KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
COURSE UNIT: ARC 226 LAND SURVEYING
ASSIGNMENT: APPLICATIONS OF LEVELLING
NAME REG NO.

SSEKUBUNGA ALAWI 22/U/ARD/2028/PD

KAWUNDA PATRICK 21/U/ARD/032/GV

OCHWA JAMES EZRAH 18/U/ODA/12136/PD

SSEMPIJJA ALLAN 21/U/ARD/037/GV

WERE NICHOLAS HEREGE 22/U/ARD/13863/GV

OBITA IVAN 22/U/ARD/1862/PD

MUSITWA ISAAC 21/U/ARD/036/GV
 LEVELLING
The art of determining the relative heights of different points on or
below the surface of the earth.
Basically measurements in vertical planes

APPLICATIONS OF LEVELLING
Sectioning; Used to produce ground profiles for use in the design of roads, railways and
pipelines.
Types of sections are often necessary; longitudinal and cross section
Setting out; Establishment of marks and lines to determine a position and level of
elements for a construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them
Contouring;
A contour is defined as a line joining points of the same height above or below a datum.
These are shown so as the relief topography of an area can be interpreted
• Reading assignment

• ❑Applications of leveling—contouring, Sectioning

• ❑Inverted levels/sights

• ❑Precise leveling

• ❑Digital leveling

• ❑Reciprocal leveling

• ❑Trigonometrical leveling
RECIPRICAL LEVELLING
Is a surveying technique used to check the accuracy of leveling measurements by
taking readings in both directions along a level line.
It is used some instances in levelling when it is not possible to have equal
backsights and foresights or short sight distances. For instance, when a line of
levels has to be taken over a wide gap such as a river or busy road. The method of
reciprical levelling is adopted to accurately determine distances apart and used
when it is not possible to setup level in midway between two points, which involves
reciprocal observation at both banks of the river or valley.
In reciprical leveling, the level is set up on the both banks of the river or valley
and instrument is set nearer to 1st station and sighted towards 2nd station two
sets of staff readings are taken by holding the staff on both banks. In this case,
it is found that the errors are completely eliminated and true difference of
level is equal to the mean of the true apparent differences of level as shown.
Procedure:
Suppose A and B are two points on the opposite banks of a river. The level is
set up near A and after proper temporary adjustment, staff readings are taken
at A and B. Suppose the readings are a₁ and b₁
 The level is shifted and set up very near B and after proper adjustment, staff
reading are taken at A and B. suppose the readings are a₂ and b₂  
Let
h = true difference of level between A and B
e = combined error due curvature, refraction and collimation (The error may be
positive or negative, here we assume positive)
 In the first case;
Correct staff reading at A = a₁ (as the level very near A)
Correct staff reading at B = b₁ - e
 
True difference between A and B,
 
h = a₁ – (b₁ – e) (fall from B to A) ……. (1)
 
In the second case;
 Correct staff reading at B = b₂ (as the level very near B)
Correct staff reading at A = a₂ - e
 True difference of level,
h = (a₂ –e) - b₂ …….……. (2)
From (1) and (2),
2h = a₁ – (b₁ – e) + (a₂ – e) - b₂
= a₁ – b₁ + e + a₂ – e - b₂
 
