SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL, CHEMICAL AND MATERIAL

ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Biomaterials (MScE4317)
CHAPTER-2
Introduction to Biomaterials: definition,
classification and requirements
By: Belete Kefarge (MSc)
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 Chapter 2:

Outline
 Introduction to Biomaterials
 Definition
 classification and requirements

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 What is a Biomaterial?

 A material intented to interface with biological

systems to evaluate, treat, augment or replace

any tissue, organ or function of the body.

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 Biomaterials
 Polymeric biomaterials
 Bioceramics
 Metallic biomaterials
 Biocomposite
 Biologically based (derived) biomaterials
 Biocompatibility
 Is the ability of a material to perform with an
appropriate host response in a specific
application.
 Host response: the reaction of a living system
to the presence of a material
 Medical Device

It does not achieve its principal intended action

in or on the human body by pharmacological,
immunological or metabolic means, but it may
be assisted in its function by such means.
Classification of biomaterials

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 1. Ceramics
 Inorganic compounds that contain metallic and non-metallic elements, for which
inter-atomic bonding is ionic or covalent, and which are generally formed at high
temperatures.
 Derived From the Greek word "keramos" meaning the art and science of
making and using solid articles formed by the action of heat on earthy raw
materials.
 Most ceramics occur as minerals:
 (1) The abundance of elements and geochemical characteristics of the earth’s
crust govern mineral types.
 (2) Composition of Earth’s Crust: [84% = O + Si + Al]
O = 50% Fe = 5% K = 2.5%
Si = 26% Ca = 3% Mg = 2%
Al = 8% Na = 2.5% H = 1% 9
 Ceramics
 Advantages:
- inert in body (or bioactive in body)
- high wear resistance (orthopedic &
dental applications)
- high modulus (stiffness) &
compressive strength
- fine esthetic properties for dental
applications
 Disadvantages:
- brittle (low fracture resistance, flaw
tolerance)
- low tensile strength (fibers are
exception)
- poor fatigue resistance (relates to flaw
tolerance)

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 Ceramic Applications
 femoral heads and cup inserts for ceramic on
polyethylene; or
 ceramic on ceramic hip replacement bearings;
 knee prostheses;

 spinal fusion devices;

 orthopedic instrumentation;

 dental-crowns;
 bridges, implants and caps;

 inner ear implants (cochlear implants);

 drug delivery devices; and,
 cochlear implants. 11
 Ceramics

 Alumina, Zirconium, Calcium phosphate, Silica, pyrrolytic carbon,

hydroxyapatite are common;
 Porous ceramic materials exhibit much lower strengths but have been found
extremely useful as coatings for metallic implants; 
 The coating aids in tissue fixation of the implant by providing a porous
surface for the surrounding tissue to grow into and mechanically interlock;
and, 
 Certain ceramics are considered bioactive ceramics if they establish bonds
with bone tissue.

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 Bioceramics

Alumina

Zirconia (partially stabilized)

Silicate glass
Calcium phosphate (apatite)
Calcium carbonate
 Alumina and Zirconia Applications
• Orthopedics – femoral head, bone screws and plates
– Alumina at a bone interface: bone will grow right up to it,
but will not grow in
– Ceramic- (ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene)
UHMWPE contact used in hip and knee replacements
– Ceramic-ceramics contact also used
– Problem with stiffness of alumina…
• Dental restorations – crowns, bridges, brackets
– Good mechanical and aesthetic properties

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 4 groups of ceramic for biomedical applications
 Nonporous, nearly inert – structural components
 Porous, inert – non-load bearing, coatings, fillers

 Nonporous, bioactive – coatings, dental applications, strong

attachment to bone
 Resorbable – fillers, spinal/defect repair, drug delivery
 Function greatly affected by
– Composition – bioactivity
– Structure (crystal and grains) – mechanical properties
– Processing – mechanical properties
– Porosity – reactivity, degradation
– In vivo environment – reactions with tissue/fluids
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 Resorbable Ceramics
 Bioresorbable refers to a material that upon placement within the
human body starts to dissolve and slowly replaced by advancing
tissue (such as bone).
• Degrade upon implantation in the host
• Rate of degradation varies from material to material
– rate needs to be equal to rate of tissue generation at specific
site of application
• Almost all bioresorbable ceramics (except Biocoral and

Plaster of Paris – calcium sulfate dihydrate) are variations of

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calcium phosphate
 Uses of biodegradable bioceramics:

– Drug-delivery devices
– Repair material for bone damaged by trauma or disease

– Space filling material for areas of bone loss

– Material for repair and fusion of spinal and lumbosacral vertebrae
– Repair material for herniated disks
– Repair material for maxillofacial and dental defects
– Ocular implants

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 2. Metals
 Closely packed crystal structure; the type of bonding in metals and metal alloys
render them valuable as load bearing implants as well as internal fixation devices
used for orthopedic applications as well as dental implants;
 when processed suitably they contribute high tensile, fatigue and yield strengths;
low reactivity and good ductility to the stems of hip implant devices; and,
 Their properties depend on the processing method and purity of the metal,
however, and the selection of the material must be made appropriate to its
intended use.

