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 AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE

• AIRCRAFT WEIGHT CONSIDERATIONS

• AIRCRAFT SPEED CONSIDERATIONS
• TAKE OFF PERFORMANCE
• IN FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
• APPROACH AND LANDING PERFORMANCE
 Aircraft weights
and weight limitations
Aircraft weights and weight limitations

Manufacturer empty weight

Dry operating weight
Zero fuel weight/ Maximum zero fuel weight
Takeoff weight/ Maximum takeoff weight
Ramp weight/ Maximum Ramp weight
Landing weight/ Maximum landing weight

 Refer to Weight and Balance manual for detail

explanations
Aircraft speed
considerations
 Aircraft speeds

Speed measurement
 1
 
2p o  p t  ps  

VIAS  
 
 1  1
  1o  po  
 

Indicated airspeed Speed displayed on the indicator

Calibrated airspeed VCAS = VIAS + VP (adjust for error in measurement of p)
Equivalent airspeed VEAS = VCAS - VC (adjust for correct pS at given alt.)
True airspeed VTAS = VEAS/(/o)0.5 (adjust for correct S)
Ground speed VGS = VTAS + Wind component
Mach number M = VTAS/ speed of sound
Aircraft speeds

• VS: The stalling speed in the take-off configuration

• VMU: Minimum unstick speed. Minimum airspeed at

which airplane can safely lift off ground and
continue take-off
• VMCG: Minimum control speed on the ground. At this
speed the aircraft must be able to continue a
straight path down the runway with a failed
engine, without relying on nose gear reactions
• VMC: Minimum Control Speed. Minimum airspeed at
which when critical engine is made
inoperative, it is still possible to recover control of
the airplane and maintain straight flight
Stalling speeds
Lift Lift Lift
Fixed FL
V V’ V’’
Weight Weight Weight
Lift

VS1g: n = 1 V’’’
Weight

Lift

VS:
Vs
n varies according Weight

to the aircraft type

Certified stall speeds are useful

to determine operational speeds,
setting up margins:
Example: Vapp min = 1.3 VS
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
Operational takeoff speeds
 V1: takeoff decision speed
 V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can
decide to reject the takeoff, and is certain to stop the
aircraft within the limits of the runway.
Safe rejected takeoff

V1
Speed

 From that point, the aircraft will safely reach 35ft

at the end of the clearway.

35 ft

V1
Speed
Operational takeoff speeds
 VR: rotation speed
 VR is the speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation
 VR may not be less than V1:
 VLOF: Lift-off speed
 Calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane first
becomes airborne
 V2: takeoff climb speed
 Minimum safety speed that must be reached at 35 ft
above the takeoff surface in case of an engine
failure
 Maintained during the initial climb phase
 V2 may not be less than 1.13  VS1g:
Operational takeoff speeds
 Summary
 V1: Decision speed
 VR: Rotation speed
 VLOF: Lift-Off speed
 V2: Takeoff climb speed

V2

V1 VR VLOF 35 ft
Definitions
 Runway:
 Rigid or flexible rectangular area of concrete or
asphalt used for takeoff and landing1
 StopWaY (SWY):
 Rectangular area beyond the takeoff runway
 Located on the same center line and at least as wide
as the runway
 Designated by the airport authorities for use in
decelerating the aircraft in case of aborted takeoff

RWY SWY
Definitions
 Clearway:
 Rectangular area beyond the takeoff runway
 Centered on the same centerline and under control of
airport authorities
 Features:
• Minimum width: 500 ft
• Slope < 1.25%
• No prominence except threshold lights (if < 26” above surface)

Min 500 ft

ok
MAX 1.25%
(MAX 26”) not ok
Takeoff length Definitions
 TakeOff Run Available (TORA):
 Distance from brake release to the end of the runway

TORA

 Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA):

 Distance from the break release to the end of the
stopway

TORA SWY
ASDA
Takeoff length Definitions
 TakeOff Distance Available (TODA):
 Distance from the break release to the end of the
clearway

TODA = TakeOff Distance Available

TODA = TORA + CWY

Min 500 ft

TODA
Takeoff length Definitions
 TODOEI (TakeOff Distance One Engine Inop)

All Engines Operating One Engine Inoperative

TODOEI = From BR to 35 ft
V2

VEF V1 VR VLOF
35 ft

TODOEI
Horizontal distance along the T/O path from the brake release point
to the point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the T/O surface,
assuming an engine failure at VEF
Takeoff length Definitions
 ASDOEI (Accelerate Stop Distance One Engine Inoperative)
One Engine Inoperative

All engines operating 1s 2s

VEF V1 V= 0

Accelerate Stop Distance

with One Engine Inoperative
ASDOEI is the sum of the distances necessary to:
• Accelerate from the brake release to VEF with all engines at TOGA
• Accelerate from VEF to V1 (1s), assuming that the critical engine fails at VEF
• Cover a distance corresponding to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
• Come to a full stop using only brakes and spoilers (dry runway case)
Takeoff flight path

 Takeoff flight path: 4 segments

climb
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

End
Takeoff Flight Path:
Starts at 35 ft above the runway or clearway

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 First segment: landing gear retraction

takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

climb
End of first segment:
Landing gear up
Takeoff configuration End
Takeoff thrust
V2 speed