h = [(a₁ – b₁)+(a₂ – b₂)]/2
 
It may be observed that the error is eliminated and that the true difference is equal to
the mean of two apparent differences of level between A and B.
5. ARBITRARY BENCH MARK (ABM):
This is a BM that is not related to any datum, and it is always assigned any
convenient value say 100m above what nobody knows
6. HORIZONTAL LINE
A horizontal line at a point is that line which is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity at that point.
7. A LEVEL LINE;
A level line is that of uniform height relative to the mean sea level (i.e
reference datum). Because the mean sea level is curved, a level tine is also
curved, and every where perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
8. LEVEL SURFACE:
This is a surface that is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity. It
therefore follows that a level line ties on a level surface.
NOTE: A level surface is not a plane surface but a spherical surface
.
9. LINE OF COLLIMATION (LOC):
This is a true horizontal line of sight, which passes through the optical centre of the
telescope of the level.
10. HEIGHT COLIMATION (HOC);
This is the height of the line of collimation above the reference datum
11. PLANEOF COLLIMATION:
Is the plane generated by rotating the L.O.C about the vertical axis of the telescope.
12 REDUCED LEVEL (RL)
Is the height of a point relative to the reference datum.
13. BACK SIGHT (BS):
Is the first sight or reading taken for every instrument setup. It is taken from point of
known/assumed height (RL) and at a change point
[Link] SIGHT (FS):
' Is the last reading taken for every instrument set up. It is taken at a change point and
finally at the end of leveling operation.
15. INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (IS)
Is any sight or reading take between" a BS and a FS.
WORKED EXAMPLE
 TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING
Is a surveying technique that uses trigonometry to calculate differences in
elevation between points.
This involves measuring the horizontal distance between two points and the
angle of elevation or depression between them, and then using trigonometric
functions to calculate the difference in elevation.
 This method is often used when it is not possible to use traditional leveling
techniques due to obstacles or difficult terrain or elevations
It is commonly used in topographical work to find out the elevations of the
top of buildings, chimneys, churches etc.
Errors in trigonometrical Levelling
 Earth curvature
 Atmospheric refraction
 Instrument maladjustment.
 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING
 Topographic mapping:
to determine the elevations of points on the ground. This helps to create accurate maps that show the relief and
contour lines of the land.
 Construction projects:
to determine the elevations of various points on the ground and hence ensure that structures are built at the
correct elevation and that the ground is properly graded.
 Flood control:
to determine the elevations of river beds and other waterways and hence design effective flood control
measures, such as levees and flood walls.
 Mining:
to determine the elevations of various points in the mine and used to design the mine layout and to ensure that
mining operations are carried out safely.
 Road and bridge construction:
to determine the elevations of various points on the ground and hence ensure that roads and bridges are built at
the correct elevation and that they are properly graded for drainage.
 Environmental studies:
to determine the elevations of various points on the ground and study the effects of environmental factors, such
as erosion and sedimentation.
 CASES IN TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING
Case I: Base of the object accessible Case II: Base of the object inaccessible- The instrument stations
and the elevated object are in the same vertical plane
I. Instrument axes at same level

From ∆ 𝐶𝐸𝐹, From ∆ 𝑂′ 𝐴′𝐹 𝐷 tan 𝜃1 = (𝐷 + 𝑑) tan 𝜃2

ℎ = 𝐷 tan 𝜃1………….. (1) 𝐷 (tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2) = 𝑑 tan 𝜃2
ℎ = 𝐹𝐸 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃 From ∆ 𝑂′ 𝐴′𝐹 ⇒ 𝐷 = 𝑑 tan 𝜃2 (tan 𝜃1 − tan𝜃2) ∴
∴ 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑀 + 𝑆 + ℎ ℎ = (𝐷 + 𝑑) tan 𝜃2…………. (2) 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑀 + 𝑆 + ℎ
∴ 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑀 + 𝑆 + 𝐷 tan𝜃 From 1 and 2
⇒ ℎ = 𝐷 tan 𝜃 = 𝑑 (tan 𝜃[Link] 𝜃2)
(tan𝜃1−tan𝜃2)
 II. Instrument axes at different levels
Depending upon the ground conditions, following cases may arise

a) Instrument axis at 𝑂2 higher than at𝑂1 From ∆ 𝑂′ 𝐴′′𝐹

ℎ1 = 𝐷tan 𝜃1 ……………………..(1)
From ∆ 𝑂′ 𝐴′𝐹
ℎ2 = (𝐷 + 𝑑)tan 𝜃2 ………………(2)
Subtract 2 from 1

ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃1 − (𝐷 + 𝑑) tan 𝜃2
𝑆 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃1 − 𝐷 tan 𝜃2 − 𝑑 tan𝜃2
𝑆 = 𝐷 (tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2) − 𝑑 tan𝜃2
𝐷 (tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2) = 𝑆 + 𝑑 tan𝜃2

⇒ 𝐷 = 𝑆 + 𝑑 tan 𝜃2
(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2)
∴ 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑀 + 𝑆1 + ℎ1
b) Instrument axis at 𝑂2 higher than at𝑂1

From ∆ 𝑂′ 𝐴′𝐹
ℎ1 = 𝐷tan 𝜃1……………………. (1)
From ∆ 𝑂′ 𝐴′′𝐹
ℎ2 = (𝐷 + 𝑑)tan 𝜃2…………… (2)
Subtract 1 from 2

