UNIT-4

Fundamental of Semiconductor
Devices

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Semiconductor Devices
 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials
 Conductor and Insulators.
 N-type, P-Type, electron, and hole current
 PN junction, depletion region, potential barrier.

 Diodes

Forward Bias, reverse bias

semiconductor diode characteristics
analysis of diode circuits
clamping circuit
testing of diodes
Diode applications
Special Diodes:
Light Emitting Diodes
Zener Diodes
Photo Diodes

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 Conductor and Insulators.
Atomic Model

the gap can be crossed

only when breakdown
conditions occur the gap is smaller
and can be crossed the conduction band
when a photon and valence band
is absorbed overlap, so there is no gap

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Silicon and Germanium

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Conduction Electron and Holes.

An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature

has sufficient heat energy for some valence electrons to
jump the gap from the valence band into the
conduction band, becoming free electron called
‘Conduction Electron’

It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band

electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in the
valence band.
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 Electron Hole Current.
In conduction band : When a voltage is
applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, the
thermally generated free electrons in the
conduction band, are now easily attracted
toward the positive end.

This movement of free electrons is one type of

current in a semiconductive material and is
called electron current.

In valance band: In valance band holes generated due to free electrons. Electrons in the
valance band are although still attached with atom and not free to move, however they
can move into nearby hole with a little change in energy, thus leaving another hole where
it came from. Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another in the crystal
structure. It is called hole current.

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Electron Hole Current.

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 N-type semiconductor
Electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
valence band make the semiconductive material to
conduct but they are too limited to make it a very
good conductor..

Adding impurities in materials like Si or Ge can

drastically increase the conductivity of material.
The process is called doping.

Addition of a penta-valent material icnreases the

number of conduction electrons.
An antimony
Majority carrier: electrons (Sb) impurity atom is shown in the
center. The extra electron from the
Minority carriers: holes Sb atom becomes a free electron.

Material is called N-type semiconductor

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 P-type semiconductor.

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon

crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity
atom is shown in the center.

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 PN Junction
Although P-type material has holes in excess and N-type material has a number of free
conduction electron however the net number of proton and electron are equal in each
individual material keeping it just neutral.

The basic silicon structure at the instant of

junction formation showing only the
majority and minority carriers.

Free electrons in the n region near the pn

junction begin to diffuse across the junction
and fall into holes near the junction in the p
region.

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PN Junction

For every electron that diffuses across the

junction and
combines with a hole, a positive charge is
left in the n region and a negative charge is
created in the p region, forming a barrier
potential.

This action continues until the voltage of the

barrier repels further diffusion.

The blue arrows between the positive and

negative charges in the depletion region
represent the electric field.

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Energy band and potential barrier

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Diodes

 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is

doped as p-region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction in
between.

 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.

Diode symbol
p n

Depletion
region

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Diodes
 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is doped as
p-region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction in between.
 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.

p n

Depletion
region

Diode symbol

 It conducts current in one direction and offers high (ideally infinite)

resistance in other direction.

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 Forward Biased
 Forward bias is a condition that allows current
through pn junction.

 A dc voltage (Vbais) is applied to bias a diode.

 Positive side is connected to p-region (anode) and
negative side is connected with n-region. As more electrons flow into the
depletion region reducing the
 Vbais must be greater than ‘barrier potential’ number of positive ions and
IF (mA)
similarly more holes move in
V reducing the positive ions.
+ F–
This reduces the width of depletion
IF C region.
–
Current limiting
R
resistance + VBIAS
+ –
B Knee
A VF
0 15
0 0.7 V
Reverse Biased
 Reverse bias is a condition that prevents
current through junction.
 Positive side of Vbias is connected to the n-
region whereas the negative side is
connected with p-region.
The positive side of bias voltage
 Depletion region get wider with this attracts the majority carriers of n-
configuration. type creating more positive ions at
the junction.
VBIAS VR
VBR 0
0
– + This widens the depletion region.
Knee

I=0A
R
VBIAS
– +
IR
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Reverse Current

 A small amount current is generated due to

the minority carriers in p and n regions.
 These minority carriers are produced due to
thermally generated hole-electron pairs.
 Minority electrons in p-region pushed towards
+ve bias voltage, cross junction and then fall
in the holes in n-region and still travel in
valance band generating a hole current.

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Reverse Breakdown

 If the external bias voltage is increased to a

value call breakdown voltage the reverse
current can increase drastically.
 Free minority electrons get enough energy to
knock valance electron into the conduction
band.
 The newly released electron can further
strike with other atoms.
 The process is called avalanche effect.

