ALANDI(D), PUNE-412 105.

Electrical & Electronics

Engg.
Unit-I
A.C. Circuits

A.C. Circuits

S. S. Kabra &
M.M. Bhalekar
School of Electrical Engg.
Feb 25, 202
 Unit 1- AC Circuits
Contents:
Energy Scenario, General structure of electrical power systems,
A.C. fundamentals, RMS and average value, R-L,R-C,RLC series
and parallel circuits, phasor diagram, power triangle and power
factor, measures to improve power factor and its effects on
Power system and consumer.
Work, Power & Energy, costing of electricity, Application of
Renewable Energy Systems, Design of PV system (offgrid),
Battery selection and its series parallel connections

Course Learning Objective: To impart knowledge of Single phase

AC Circuit and use of renewable energy systems.
Students successfully completing the course will be able to,
CO1---Develop Renewable Energy System (PV) & Power factor
improvement circuits. (BloomLevel-3)
 ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA
✔ During the pre-reform period, the commercial energy
sector was totally regulated by government.
✔ The economic reform and liberalization, in post 90s, has
opened the doors for private sector participation in
coal, oil, gas and electricity sectors.
✔ India ranks Third in the world in total energy
consumption (surpassing Japan & Russia in 2013)
✔ India is rich in coal and renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, hydro and bio-energy sources)
 ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA

✔ India is a net importer of energy.

✔ More than 25% of primary energy needs is met through
imports mainly in form of crude oil and natural gas.
✔ Heavy dependence on non renewable sources of
energy (coal, petroleum, natural gas) to meet the
demand.
 INTRODUCTION

• India is one of the world’s largest consumer of

energy
• Conventional sources: Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear.
• Non- conventional: Wind, solar, Geothermal, tidal.
• Installed capacity – Power Installed Capacity :
3,74,200 MW (upto Nov-2020)
• Annual power production –1,106,000 Giga Watt hr
• Per Capita Power Consumption : 1208 kWh (2019-
20)
 Break up of Power
• Thermal Power Plants - 62%
• Hydro Electric Power Plants - 12%
• Nuclear Power Plants - 2%
• Other Renewable power plants - 24%
• Almost 30% to 40% of electrical power is lost in transmission
and distribution
• One Unit saved at Consumer End is almost equivalent to Two
Unit saved from Generation
Less Pollution, Dollar saved, Economical Operation,
Primary Source Energy Secondary
of Energy Conversion Energym
Petroleum

Courtesy of EDF Energy

 There are two types of energy in world on the
basis of there sources and production cycles .
How electricity gets to you
Electricity Supply Chain

Con
u t i o n
Di strib
i ss i on
ra n sm
n T
era t i o
Gen
 Types of Current
• AC: Alternating Current
R

=t
i = Im sin t

v =Vm sin t ~
• DC: Direct Current
R
I constant in Mag. & direction
+
I
0

-
V
 Alternating Current (AC)
• Current is constantly changing in magnitude and
direction at regular intervals
• Current is a function of time and usually varies as a
sine function
i = Im sin ωt
i

=t

v = Vm sin ωt

=t
Consider a rectangular coil of single turn is in motion
in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig.

Because of flux linkages with coil changes, an emf is

induced in coil.

The emf is given by formula, e = Bℓv sin = Emax sin

Emax = Bℓv at sin = 1

where B is the flux density of the magnetic field in Tesla,

ℓ is the active length of conductor in magnetic field,

v is the velocity of conductor in motion.

The rotation of the coil through 360°
results in an AC sine wave output i.e.
generation of a AC voltage.
Thus emf equation can be written as
e = Emax sin
= Em sint where =t
= Em sin(2ft)
 2 t 
= Em sin  T  where f= 1/ T
where angular vel.  = 2f

Similar to above eq., we can write equations for instantaneous

value of current as follows;

i = Im sin
= Im sint
= Im sin(2ft)
 2 t 
 
 T 
= I sin Amp
 Important Terms related to Alternating
Quantity
Because of alternating voltage and current changing
continuously, they have a number of properties.
These basic properties are:

1. Instantaneous value
The value of an alternating quantity at a
particular instant is known as its instantaneous
value.
Ex. i1 and i2 shown in fig. are the instantaneous value
of alternating current at two diff. instances t1 and t2
resp.
 Instantaneous value
i2
i1

t1 t2 =t

The instantaneous value are always represented

by small letters Ex. v or i. i = Im sin ωt
v = Vm sin ωt
 One cycle/Cycle
Each repetition of a complete set of changes
undergone by the alternating quantity is called
as cycle. These repetitions recur at equal
intervals.
One complete cycle consists of two half cycles,
namely positive (+ve) half cycle and negative
(-ve) half cycle as shown in fig.

 ve

-ve
 Frequency (f)
The number of cycles competed per second by an
alternating quantity is known as Frequency.

