The Insect Life Cycle

FRAR
Reproduction and Embryonic Development

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:
1. Sexual Reproduction

 both male and female insect of the same

species is required for the eggs to be fertilized
in the female oviduct as they pass the duct of
the sperm storage sac (spermatheca).
The Female Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
2. Asexual Reproduction
a. Parthenogenesis - Production of offspring
from unfertilized eggs.

2 types:
i. Obligatory: eggs always develop by
parthenogenesis. Example: Aphids in the tropics
ii. Facultative: eggs may develop without
fertilization, or after fertilization depending on
conditions. Aphids in the temperate regions
Classes of Parthenogenesis
1. Arrhenotoky: males are produced without fertilization,
haploid-diploid situation (common in Hymenoptera-Honey bee,
here, unfertilized eggs (haploids) are males who become drones
and fertilized eggs (diploids) are female who become workers).

2. Thelytoky: only females are produced:

Apomictic parthenogenesis - no reduction division in egg
formation, females identical to mother (aphids).
Automictic parthenogenesis - normal meiotic division in egg
formation, followed by fusion of nuclei so diploid number restored

3. Deuterotoky: eggs may be of either sex

b. Paedogenesis – reproduction by the juvenile
(immature) form.
 this type of reproduction occurs in one beetle family
(Micromyiidae), several families of the fungus gnats
(Cecidomyiidae) and a common flower fly (Syrphidae).
 The ovaries become functional in females with
immature (larval) body form, and eggs develop
parthenogenetically.
 Eventually, mother larvae becomes filled with
developing daughter larvae and emerge from the
mother and under certain condition, produces winged
males and females and reproduce sexually.
Oviparous -eggs are laid and left unattended to
hatch.
Example: most insects
Viviparous – eggs develop and hatch inside and
live young are laid
Example: Aphids
Ovoviviparous – eggs develop and hatch at the
insect’s ovipositor and live individual were laid
outside
Example: some Hymenopterans
Postembryonic Growth and Development

EGG HATCHING
- the hatching process often begins when the embryo
in the egg swallows fluid or air.
- This action gives the embryo more bulk and
turgidity
- Subsequently, the embryo must rupture the egg
covering to escape
- Ruptures may be caused when the insect produces
rhythmic muscular activity and presses or strikes
against the covering with its head.
EGG HATCHING CONT’N
- In grasshopper, the eggshell rupture irregularly
along the egg surface
- In green stink bug, rupture along preformed lines
of weaknesses; its eggs have easily ruptured
“caps” that the insects open like a lid
- In dragonflies, a T- or Y-shaped central “tooth”
(egg burster) forces the rupture
- In many butterflies and moths simply chew their
way out of the eggshell.
- The act of the larva leaving the egg is called
eclosion.
 Growth of immatures
- the immature stage is a virtual “feeding
machine” at this point in the life cycle
- frequently, injury by pest species is most
severe at this time and, in many instances,
occurs exclusively during this stage (for
example, caterpillar pests).
- This feeding behavior results in substantial
growth in size of the insect.
- Growth, as measured by weight gain, usually
progresses in a stepwise fashion, which each step is
delineated by shedding of immatures old skin
(exuvium).
- This shedding process, called molting, results from
the inability of the insect’s skin or cuticle to
expand.
- Therefore, the insect grows to a size where its outer
covering becomes limiting.
- It sheds that covering, develops a new larger one,
grows too fill up the new skin, sheds it, and so on,
until growth is complete.
Emergence of the Adult
- Adults emerge from the last-immature exuviae in a way similar
to immatures exiting their old skin.

- After splitting the old cuticle, the new adults pull itself out and,
if winged, expands its newly formed wings by pumping blood
through them.

- The new adult at first is soft and may lack much of its final
pigmentation and at this time, very vulnerable to natural
enemies and other environmental adversities.