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Metals Manufacturing

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 Metals
 One complication that can occur from the use of metals in orthopedic
applications is the phenomenon of stress shielding; 
 In some situations, such as hip implantation, the high strength of the
metal in the implant induces it to assume more than its share of
responsibility for the load in that region; 
 This decreases the load born by the surrounding tissue and therefore
shields it from experiencing stress; 
 Lack of stress causes bone density to decrease as bone tissue resorbs,
eventually causing complications in the implant/tissue interface.

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 Metallic Biomaterials

Advantages
Disadvantages
 High
Highstrength
moduls
 Fatigue resistance
Corrosion
 Wear resistance
 Metal ion sensitivity and toxicity
 Easy fabrication
 Metallic looking
 Easy to sterilize
 Shape memory
 Other Uses of Metals

Medical Tubing

Stents

Catheters 22
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• Some metals are used as passive substitutes for
hard tissue replacement such as:
1. Total hip
2. Knee joints
3. For fracture healing aids as bone plates and
screws
4. Spinal fixation devices
5. Dental implants, because of their excellent
mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance;
6. Vascular stents

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 Titanium and its alloys

• Titanium and its alloys are getting great attention

in both medical and dental fields because of:

A. Excellent biocompatibility
B. Light weight

C. Excellent balance of mechanical properties

D. Excellent corrosion resistance.

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• They are commonly used for implant devices
replacing failed hard tissue, for example,
A. artificial hip joints
B. artificial knee joint
C. bone plate
D. dental implants
E. dental products, such as crowns, bridges and
dentures
F. used to fix soft tissue, such as blood vessels

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 3. Polymers

 consist of small repeating units strung together in long chains; 

 flexible structure of polymers has enabled this group of materials to be
useful in applications from plastic garbage bags to rubber tires;
 Even DNA has found this structure useful, storing genetic information in
thousands upon thousands of repeating sequences of polymers; 
 In many materials, processing conditions can induce the polymer chains to
link with each other along the length of the chain to produce a wide variety
of mechanical properties; 
 These parameters are easily varied in order to suit current biomedical
applications.

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 Polymerization

• Condensation: A reaction occurs between two

molecules to form a larger molecule with the
elimination of a smaller molecule.
• Addition: A reaction occurs between two
molecules to form a larger molecule without the
elimination of a smaller molecule.
 Polymeric Biomaterials
 Advantage Disadvantage
 Leachable
Easy to make
compounds
complicated
 items
Absorb water & proteins etc.
 Tailorable physical &
Surface contamination
 mechanical properties
Wear & breakdown
 Surface
Difficultmodification
to sterilize
 Immobilize cell etc.
Biodegradable
 Properties Polymers

 Hydrophilic
 Hydrophobic
 Bio stable

 Biodegradable
 Natural
 Synthetic
 Highly processable
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 4. Composites

 individual strengths and weaknesses of polymers, ceramics, and metals benefit

different applications;  
 The porosity and hardness of ceramics support tissue integration into the
tissue/implants interface, but these properties could hardly suit a ligament
replacement; 
 A composite material incorporates the desired characteristics of different
materials to meet the stringent demands of living tissue;
 Most composite designs combine strength and flexibility by reinforcing a
relatively flexible material with a harder, stronger one; and, 
 In some cases, one or more of these materials may be degradable in order to
encourage tissue integration.

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 Bio-inertness vs. Bioactivity

 The term bioinert refers to any material that once placed in

the human body has minimal interaction with its surrounding
tissue.
 Bioactive materials play a more aggressive role in the body. 
 While a biocompatible material should affect the equilibrium
of the body as little as possible, a bioactive material recruits
specific interactions between the material and surrounding
tissue. 
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 Bioactive Materials
• encourage tissue integration to aid in the fixation of an implant in the
body. 
• Many total hip implants operations today rely partially on a porous
coating of Hydroxyapatite (HA), a normal component of bone, to help
permanently stabilize the stem of the implant in the bone. 
• The coating encourages ingrowth from the surrounding tissue that
interlocks within the pores much like the pieces of a puzzle lock together. 
• Although many current medical procedures call for inert biocompatible
materials, the increasing understanding of tissue interaction promises
many more applications for aggressive bioactive materials.

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 Commonly Used Biomaterials
Material Applications
Silicone rubber Catheters, tubing
Dacron Vascular grafts
Poly(methyl methacrylate) Intraocular lenses, bone
cement
Polyurethanes Catheters, pacemaker leads
Stainless steel Orthopedic devices, stents
Collagen (reprocessed) Cosmetic surgery, wound
dressings

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 Requirements of Biomaterials
A biomaterial must be:
• inert or specifically interactive
• biocompatible
• mechanically and chemically stable or
• biodegradable
• processable (for manufacturability)
• nonthrombogenic (if blood-contacting)
• sterilizable
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 Progress in Healthcare
Technology moves on
 from bio-inert & current biocompatible materials with
limited useful life
 to ‘second generation’, structurally and functionally
advanced materials
 to body replacement and augmentation devices active in a
physiological and pathology-correcting way over an entire
life-time
 Tissue engineering, microsystems and nanotechnology
will address many of these needs

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