Symbol ‘f’
& units of (cycles/sec) or Hertz (Hz).

Our country has adopted a frequency of 50 Hz for

alternating voltage or current.
 Time Period (T)
Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required to
complete one cycle of the waveform.

Time period is the time taken by the alternating

quantity to complete one cycle of the waveform.
period of T =
Alternating quantity at 50 Hz will have a
1/f= 1/50 = 0.02 seconds/cycle =20 msec.

Time Period (T)

 Amplitude
Alternating quantity keeps on constantly changing in magnitude
and direction.

The maximum value attained by an alternating

quantity during its positive or negative half cycle is
called as amplitude or peak value.

It is also called as crest value or Max. value. It is denoted

by Im or Vm

Imax
Vm

0 90 180 =t

0 
90

180
 =t
 R.M.S. Value of an Alternating Quantity
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that direct
current which when flowing through the given circuit for given
time produces the same amount of heat as produce by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time.
R.M.S. Value of an Alternating Quantity
i = Im sin ωt
i Irms=0.707 Im

v = Vm sin ωt
v Vm
Vrms=0.707 Vm =
2

t
Average Value of an Alternating Quantity
i = Im sin ωt
i 2I m
Iavg=0.637 Im =


v = Vm sin ωt
v 2Vm
Vavg=0.637 Vm =


t
Sketch waveform of a current i = 10sin (314.159t) and
find its rms value, average value and frequency.

Solution: Given current i = 10sin (314.159t)

Comparing with std. current eq”, i = Im sin(t)

We get, Im = 10 A and = 314.159

Im
Irms= 2 =0.707×Im = 7.07 A,

2I m
Iav =  = 0.637×Im = 6.37 A,


f = 2 = 50 Hz
 A sinusoidal current of frequency 50 Hz has a maximum
value of 100A. How long it will take to for current to attain
value of 20A and 50A starting from zero.
Sketch the waveform and show the time and currents
on the waveform.
5 ms

Im=100A
Time period T = 1/ f = 1/ 50
i2= 50 A = 0.02 seconds =20 msec.

i1 = 20A

t1 t2 =t
10 ms

20 ms
Solution: Given data: Im= 100 Amp, f= 50 Hz

The standard eq” for instantaneous current is given by,

i = Im sint

i = Im sin2ft

i = 100 sin(2 × 50 ×t)

i = 100 sin(100 × t)------------------------------(1)
we have to find time t1 and t2 at instantaneous value of current i1 =20A

and i2 =50A resp.

put i1 =20A in Eq. (1), to get time t1,

20 = 100 sin(100 × t1 )
20 100 t1   sin 1  1 
sin 100 t1  
100 5
  sin 1 0.2  
t1   
 100 

{if =22/7= 3.142taken, { if =180 taken, then

then it’s RAD mode} it’s DEG mode}

 sin 1 0.2  
t1     sin 1 0.2 
 100  t1     6.409  10  4 sec
 100  180 
 6.409  10  4 sec
t1 = 0.6409 msec t1 = 0.6409 msec

Thus one can use Calculator in RAD or DEG mode.

Normally our CALCI are in DEG mode, there it is preferred.

Time to attain 50A for first time is, t2 = 1.67 msec

 5 ms
Time period T = 1/ f = 1/ 50
= 0.02 seconds =20 msec.
100A

i2= 50 A

i1 = 20A
=t
t1 t2

10 ms

20 ms
 Concept of Phase Diiference
 Consider two single turn coils A and B of different
dimensions arranged radially in the same plane and
mounted rigidly on the common shaft.
 Let the two coils rotate together with some constant
angular velocity in the uniform magnetic field.
 Then, as seen in the case of an elementary alternator,
sinusoidal e.m.f.s will be induced in these two coils.
 These e.m.f.s will have the same frequency but different
values at every instant.
 Even if the values of these e.m.f.s will be different at
every instant, they would reach their respective
maximum or zero values at the same time
 eB
North Pole
eA

S
Coil A

EMF is induced in both the coils,

Magnitude of emf may be
different but this two emf are in
F
Coil B phase always.
i.e. they attain their maxima
at same time, thier minima at
South Pole same time
Such e.m.f.s are said to in phase with each other.
Thus, when two alternating quantities of the same
frequency attain their, corresponding values (e.g. zero,
positive maximum, etc.) simultaneously, they are said to be
in phase with each other.

eA = EmAsin = EmAsin t ...(1)

eB = EmB sin  = EmB sin t ...(2)

EA

EB
eB PHASOR
DIAGRAMS
eA
In some cases emfs may be out of phase.