- Within a short time, however, the cuticle hardens and becomes

pigmented, and the wings are fully functional and expanded.
Mating Behavior

Reproduction and Mating Behavior

 broadly define to include all of the events
surrounding insemination of the female by the
male and the production of offspring
 to an extent all behavior is molded by its
influence on the ability of an animal to transmit
its genes to the gene pool of the next generation
 measures of fitness are based on reproductive
success
 Insect Reproductive Behavior

• Mate Location and Pair Formation

• Courtship
• Copulation
• Insemination
• Fertilization
• Oviposition
 Mate Location / Pair Formation

• Systems which have evolved to bring the sexes

together
Use of specific cues - pheromones, acoustic
signals, bioluminescence
Use of visual cues
Swarming behaviors
Hill-topping behaviors
 Mating Behavior in Hangingflies

Nuptial Gifts - Resource Quality

1. Male catches prey, releases a pheromone to attract
females
2. Female probes prey item, allows copulation if
acceptable
3. Duration of copulation dependent on size of prey
4. Large prey item leads to long copulations,
maximum sperm transfer, increased oviposition and a
refractory period
 Oviposition
1. General attraction to some particular area

2. Selection of site to lay eggs, often based on

specific stimuli

3. In some cases eggs may be deposited in an

ootheca, or placed in a specially constructed
nest
 Metamorphosis
• Simple
– external wing development (if winged), no period of
inactivity
– Ametabolous
– Hemimetabolous
– Paurometabolous
• Intermediate
– External wing pads & internal development, period
of inactivity
• Complete
– Internal wing development, period of inactivity
 Simple Metamorphosis
Ametabolous
Immatures look identical to adult only smaller
(silverfish)
Simple Metamorphosis
Hemimetabolous
Immatures (naiads) look
different than adult – NO
PUPA (mayflies and
odanates)

NAIAD
Simple Metamorphosis

Paurometabolous
• Immatures (nymphs)
look similar to adult
• Gradual development
of wing pads externally
• Homoptera, Hemiptera
& other orders
Incomplete Metamorphosis

Intermediate
NYMPH I • Immatures (nymphs)
NYMPH II look similar to adult
• Some internal wing
development
• prepupal and pupal
stages (period of
inactivity)
Complete Metamorphosis
Holometabolous
• Immatures (larvae/
maggots) look
different than adult
• Pupa formed
• Bettles, diptera,
lepidoptera,
hymenoptera);
• Internal wing
development
Type of Metamorphosis by Order
Simple (A) Simple (P) Intermediate
• Collembola • Phasmida • Thysanoptera
• Thysanura • Orthoptera
• Mantodea Complete
Simple (H) • • Neuroptera
Blattaria
• Ephemeroptera • • Coleoptera
Isoptera
• Odonata • • Mecoptera
Dermaptera
• Plecoptera • • Siphonaptera
Psocoptera
• • Diptera
Phthiraptera
• • Tricoptera
Hemiptera
• • Lepidoptera
Homoptera
• • Hymenoptera
Psocoptera

A= ametabolous; H= hemimetabolous; P= paurometabolous

 Larval Types
Vermiform
• Maggot-like, worm-like
• Legless
• With or without a developed
head

Elateriform
• Wireworm-like
• Elongate body
• Cylicrical
[Link]
• Hardshelled
• Short legs
 Larval Types
[Link]
Eruciform
• Caterpillar-like
• Cylindrical body
• Well developed head
• Short antennae
• Thoracic and prolegs

Campodeiform
• Elongate body
• Somewhat flattened
• Usually well developed antennae
• Active
 Larval Types
Scarabaeiform
• Grub-like
• Usually curved (C-shaped)
• Well developed head
Marlin E. Rice • Thoracic legs, NO prolegs
 Larval Types by Order
Eruciform: Campodeiform: Vermiform:
• Lepidoptera • Neuroptera • Diptera
• Mecoptera • Tricoptera • Siphonaptera
• Hymenoptera* • Coleoptera • Hymenoptera
• Coleoptera*
• Lepidoptera*

Elateriform: Scarabaeiform:
• Coleoptera* • Coleoptera*

* Not the most common larval form of the order

Pupal Types
Obtect
• Appendages more or
less glued to body
• May be covered by
cocoon
• Lepidoptera, some
Diptera
Pupal Types
Exarate
• Appendages free
• Not covered by cocoon
• “mummified adult”
• Most insects with complete
metamorphosis – NOT Lepidopteran
or Diptera
Pupal Types

Coarctate
•Like exerate but
covered with hardened
cuticle called puparium
•Some Diptera
Insect Seasonal Cycle
• Is the progression of one or more cycles
occurring during a 1-year period
• Important to the survival of insects, because
most environments, of which insects are a part,
undergo annual cycles.
• Seasonal cycles can be grouped according to
the number of generations that occur in a year;
this number is referred to as a populations’
Voltinity.
Insect Voltinity