Chapter 9

Linear Momentum and Collisions

Linear Momentum
 The linear momentum of a particle, or an
object that can be modeled as a particle, of

mass m moving with a velocity v is defined to
be the product of the mass and velocity:
 ρ = mv 
p  mv

 The terms momentum and linear momentum will be

used interchangeably in the text
Linear Momentum, cont
 Linear momentum is a vector quantity
 Its direction is the same as the direction of the
velocity
 The dimensions of momentum are ML/T
 The SI units of momentum are kg · m / s
 Momentum can be expressed in component
form:
 px = m v x py = m v y pz = m v z
Newton and Momentum
 Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate
the momentum of a particle to the resultant
force acting on it
  
  dv d mv  dp
SF = ma = m = =
dt dt dt
with constant mass
Newton’s Second Law
 The time rate of change of the linear
momentum of a particle is equal to the net
force acting on the particle
 This is the form in which Newton presented the
Second Law
 It is a more general form than the one we used
previously
 This form also allows for mass changes
 Applications to systems of particles are
particularly powerful
Conservation of Linear
Momentum
 Whenever two or more particles in an
isolated system interact, the total momentum
of the system remains constant
 The momentum of the system is conserved, not
necessarily the momentum of an individual
particle
 This also tells us that the total momentum of an
isolated system equals its initial momentum
Conservation of Momentum, 2
 Conservation of momentum can be expressed
mathematically in various ways
  
 p total = p1 + p2 = constant
   
 p1i + p2i = p1f + p2f
 In component form, the total momenta in each
direction are independently conserved
 pix = pfx piy = pfy piz = pfz
 Conservation of momentum can be applied to
systems with any number of particles
 This law is the mathematical representation of the
momentum version of the isolated system model
Conservation of Momentum,
Archer Example
 A 60-kg archer stands at rest on a frictionless
ice and fires a 0.030-kg arrow horizontally at
85m/s. With what velocity doethe archer
move on ice after firing the arrow?
Conservation of Momentum,
Archer Example
 The archer is standing
on a frictionless surface
(ice)
 Approaches:
 Newton’s Second Law –
no, no information about
F or a
 Energy approach – no,
no information about
work or energy
 Momentum – yes
Archer Example, 2
 Conceptualize
 The arrow is fired one way and the archer recoils in the
opposite direction
 Categorize
 Momentum
 Let the system be the archer with bow (particle 1) and the
arrow (particle 2)
 There are no external forces in the x-direction, so it is
isolated in terms of momentum in the x-direction
 Analyze
 Total momentum before releasing the arrow is 0
Archer Example, 3
 Analyze, cont.
 The total momentum after releasing the arrow is
 
 1f   2f  0
 Finalize
 The final velocity of the archer is negative
 Indicates he moves in a direction opposite the arrow
 Archer has much higher mass than arrow, so velocity
is much lower
Impulse and Momentum
 From Newton’s Second Law,
  
  dv d mv  dp
SF = ma = m = =
dt dt dt
 Solving for 
gives
dp
 Integrating to find the change in momentum over
some time interval
   tf  
p  p f  pi   Fdt  I
ti

 The integral is called the impulse, , ofthe force

acting on an object over t I
Impulse-Momentum Theorem
 This equation expresses the impulse-
momentum theorem: The impulse of the
force acting on a particle equals the change
in the momentum
 of the particle

 p  I
 This is equivalent to Newton’s Second Law
More About Impulse
 Impulse is a vector quantity
 The magnitude of the
impulse is equal to the area
under the force-time curve
 The force may vary with
time
 Dimensions of impulse are
ML/T
 Impulse is not a property of
the particle, but a measure
of the change in momentum
of the particle
Impulse, Final
 The impulse can also
be found by using the
time averaged force


 This would give the

same impulse as the
time-varying force does
Impulse Approximation
 In many cases, one force acting on a particle acts
for a short time, but is much greater than any other
force present
 When using the Impulse Approximation, we will
assume this is true
 Especially useful in analyzing collisions
 The force will be called the impulsive force
 The particle is assumed to move very little during
the
 collision

 p i and pf represent the momenta immediately before
and after the collision
Impulse-Momentum: Crash
Test Example
 In a particular crash test, a car of mass
1500kg collides with the wall. The initial and
final velocities of the car are vi = -15.0i m/s
and vf = 2.60i m/s, respectively. If the
collision lasts 0.15 s, find the impulse caused
by the collision and the average net force
exerted on the car.
Impulse-Momentum: Crash
Test Example
 Categorize
 Assume force exerted by
wall is large compared
with other forces
 Gravitational and normal
forces are perpendicular
and so do not effect the
horizontal momentum
 Can apply impulse
approximation
Crash Test Example, 2
 Analyze
 The momenta before and after the collision between the
car and the wall can be determined
 Find
 Initial momentum
 Final momentum
 Impulse
 Average force