ℎ2 − ℎ1 = (𝐷 + 𝑑) tan 𝜃2 − 𝐷 tan 𝜃1
𝑆 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃2 − 𝐷 tan 𝜃1 + 𝑑 tan𝜃2
𝑆 = 𝐷 (tan 𝜃2 − tan 𝜃1) + 𝑑 tan𝜃2
𝑆 = −𝐷 (tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2) = 𝑆 + 𝑑 tan 𝜃2
⇒ 𝐷 = (𝑑 tan 𝜃2 − 𝑆)
(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2)

But ℎ1 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃1

= (𝑑 tan 𝜃2 − 𝑆) tan 𝜃1
(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2)

∴ 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑀 + 𝑆1 + ℎ1
Case III: Base of the object inaccessible- Instrument station and the elevated object are not in the same vertical plane
WORKED EXAMPLE
A theodolite was set up at a distance of 125m from a tower and the angle of elevation at the top was 22°12’. The staff
reading on a Bm of RL 101.25m with the telescope horizontal was 0.915. Find the top of the Chimney
DIGITAL LEVELLING.
Digital levelling is a modern method of levelling in land surveying that uses electronic devices to
measure the difference in elevation between two points on the ground.
Types of digital levelling instruments:
Automatic levels. These use a compensator mechanism to maintain a level line of sight.

Digital levels. These use an electronic sensor to measure the height difference between two
points.

The instrument is set up at one point, and the staff is held vertically at the other point.
The instrument then sends a beam of light to the staff, which reflects the beam back to the
instrument. The electronic sensor measures the time it takes for the beam to travel from the
instrument to the staff and back, which is used to calculate the height difference between the
two points.
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL LEVELLING
Firstly, it is much faster and more efficient than traditional methods, as measurements
can be obtained quickly and accurately.
Secondly, it is less susceptible to errors caused by human error, as the digital readout
eliminates the need for manual calculations.
Thirdly, digital levelling is less affected by changes in temperature and atmospheric
conditions, which can affect the accuracy of traditional levelling instruments.
 DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL LEVELLING
Firstly, it is more expensive than traditional levelling instruments, which can make it
impractical for some surveying projects.
Secondly, digital levelling instruments require regular calibration to maintain their
accuracy, which can be time-consuming and costly.
Lastly, digital levelling instruments may not be suitable for use in areas with limited
access or where the terrain is too rugged for the instrument to be set up easily.
 PRECISE LEVELLING

Precise leveling is a surveying technique used to measure the difference in height between two points with a high degree
of accuracy. This is the leveling used to determine elevations of geodetic points in triangulation in surveying. This is
accomplished by using a precision level instrument and a series of carefully set up benchmarks, or reference points, to
establish a precise vertical control network. Precise leveling is a surveying technique used to establish a precise network of
vertical control points. This technique is used when high accuracy is required, such as in the construction of large
structures like bridges or dams. Precise leveling requires the use of a precision level instrument, and a series of
benchmarks or reference points are established to ensure that the measurements are accurate.

Purpose of precise levelling

 To obtain the elevation of specific points very accurately.
 To obtain high orders of accuracy such as 1mm per km
transverse.
 Aims to achieve primary vertical control in a country, state
or region.
 To intensify existing vertical control.
 To define geodynamics –earth tremors geophysical earth
tide.
 To specify ground control points.
 To determine topographic mapping and contours
 However, should the dam fail the results would be
catastrophic for those on the downstream side. Being
under the pressure of water when full, the dam may be
liable to distortion. The behaviour of the dam must
Description: therefore be monitored. One way of monitoring any
Precise levelling may be required in certain vertical movement along the dam is by levelling. Since
instances in construction such as in deformation early warning of small movement is required, and since
monitoring, the provision of precise height control conclusions about movement must be made with
for large engineering projects such as long-span statistical confidence, the levelling must be very precise.
bridges, dams and hydroelectric schemes and in
mining subsidence measurements. For example, a
dam that has been in place for many years is
unlikely to be moving.
There is more to precise levelling than precise levels. High quality equipment is very important, but so is the
method by which it is used. Indeed the two components of precise levelling are precise equipment and precise
procedures. Precise levelling uses the same principles as ordinary levelling but with:
(1) Higher quality instruments and more accurate staves
(2) More rigorous observing techniques
(3) Restricted climatic and environmental conditions
(4) Refined booking and reduction
(5) Least squares adjustment for a levelling net
Precise invar staff:
The precise levelling staff has its graduations precisely marked (and checked by laser interferometry) on invar
strips, which are attached to wooden or aluminium frames. The strip is rigidly fixed to the base of the staff and
held in position by a spring-loaded tensioning device at the top. This arrangement provides support for the invar
strip without restraining it in any way. Usually there are two scales on each staff, offset from each other by a
fixed amount (Figure). The staff is placed upon a change plate at intermediate stations.
A conventional levelling change plate is small and light and is designed to give a firm platform for the staff on soft
ground. Precise levelling should only ever take place on firm ground and the precise levelling change plate is
designed to be unmoving on a hard surface. It is therefore heavy. The feet are rounded so that they do not slowly
sink or heave when placed on tarmac. The top is smooth, round and polished. The change plate in Figure 3.34 is
made from a solid piece of steel and weighs about 10 kilograms.
For the most precise work, two staffs are used; in which case they should be carefully matched in every detail. A
circular bubble built into the staff is essential to ensure verticality during observation. The staff should be
supported by means of steadying poles or handles.