2.4%

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 Second segment: climb to the acceleration
height
End
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path
End of second segment: climb

Acceleration height reached

Takeoff configuration
Takeoff thrust
V2 speed

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 Third segment: acceleration and flap retraction
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path End

End of third segment: climb

Clean configuration
Green dot speed
Max continuous thrust

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 Final takeoff segment: climb to 1,500 ft at MCT
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

End of final segment:

climb
1 500 ft reached
Clean configuration
Green dot speed
Max continuous thrust

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path

 Gross takeoff flight path

Gross flight path: Flight path actually flown by the aircraft
climb
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path

 Net takeoff flight path

Net flight path: Gross flight path - 0.8% climb gradient
climb
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

gross f.p.
net f.p.

-0.8% 35 ft
35 ft
35 ft
35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V1 on the TODOEI:
 V1 can vary in a given range: 0.84  VR  V1  VR
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

VEF V1 VR VLOF
Low 35 ft
V1
TODOEI
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

VEF V1 VR VLOF
High 35 ft
V1
TODOEI

A high V1 decreases the TOD

Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V1 on the ASDOEI:
 V1 can vary in a given range: 0.84  VR  V1  VR
OEI Idle
2s
V=0
VEF V1
Low
V1
ASDOEI
OEI Idle
2s
V=0
VEF V1
High
V1
ASDOEI

A high V1 increases the ASD

Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the TODOEI:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13VS1g  V2  1.40VS1g
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

High V2 VEF V1 VR VLOF

35 ft
High VR TODOEI
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

Low V2 VEF V1 VR VLOF

35 ft
Low VR TODOEI

A low V2 speed decreases the TOD

Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the Climb Gradient:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13VS1g  V2  1.40VS1g

High V2
V2
High VR

VEF V1 VR VLOF
TOW 35 ft
Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the Climb Gradient:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13VS1g  V2  1.40VS1g

Low V2
V2
Low VR

VEF V1 VR VLOF
TOW 35 ft
Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the Climb Gradient:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13VS1g  V2  1.40VS1g

V2
Low V 2
igh
H

A low V2 speed decreases the climb gradient

Effect of speeds on performance
 Summary
 High V1
• Decreases TOD (good effect)
• Increases ASD (bad effect)
 High V2
• Increases climb gradient (good effect)
• Increases TOD (bad effect)

Speed
Solution ?
Optimization
Reduced Thrust Takeoff

 When your Actual Takeoff Weight is lower than

the maximum Takeoff Weight, it is possible to
perform a takeoff with less than the maximum
takeoff thrust.

 Two methods are available:

 Flexible takeoff
 Derated takeoff
Flexible takeoff

 Benefits of Flexible takeoff:

 Engine life savings ( engine stress)
 Improvement of engine reliability ( probability of
engine failure)
 Reduction of maintenance costs
Flexible takeoff
 TOGA thrust variation with OAT

Weight Thrust

Flat rated Thrust

EGT Limit

TREF OAT
Flexible takeoff
Flex takeoff:
Flex temperature
To enable takeoff without engines at full rate reduces:
• The probability of a failure (safety aspect)
• The engine deterioration rate and associated
Weight Thrust maintenance costs (economic aspect)

MAX TOW
Available Flat rated Thrust
Thrust
EGT Limit
Real TOW
Needed
Thrust

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature

Weight Thrust

MAX TOW
Available Flat rated Thrust
Thrust
EGT Limit
Real TOW
Needed 25 % or 40 %
MAX reduction
Thrust

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature Conditions of application:
Flex. takeoff is to be made only if: 1) TREF < TFlex
2) OAT < TFlex
Weight Thrust 3) TFlex  TFlex MAX

MAX TOW
Available Flat rated Thrust
Thrust
EGT Limit
Real TOW
Needed
Thrust

TFlex MAX

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature

Thrust Flexible takeoff procedure:

At any moment, pilot can recover TOGA
Flat rated Thrust
TOGA
Thrust
EGT Limit
Flexible
Thrust

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature

Thrust
VMCG/VMCA based on maximum TOGA thrust

EGT Limit

TREF OAT
Derated takeoff

 Each Derate level is certified and is associated

to a new set of performance data

Certified Certified Certified Certified Certified

engine
engine engine
engine
engine
Derated takeoff

It consists in decreasing the TOGA

thrust by steps of 4%
Weight Thrust
The TOGA thrust cannot be
! selected any more during T/O

MAX. thrust
available

OAT
Derated takeoff

Derated takeoff benefits:

- Reduction of engine stress
Weight Thrust - Reduction of minimum control
speeds (VMCG/VMCA)

MAX. thrust
available

Derated takeoff benefits:

- Performance improvement on Short Runways
- Allowed on Contaminated Runways
Derated takeoff

7 amounts of derate are certified:

Thrust 4%, 8%, 12%, 16%, 20%, 24%
and 40%

TOGA Rating
Derated takeoff procedure:
Derated Rating
Pilot cannot recover TOGA

Derated !
Thrust

OAT OAT
Derated Takeoff
takeoff

 On a short or a contaminated runway, the main

limitation is most of the time the Accelerate-
Stop Distance.