 Finalize
 Check signs on velocities to be sure they are reasonable
Collisions – Characteristics
 We use the term collision to represent an event
during which two particles come close to each other
and interact by means of forces
 May involve physical contact, but must be generalized to
include cases with interaction without physical contact
 The time interval during which the velocity changes
from its initial to final values is assumed to be short
 The interaction forces are assumed to be much
greater than any external forces present
 This means the impulse approximation can be used
Collisions – Example 1
 Collisions may be the
result of direct contact
 The impulsive forces
may vary in time in
complicated ways
 This force is internal to
the system
 Observe the variations in
the active figure
 Momentum is
conserved
Collisions – Example 2
 The collision need not
include physical contact
between the objects
 There are still forces
between the particles
 This type of collision can
be analyzed in the same
way as those that include
physical contact
Types of Collisions
 In an elastic collision, momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved
 Perfectly elastic collisions occur on a microscopic level
 In macroscopic collisions, only approximately elastic
collisions actually occur
 Generally some energy is lost to deformation, sound, etc.

 In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not

conserved, although momentum is still conserved
 If the objects stick together after the collision, it is a
perfectly inelastic collision
Collisions, cont
 In an inelastic collision, some kinetic energy
is lost, but the objects do not stick together
 Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are
limiting cases, most actual collisions fall in
between these two types
 Momentum is conserved in all collisions
Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
 Since the objects stick
together, they share the
same velocity after the
collision
  
 m1v1i + m2 v 2i = m1 + m2 vf
Elastic Collisions
 Both momentum and
kinetic energy are
conserved
 
