Based on the change of the inductance of a coil with a mobile
core attached to the target.
Transverse inductive sensors
Based on the change of the inductance of a coil in the presence
of a ferromagnetic material
(target), that crosses the
magnetic field lines.
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Ultrasonic Sensors
Use of ultrasonic energy sent towards a target and reflected
back. Range is obtained measuring the time difference
between the sent pulse and the received signal.
Such ultrasonic waves are mechanical acoustic waves
covering the frequency range beyond the capabilities of
human audition (usually 40kHz- 80kHz) .
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Optical/Optoelectronic Sensors
These sensors require at least three essential components:
A light source, photodetector and light guidance devices.
The ultrasonic systems, range is obtained by measuring the
time difference between the sent pulse and the received
signal. Pulsed and amplitude modulation systems are used.
The sensors are simple due to absence of the loading effect and can operate in
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a long distances.
Pressure Measurement Sensors
A pressure sensor is always used to convert pressure into a
mechanical or electrical signal.
This signal is then used for process indication or to generate
a scaled transmitted signal that a controller can use to control a
process.
Gauge and Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the pressure measured above total
vacuum or zero absolute, where zero absolute represents a
total lack of pressure.
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Gauge pressure is the pressure measured above atmospheric or barometric pressure.
It represents the positive difference between measured pressure and existing atmospheric pressure.
• Pa = Pg + Patm (Pg > Patm)
• Pa = Pg - Patm (Pg < Patm)
Where;
Pa → absolute pressure
Pg → gauge pressure
Patm is atmospheric pressure
1Patm = 1.013ba
Relationship between absolute and gauge pressure
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Pressure sensors commonly can be divided into four groups:
Manometer type
Deflection type
Strain gauge type
Piezoelectric type
1. Manometer type
A manometer (or liquid gauge) uses the relationship between
pressure and head to give readings.
Consists of one or two transparent tubes and two liquid
surfaces.
Pressure in one side tube causes an elevation of the liquid
surface in the other tube calibrated to give reading directly in
pressure units.
Manometers can be U-tube, inclined or well type 14
Typical Manometric liquids are;
Aniline
Carbon tetrabloride
Bromoform
Mercury
Transformer oil e.t.c
Pressure at any point within a liquid is equivalent to its head,
thus;
P = ρgh
Where;
ρ → Density of the fluid
h → Pressure head
Now days manometers are mainly used in the laboratory or to
calibrate pressure instruments in the process industries.
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2. Deflection type
This sensor uses an elastic material to convert pressure to
displacement e.g. stainless steel, brass.
The displacement will be proportionate to the value of
pressure exerted.
Suitable to be used in an automatic control system.
The main element used is in the shape of Bourdon tube,
bellow or diaphragm.
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Deflection cont…
The secondary element is one that will convert the
displacement to electrical signals where the displacement
can be detected through resistivity change, inductance or
capacitance.
The main typical element used in a deflection type pressure sensor 17
Examples :
• Bellow-resistance pressure sensor
Bellows Calibrated spring Sliding contact
Resistance Output Signal
The pressure is proportionate to the resistivity.
The resistance change is detected by displacement of sliding
contact in the resistance element. 18
• Bellow inductance pressure sensor
Inductance, a fundamental property of electromagnetic
circuits, is the ability of a conductor to produce induced
voltage when the current in the circuit varies.
Example : Bellow-inductance pressure sensor
Bellows Core Output Signal
The pressure is proportionate to the inductance change which
is detected from the displacement of the core in the wire
coil. 19
• Diaphragm capacitance pressure sensor
Another example of an electronic unit connected to a pressure
diaphragm is the variable capacitor pressure-sensing cell.
It consists of two plates or conductors that are separated by an
insulating material called a dielectric.
• E.g. Diaphragm-capacitance pressure sensor
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The pressure is proportionate to the capacitance change at the
output through dielectric change.
Pressure from the sensor element causes the diaphragm to
move towards the plate and produces dielectric change.
Since capacitance is directly
proportional to the distance between
the plates, the pressure that is
applied to the cell can be directly
related to the change in capacitance.
This capacitance change is then
converted into an electronic signal
in the transmitter, which is
calibrated in pressure units.
Capacitance type 21
• Diaphragm potentiometric pressure Sensor
It is an oldest type of electric pressure transducers. It converts
pressure into a variable resistance.
DC is applied to the top of the potentiometer (pot), and the
voltage that is dropped from the wiper arm to the bottom of
the pot is sent to an electronic unit
Potentiometric pressure sensor 22
3. Piezoelectric type
A certain crystals (piezoelectric) produce an electrical signal
when they are mechanically deformed.
The effect exist in natural crystals as quartz, but currently man-
made ceramics and polymers are used.
Pressure exerted on the crystal surface is proportionate to the
voltage produced by the crystal.
Normally, the crystal is mechanically attached to a metal
diaphragm.
This sensor does not require any voltage supply. It is suitable
for fast changing pressure measurement. 23
Piezoelectric cont…
Mechanical Stress
Piezoelectric
Material
Output
Voltage
Plate Mechanical Stress
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The core movement will produce AC signal output which will
give the value and direction of inductance.
LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) demodulator is
used to convert the AC output to DC.
4. Strain gauge type
A strain gauge is a device that changes resistance when
stretched.
Multiple runs of very fine wire are mounted to a stationary
frame on one end and a movable armature on the other.
The movable armature is generally connected to a pressure-
sensing bellows or to a diaphragm. 25
Unbounded strain gauge
Pressure is measured through force from diaphragm to the
armature that cause wire to be stretched, thus resistance
change will be produced.
Wheatstone Bridge circuit is used to detect the change in
pressure (resistance) and an amplifier is used to amplify the
small output signals. 26
Strain gauge pressure sensor
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