(1) The staff should have its circular bubble tested at frequent intervals using a plumb-bob.
(2) Warping of the staff can be detected by stretching a fine wire from end to end.
(3) Graduation and zero error can be counteracted by regular calibration.
(4) For the highest accuracy a field thermometer should measure the temperature of the strip in order to apply scale
corrections.
Instruments:
The instruments used should be precise levels of the highest accuracy. They should provide high-quality resolution
with high magnification (×40) and be capable of being adjusted to remove any significant collimation. This may be
achieved with a highly sensitive tubular bubble with a large radius of curvature that gives a greater horizontal
bubble movement per angle of tilt. In the case of the automatic level a highly refined compensator would be
necessary. In either case a parallel plate micrometer, fitted in front of the object lens, would be used to obtain
submillimetre resolution on the staff.
Parallel plate micrometer
Description:
For precise levelling, the estimation of 1 mm is not sufficiently [Link] plate glass micrometer in front of
the object lens enables readings to be made direct to 0.1 mm, and estimated to 0.01 mm.  The parallel plate
micrometer works by refracting the image of a staff graduation to make it coincident with the cross-hair. There is,
therefore, no estimation of the position of the cross-hair with respect to the graduation.
 
The principle of the attachment is seen from Figure. Had the parallel plate been vertical the line of sight would have
passed through without deviation and the reading would have been 1.026 m, the final figure being estimated.
However, by manipulating the micrometer the parallel plate is tilted until the line of sight is displaced to the nearest
division marked on the staff, which is 1.02 m. The rotation of the micrometer drum is proportional to the displacement
of the image of the staff. The amount of displacement s is measured on the micrometer and added to the exact
reading to give 1.02647 m, only the last decimal place is estimated.

It can be seen from Figure 3.36 that the plate could have been moved in the opposite direction, displacing the line of
sight up. Since the parallel plate micrometer run is normally equal to the gap between two successive divisions on
the staff it will not be possible to gain coincidence on more than one division. The displacement is related to the
rotation of the parallel plate as follows. In Figure 3.37 the plate pivots about A. The displacement is BC and the
rotation is equal to the angle of incidence i. The thickness of the plate is t and the ray of light from the staff is
refracted by an angle r. μ is the refractive index of the glass of the plate.
Displacement= BC = AB sin(i − r)
Parallel plate micrometer
Parallel plate displacement
But :
AB = t sec r so Displacement = t sin(i − r) sec r
= t(sin i cos r − cos i sin r) sec r
= t(sin i − cos i sin r sec r)
But from Snell’s Law of refraction sin i = μsin r. So upon
substitution and rearrangement the equation becomes

Displacement = t sin i1 − (1 − sin2 i) 1/2 (μ2 − sin2 i)−1/2

If i is small then sin2 i is negligible compared with 1 or μ2

and sin i = i radians. So

Displacement = t (1 − μ −1)i

Since t and μ are fixed properties of the plate then displacement

is directly proportional to rotation. Parallel plate micrometers are
also manufactured for use with 5 mm graduations.
 INVERTED LEVELLING
Inverted levels refer to the measurement of levels of points taken in a survey that are lower than the instrument station.
In other words, the instrument station is set up at a higher elevation than the point being measured. This is done by
subtracting the height of the instrument station from the reading taken at the lower point. Inverted levels are taken when it
is not possible to set up the instrument at a higher elevation than the point being measured. In such cases, the instrument is
set up at a lower elevation, and the readings are taken by turning the telescope upside down. The height of the instrument is
then added to the reading to obtain the elevation of the point being measured. This technique is used when a point is
located in a depression, such as a culvert or a sewer.