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Diode V-I Characteristic
 VI Characteristic for forward bias.
I F (mA)

 The current in forward biased called forward current and is

designated If. C

 At 0V (Vbias) across the diode, there is no forward current.

 With gradual increase of Vbias, the forward voltage and 0
A B Knee
VF

forward current increases. 0 0.7 V

 A resistor in series will limit the forward current in order to

V
protect the diode from overheating and permanent damage. + F–

 A portion of forward-bias voltage drops across the limiting IF

–
resistor. R
 Continuing increase of Vf causes rapid increase of forward + VBIAS
current but only a gradual increase in voltage across diode. + –

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Diode V-I Characteristic

 Dynamic Resistance:
• The resistance of diode is not constant but it changes over the entire curve.
So it is called dynamic resistance.

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Diode V-I Characteristic
 VI Characteristic for reverse bias.

 With 0V reverse voltage there is no reverse current. 0

VBR
VR 0
 There is only a small current through the junction as the Knee
reverse voltage increases.
 At a point, reverse current shoots up with the break down of
diode. The voltage called break down voltage. This is not
normal mode of operation.
 After this point the reverse voltage remains at approximately
VBR but IR increase very rapidly. IR
 Break down voltage depends on doping level, set by
manufacturer.

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Diode V-I Characteristic

 The complete V-I characteristic curve

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Diode models

 Ideal Diode Model

 Barrier potential, the

forward dynamic
resistance and reverse
current all are neglected.

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Diode models
VF = 0.7V

 Practical Diode Model

 Barrier potential, the forward dynamic

resistance and reverse current all are
neglected.

 Forward current IF is determined using Kirchhoff’s voltage as follows:

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Half wave Rectifiers
 As diodes conduct current in one direction and block in other.
 When connected with ac voltage, diode only allows half cycle
passing through it and hence convert ac into dc.
 As the half of the wave get rectified, the process called half wave
rectification.

 A diode is connected to an ac source and a load resistor forming a half wave rectifier.
 Positive half cycle causes current through diode, that causes voltage drop across
resistor.

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Diode as Rectifiers
 Reversing diode.

 Average value of Half wave output voltage:

VAVG = VP / pi

 VAVG is approx 31.8% of Vp

 PIV: Peak Inverse Voltage = Vp

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Full wave rectifiers
 A full wave rectifier allows unidirectional current through the load
during the entire 360 degree of input cycle.

Full Wave Rectifier

 The output voltage have twice the input frequency.

VAVG = 2VP / pi
 VAVG is 63.7% of Vp

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The Center-Tapped Full wave rectifiers
 A center-tapped transformer is used with two diodes that
conduct on alternating half-cycles.
F D1
+ –
During the positive half-
+
Vin
I
Vout cycle, the upper diode is
0
–
0 forward-biased and the
+ +
RL lower diode is reverse-
–
– biased.
– +
D2

F D1
– +

During the negative half- –

V in V out
cycle, the lower diode is +
0 0
forward-biased and the upper – +
RL
diode is reverse-biased. + I –

+ –
D2

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The Bridge Full-wave rectifiers
 The Bridge Full-Wave rectifier uses four diodes connected across the
entire secondary as shown.
F

I
D3 D1
+ +
Conduction path for the
Vin
– – + positive half-cycle.
D2 RL Vout 0
D4 –

I
D3 D1
Conduction path for the – –
Vin
negative half-cycle. + + +
D2 RL Vout 0
D4 –

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 The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

Determine the peak output voltage and current in the 3.3 k load resistor if
Vsec = 24 Vrms. Use the practical diode model.

The peak output voltage is:

F

V p ( sec )  1.41Vrms  33.9 V

D3 D1

V p ( out )  V p ( sec )  1.4 V 120 V V(sec) =

24 Vrms
+
 32.5 V D2 D4
RL
3.3 k W
Vp(out )
–

Applying Ohm’s law,

Ip(out) = 9.8 mA
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Diode Limiters
 Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are used to clip off portions of
signal voltages above or below certain levels.

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Diode Clampers

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Zener Diodes Cathode (K)
 A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction that
is designed for operation in reverse-
breakdown region
 When a diode reaches reverse breakdown, Anode (A)
its voltage remains almost constant even
though the current changes drastically,
and this is key to the Zener diode
operation.
 Ideally, the reverse breakdown has a
constant breakdown voltage. This makes
it useful as a voltage reference, which is
its primary application.

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Zener Breakdown Characteristic
 As the reverse voltage (VR) increases, the
reverse current(IR) remains extremely
small up to the knee of the curve.