m11i  m2 2i 
 
m11f  m2 2f
1 1
m11i  m2 22i 
2

2 2
1 1
m11f  m2 22f
2

2 2
Elastic Collisions, cont
 Typically, there are two unknowns to solve for and so you
need two equations
 The kinetic energy equation can be difficult to use
 With some algebraic manipulation, a different equation can be
used
v1i – v2i = v1f + v2f
 This equation, along with conservation of momentum, can be
used to solve for the two unknowns
 It can only be used with a one-dimensional, elastic collision
between two objects
Elastic Collisions, final
 Example of some special cases
 m1 = m2 – the particles exchange velocities
 When a very heavy particle collides head-on with a very
light one initially at rest, the heavy particle continues in
motion unaltered and the light particle rebounds with a
speed of about twice the initial speed of the heavy particle
 When a very light particle collides head-on with a very
heavy particle initially at rest, the light particle has its
velocity reversed and the heavy particle remains
approximately at rest
Problem-Solving Strategy:
One-Dimensional Collisions
 Conceptualize
 Image the collision occurring in your mind
 Draw simple diagrams of the particles before and
after the collision
 Include appropriate velocity vectors
 Categorize
 Is the system of particles isolated?
 Is the collision elastic, inelastic or perfectly
inelastic?
Problem-Solving Strategy:
One-Dimensional Collisions
 Analyze
 Set up the mathematical representation of the
problem
 Solve for the unknown(s)
 Finalize
 Check to see if the answers are consistent with
the mental and pictorial representations
 Check to be sure your results are realistic
Example: Stress Reliever
 Conceptualize
 Imagine one ball coming in
from the left and two balls
exiting from the right
 Is this possible?
 Categorize
 Due to shortness of time,
the impulse approximation
can be used
 Isolated system
 Elastic collisions
Example: Stress Reliever, cont
 Analyze
 Check to see if momentum is conserved
 It is
 Check to see if kinetic energy is conserved
 It is not
 Therefore, the collision couldn’t be elastic
 Finalize
 Having two balls exit was not possible if only one
ball is released
Example: Stress Reliever, final
 What collision is
possible
 Need to conserve both
momentum and kinetic
energy
 Only way to do so is with
equal numbers of balls
released and exiting
Collision Example – Ballistic
Pendulum
 Conceptualize
 Observe diagram
 Categorize
 Isolated system of projectile and
block
 Perfectly inelastic collision – the
bullet is embedded in the block of
wood
 Momentum equation will have
two unknowns
 Use conservation of energy from
the pendulum to find the velocity
just after the collision
 Then you can find the speed of
the bullet
Ballistic Pendulum, cont
 A multi-flash photograph of
a ballistic pendulum
 Analyze
 Solve resulting system of
equations
 Finalize
 Note different systems
involved
 Some energy was
transferred during the
perfectly inelastic collision
Two-Dimensional Collisions
 The momentum is conserved in all directions
 Use subscripts for
 Identifying the object
 Indicating initial or final values
 The velocity components
 If the collision is elastic, use conservation of kinetic
energy as a second equation
 Remember, the simpler equation can only be used for one-
dimensional situations
Two-Dimensional Collision,
example
 Particle 1 is moving at
velocity v1i and particle
2 is at rest
 In the x-direction, the
initial momentum is
m1v1i
 In the y-direction, the
initial momentum is 0
Two-Dimensional Collision,
example cont
 After the collision, the
momentum in the x-direction
is m1v1f cos  m2v2f cos 
 After the collision, the
momentum in the y-direction
is m1v1f sin  m2v2f sin 
 If the collision is elastic, apply
the kinetic energy equation
 This is an example of a
glancing collision
Problem-Solving Strategies –
Two-Dimensional Collisions
 Conceptualize
 Imagine the collision
 Predict approximate directions the particles will
move after the collision
 Set up a coordinate system and define your
velocities with respect to that system
 It is usually convenient to have the x-axis coincide
with one of the initial velocities
 In your sketch of the coordinate system, draw and
label all velocity vectors and include all the given
information
Problem-Solving Strategies –
Two-Dimensional Collisions, 2
 Categorize
 Is the system isolated?
 If so, categorize the collision as elastic, inelastic or
perfectly inelastic
 Analyze
 Write expressions for the x- and y-components of the
momentum of each object before and after the collision
 Remember to include the appropriate signs for the
components of the velocity vectors
 Write expressions for the total momentum of the system in
the x-direction before and after the collision and equate the
two. Repeat for the total momentum in the y-direction.
Problem-Solving Strategies –
Two-Dimensional Collisions, 3
 Analyze, cont
 If the collision is inelastic, kinetic energy of the system is
not conserved, and additional information is probably
needed
 If the collision is perfectly inelastic, the final velocities of the
two objects are equal. Solve the momentum equations for
the unknowns.
 If the collision is elastic, the kinetic energy of the system is
conserved
 Equate the total kinetic energy before the collision to the
total kinetic energy after the collision to obtain more
information on the relationship between the velocities
Problem-Solving Strategies –
Two-Dimensional Collisions, 4
 Finalize
 Check to see if your answers are consistent with
the mental and pictorial representations
 Check to be sure your results are realistic
Two-Dimensional Collision
Example
 Conceptualize
 See picture
 Choose East to be the
positive x-direction and
North to be the positive y-
direction
 Categorize
 Ignore friction
 Model the cars as particles
 The collision is perfectly
inelastic
 The cars stick together
Two-Dimensional Collision
Example, cont
 Analyze
 Before the collision, the car has the total momentum in the
x-direction and the van has the total momentum in the y-
direction
 After the collision, both have x- and y-components
 Write expressions for initial and final momenta in both
directions
 Evaluate any expressions with no unknowns
 Solve for unknowns
 Finalize
 Check to be sure the results are reasonable
The Center of Mass
 There is a special point in a system or object,
called the center of mass, that moves as if
all of the mass of the system is concentrated
at that point
 The system will move as if an external force
were applied to a single particle of mass M
located at the center of mass
 M is the total mass of the system
Center of Mass, Coordinates
 The coordinates of the
center of mass are
m x i i
xCM  i
M
 mi y i
y CM  i
M
 mi zi
zCM  i
M
 M is the total mass of the
system
 Use the active figure to
observe effect of different
masses and positions
Center of Mass, Extended
Object
 Similar analysis can be
done for an extended
object
 Consider the extended
object as a system
containing a large
number of particles
 Since particle separation
is very small, it can be
considered to have a
constant mass
distribution
Center of Mass, position
 The center of mass in three dimensions
 can
be located by its position vector, rCM
 For a system of particles,
 1 
CM 
M
 mi i
i


 r is the position of the ith particle, defined by
i
i  xi ö
  y i ö zi ö
 For an extended object,
 1 
CM    dm
M
Center of Mass, Symmetric
Object
 The center of mass of any symmetric object
lies on an axis of symmetry and on any plane
of symmetry
 If the object has uniform density
Finding Center of Mass,
Irregularly Shaped Object
 Suspend the object
from one point
 The suspend from
another point
 The intersection of the
resulting lines is the
center of mass
Center of Gravity
 Each small mass element of an extended
object is acted upon by the gravitational force
 The net effect of all these forces
 is equivalent
to the effect of a single force Mg acting
through a point called the center of gravity