 In order to reduce the ASD, V1 is reduced, till

reaching VMCG.
Other considerations

 Limits for mean runway slope

 Crosswind limits, tailwind limits

 Maximum certified takeoff and landing altitude

 Maximum operating speed

In flight performance
Cruising phase

Cruising phase

FL370

FL330
Specific Range

 SR variations with Mach number

 SR: distance covered
per fuel mass unit burnt SR (NM/t) Given :
- Altitude
 SR reaches a maximum - Weight
90 MMR
at the MACH of MAXI-
RANGE (MMR)
80

At the Mach of Maxi-Range, the 70

fuel consumption is minimum
Maxi Range
as regards to the distance crossed 60
at the given altitude and weight.

.70 .75 .80 Mach

Specific Range

 SR variations with Mach number

 M < MMR  SR 
• For a given fuel quantity, the Given :
SR (NM/t) - Altitude
covered distance is lower. - Weight
• For a given distance, 90 MMR
consumption is higher.

80
 M < MMR  time 
70
Maxi Range
MMR = Inferior limit
60

.70 .75 .80 Mach

Specific Range

 MMR: advantages and drawbacks

 Very advantageous regarding the trip fuel
 But MMR is too low  Trip time is quite long

 Solution
 Increasing cruise speed without increasing too
much the fuel consumption
 This is what Long Range Cruise Mach aims at
Specific Range

 Long Range Cruise Mach

SR
 Definition:
SRLRC = 99 % SRMAX

MMR
 Flying at LRC Mach Max SR
enables a low fuel -1% LRC
consumption (but
NOT minimum), while
the speed is higher
than MMR

.70 .75 .80 Mach

Specific Range
 Long Range Cruise Mach

 Advantages of LRC on SR
MMR:
• The 1% fuel consumption
increment is compensated
by an important gain on MMR
speed and consequently on
LRC
flight time.

• Any selected Mach number

under LRC would result in
a decrease in the fuel
consumption.
.70 .75 .80 Mach
Cost Index

Direct Operating Cost (DOC)

Breakdown
Insurances
Handling & Commissions 1% Lease Charges
Dispatch fees 5%
12%
11%
Navigation Fees Flight Crew
5% 12%
Airport Fees
4%

Maintenance
15%
Passenger Service
Costs Fuel & Oil
8% 27%
Source ICAO 2001
Cost Index

 Definition: Cost Index

Cost of Time
C.I. =
Cost of Fuel
 Unit: kg/min or lb/h
 Possible Range:
• From 0 to 999
• In operations: from 0 to 200
 The ECON Mach depends on Cost Index
Buffet onset

 Buffet = stall start, with

vibrations located around
wingtips

 Buffet:
3 important parameters
 WEIGHT
 ALTITUDE
 MACH NUMBER
Buffet onset
 Buffet:
 3 important parameters
• WEIGHT - ALTITUDE -
MACH NUMBER
 Graph principle:
When two of the above
parameters are fixed, the third
one is the consequence of the
buffet margin condition (0.3g):
• At given weight and altitude:
speed range with a VMIN and a
VMAX
• At given weight and speed:
maximum altitude = buffet
ceiling
• At given altitude and speed:
maximum weight
Approach and Landing
Performance
Regulation

Max Go-Around Weight

VAPP  1.23 VS1g
VAPP  1.4 VS1g

Min gradient
2.1 %
1 engine out
Go-around thrust
Gear up 50 ft
Approach Conf

LD
Landing Distance Available

LDA = Landing Distance Available

LDA  TORA (shifted threshold)

LDA
Actual Landing Distance

Braking means:
- Brakes
- Spoilers
- Antiskid
- No reversers

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

The Actual Landing Distance (ALD) is the distance

required to land and bring the aircraft to a complete
stop from a height of 50 ft above the runway.
Actual Landing Distance

VAPP = 1.23 VS1g

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD
Maximum braking
is assumed from
Actual Landing Distances are the touchdown.
demonstrated during flight tests.
Actual Landing Distance
 Landing distance calculation is made for:

- ISA temperature - Landing weight (LW)

- - Wind
Slope = 0% -
Pressure altitude
Required Landing Distance

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

Dry Runway: RLDDRY  LDA

ALDDRY
RLDDRY = = 1.667 x ALDDRY ALDDRY  60% LDA
0 .6
Required Landing Distance

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

Wet Runway:
RLDWET = 1.15 x RLDDRY RLDWET  LDA
RLDWET = 1.15 x 1.667 x ALDDRY
RLDWET = 1.917 x ALDDRY
Required Landing Distance

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

Contaminated Runway:
RLDCONTA = MAX (1.15 x ALDCONTA ; RLDWET)

RLDCONTA  LDA
References
1. David Andersen, Performance Engineer:
Fundamentals Course – Volume I, February 2006
2. Airbus, Getting to grips with aircraft performance,
January 2002

End of AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE
Operating Out of Design Aircraft
Weight and Balance Limits
Nose Gear Failure on Landing

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