 Reverse current is also called Zener

current(Iz).

 At knee point the breakdown effect

begins, the internal Zener resistance (ZZ)
begins to decrease.

 The reverse current increase rapidly.

 The Zener breakdown (VZ) voltage remains

nearly constant.

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Zener Diode Impedence
 The zener impedance, ZZ, is the ratio of +

a change in voltage in the breakdown ZZ

region to the corresponding change in +

VZ

current:
–

–
VZ Practical model
ZZ 
I Z

What is the zener impedance if the zener diode

voltage changes from 4.79 V to 4.94 V when
the current changes from 5.00 mA to 10.0
mA?
VZ 0.15 V
ZZ    30 
I Z 5.0 mA
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Zener Regulation
 The ability to keep the reverse voltage constant
across its terminal is the key feature of the Zener
diode.

 It maintains constant voltage over a range of

reverse current values.

 A minimum reverse current IZK must be maintained

in order to keep diode in regulation mode. Voltage
decreases drastically if the current is reduced
below the knee of the curve.

 Above IZM, max current, the Zener may get damaged

permanently.
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Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage:

As the input voltage changes, the output voltage

remains nearly constant (I < I < I ).
ZK Z ZM

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Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage

• Ideal model of IN4047A

• IZK = 0.25mA
• VZ = 10V
• PD(max) = 1W

Vin(min) = 10.55V
Vin(max) = 32V

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Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable load

It maintains voltage
a nearly constant
across RL as long as
Zener current is
within IZK and IZM.

V = 12 V,
Z

I = 1 mA,
ZK

I = 50 mA.
ZM

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 Zener Diode Applications

Zeners can also be used as limiters. The back-to-back zeners in

this circuit limit the output to the breakdown voltage plus one
diode drop.
R

+VZ1 + 0.7 V
D1
What are the maximum Vin
D2 0

positive and negative –VZ1 – 0.7 V

voltages if the zener

breakdown voltage is 5.6 V?
± 6.3 V
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Optical Diodes
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Diodes can
be made to emit light
electroluminescence) or sense light.

 When forward biased electrons form n-

region cross the junction and recombines
to holes with the emission of photons.

 Various impurities are added during the

doping process to establish the wavelength
of the emitted light.

 The process is called electroluminescence.

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Light Emitting Diodes
 LEDs vary widely in size and brightness –
from small indicating lights and displays to
high-intensity LEDs that are used in traffic
signals, outdoor signs, and general
illumination.

 LEDs are very efficient light emitters, and

extremely reliable, so domain of uses getting
wider.

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Light Emitting Diodes
o When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the
n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.

 The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds
to the energy of visible light.

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Photo Diode

 A photodiode is a special light

sensitive diode with a clear window
to the pn junction. It is operated

Reverse current, (I l)
with reverse bias. Reverse current
increases with greater incident light.

Dark current
0 Irradiance, H

 The tiny current that is present when

the diode is not exposed to light is
called dark current

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Varactor Diode
 A varactor diode is a special purpose p n
diode operated in reverse-bias to form
a voltage-controlled capacitor. The Plate Plate
width of the depletion region increases Dielectric

with reverse-bias. – VBIAS +

 Varactor diodes are used in tuning

applications. The applied voltage
controls the capacitance and hence
the resonant frequency.

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Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable input voltage

• Ideal model of IN4047A

• IZK = 0.25mA
• VZ = 10V
• PD(max) = 1W, IZM = 1W / 10V = 100mA

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Zener Regulation
 Zener Regulation with variable load
 It maintains voltage a nearly constant across RL as long as Zener current
is within IZK and IZM.

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Voltage Levels and Static Discipline

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 To send a logical 0, the sender must produce an output voltage value that is less than
VOL. Correspondingly, the receiver must interpret input voltages below VIL as a logical 0.
 Similarly, to send a logical 1, the sender must produce an output voltage value that is
greater than VOH. Further, the receiver must interpret voltages above VIH as a logical 1.
 Noise Margin: The absolute value of the difference between the prescribed output voltage
for a given logical value and the corresponding forbidden region voltage threshold for the
receiver is called the noise margin for that logical value.
 NM0 = VIL − VOL
 NM1 = VOH − VIH
 The static discipline is a specification for digital devices. The static discipline requires
devices to interpret correctly voltages that fall within the input thresholds (VIL and VIH).
As long as valid inputs are provided to the devices, the discipline also requires the devices
to produce valid output voltages that satisfy the output thresholds (VOL and VOH).

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