 If g is constant over the mass distribution, the
center of gravity coincides with the center of mass
Center of Mass, Rod
 Conceptualize
 Find the center of mass
of a rod of mass M and
length L
 The location is on the x-
axis (or yCM = zCM = 0)
 Categorize
 Analysis problem
 Analyze
 Use equation for xcm
 xCM = L / 2
Motion of a System of Particles
 Assume the total mass, M, of the system
remains constant
 We can describe the motion of the system in
terms of the velocity and acceleration of the
center of mass of the system
 We can also describe the momentum of the
system and Newton’s Second Law for the
system
Velocity and Momentum of a
System of Particles
 The velocity of the center of mass of a system of
particles is

 d CM 1 
CM    mi i
dt M i
 The momentum can be expressed as
   
MCM   mi i    i   tot
i i

 The total linear momentum of the system equals the

total mass multiplied by the velocity of the center of
mass
Acceleration of the Center of
Mass
 The acceleration of the center of mass can
be found by differentiating the velocity with
respect to time

 dCM 1 
CM    mi i
dt M i
Forces In a System of Particles
 The acceleration can be related to a force
 
MCM   i
i
 If we sum over all the internal forces, they
cancel in pairs and the net force on the
system is caused only by the external forces
Newton’s Second Law for a
System of Particles
 Since the only forces are external, the net external
force equals the total mass of the system multiplied
by the acceleration of the center of mass:
  
 ext  MCM
 The center of mass of a system of particles of
combined mass M moves like an equivalent particle
of mass M would move under the influence of the
net external force on the system
Impulse and Momentum of a
System of Particles
 The impulse imparted to the system by
external
 forces
 is
 
    ext dt  M  dCM   tot
 The total linear momentum of a system of
particles is conserved if no net external force
is acting
 on the system 
M CM   tot  constant when  ext  0
Motion of the Center of Mass,
Example
 A projectile is fired into the air
and suddenly explodes
 With no explosion, the
projectile would follow the
dotted line
 After the explosion, the center
of mass of the fragments still
follows the dotted line, the
same parabolic path the
projectile would have
followed with no explosion
 Use the active figure to
observe a variety of
explosions
Deformable Systems
 To analyze the motion of a deformable
system, use Conservation of Energy and the
Impulse-Momentum Theorem
Esystem   T  K  U  0
   
   tot   ext dt  m
 If the force is constant, the integral can be easily
evaluated
Deformable System (Spring)
Example
 Conceptualize
 See figure
 Push on left block, it
moves to right, spring
compresses
 At any given time, the
blocks are generally
moving with different
velocities
 The blocks oscillate back
and forth with respect to
the center of mass
Spring Example, cont
 Categorize
 Non isolated system
 Work is being done on it by the applied force
 It is a deformable system
 The applied force is constant, so the acceleration
of the center of mass is constant
 Model as a particle under constant acceleration
 Analyze
 Apply impulse-momentum
 Solve for vcm
Spring Example, final
 Analyze, cont.
 Find energies
 Finalize
 Answers do not depend on spring length, spring
constant, or time interval
Rocket Propulsion
 The operation of a rocket depends upon the
law of conservation of linear momentum as
applied to a system of particles, where the
system is the rocket plus its ejected fuel
Rocket Propulsion, 2
 The initial mass of the
rocket plus all its fuel is
M + m at time ti and
speed v
 The initial momentum
of the system is
 
 i = (M + m)
Rocket Propulsion, 3
 At some time t + t, the
rocket’s mass has been
reduced to M and an
amount of fuel, m has
been ejected
 The rocket’s speed has
increased by v
Rocket Propulsion, 4
 Because the gases are given some momentum
when they are ejected out of the engine, the rocket
receives a compensating momentum in the opposite
direction
 Therefore, the rocket is accelerated as a result of
the “push” from the exhaust gases
 In free space, the center of mass of the system
(rocket plus expelled gases) moves uniformly,
independent of the propulsion process
Rocket Propulsion, 5
 The basic equation for rocket propulsion is
 Mi 
v f  v i  v e ln  
M
 f
 The increase in rocket speed is proportional to the
speed of the escape gases (ve)
 So, the exhaust speed should be very high
 The increase in rocket speed is also proportional to the natural log
of the ratio Mi/Mf
 So, the ratio should be as high as possible, meaning the mass of
the rocket should be as small as possible and it should carry as
much fuel as possible
Thrust
 The thrust on the rocket is the force exerted on it by
the ejected exhaust gases
dv dM
thrust  M  ve
dt dt
 The thrust increases as the exhaust speed
increases
 The thrust increases as the rate of change of mass
increases
 The rate of change of the mass is called the burn rate