Now, to explain this let us assume that coil B is

displaced from coil A by angle .

In this condition, it will be observed that the e.m.f.s

induced in the two coils will not reach their maximum
or zero values at the same instant.

Thus, if two alternating quantities of the same

frequency which attain their corresponding values at

different instants are said to be out of phase.

 North Pole
EMF is induced in both the
Coil A
coils, Magnitude of emf
S induced may be different as
Coil B
well as two emfs are out of

phase.
i.e. they attain their
F
maxima at different time,
as well as their minima at
different time.
South Pole
It will be seen that there is an angular displacement of  bet” the
two curves.

This angular displacement between the waveforms of two e.m.f.s

is known as phase difference between them.

When the phase difference is /2 radians (90°), they are

said to be in quadrature, and

when it is 180°, they are in phase opposition.

 If the emf in the coil A is represented by the equation,
eA = EmAsin = EmAsint .........(1) {i.e. taken as ref. on +X axis}

then, the e.m.f. in the coil B will be

eB = EmB sin(t - ) …...... (2) {-ve  denotes that eB is lagging}

On the other hand, if the e.m.f. in the coil B is taken as reference

and represented by the equation,
eB = EmB sint then the e.m.f. in the coil A will

eA = EmAsin(t+) {+ve  denotes that eA is leading}

Thus, in connection with the phase difference, a plus (+) sign

indicates lead whereas a minus (-) sign indicates lag in reference to
 PHASOR DIAGRAMS
The diagram in which different alternating quantities (sinusoidal)
of the same frequency are represented by phasors with their
correct phase relationships is known as phasor diagram.
The phasors of the same frequency rotate in an anti­clockwise dir” with the
same angular velocity ( = 2f).

emf EA

eB
eA EB Ref.
0 90 180
=t EA Ref.
EB

Phasor diagram of two alternating quantities out of phase

Remember following points while drawing any phasor diagrams :

1. X and Y axis are fixed in space. Therefore, it is not necessary

to include them in the diagram.

2. The phasors are drawn normally to represent r.m.s. values.

3. The phasor chosen as a reference phasor is drawn in the hori-

zontal position e.g. the phasor EA is the reference phasor.

4. Since the phasors representing different alternating

quantities are assumed to rotate in the counter clockwise
direction, the phasors ahead in this direction from a given
phasor are said to lead the given phasor, while those behind
are said to lag the given phasor.
Phasors in Rectangular Form
Consider the phasor V at the angle  with the reference
axis as shown in Fig.
y V
x = Vcos & y = Vsin

x Ref. axis

The phasor V has two components, x along the reference

axis and y at 90° to the reference axis. Thus, phasor V is
the phasor addition of components x and y. This may be
expressed symbolically as,
V = x + jy ... Eq.(1)
• Here, the actual magnitude of the phasor is
|V| = x 2  y 2

• while its phase angle, i.e. its inclination to the

reference axis is given by
tan = (y/x)  = tan 1 ( y / x)
V = x+jy
• Thus, Equation (1) completely specifies the
magnitude and the position of the phasor.
Phasors represented in this form are said to be
in rectangular / Cartesian / symbolic form.
The j Operator V = x+jy

The symbol j used in Equation (1) indicates that the component

y is perpendicular to the component x.

The symbol j denotes rotation of the quantity to which it is

attached through 90° in the counter-clockwise direction.

If applied twice, it turns the quantity through 180°, e.g.

jjy = j2y = - y This gives j2 = -1 or j = -1

The quantities when expressed, in the form x + jy are called

complex numbers.

In mathematics,
x is called the real and
y the imaginary component of the complex number.
Addition and Subtraction of Phasors in Rectangular Form

While adding two phasors in rectangular form,

their in-phase and quadrature components are
added separately.
V1  20  j15 & V2  10  j 5 V1  V2  20  10   j 15  5  30  j10

Similarly, while subtracting one phasor from the

another, their in-phase and quadrature
components are separately subtracted.
V1  V2  20  j15  10  j 5  20  10  j 15  5  10  j 20
Addition and Subtraction of two phasors is very easy in
rectangular form.
PHASORS IN POLAR FORM

In this form, a phasor is specified by its magnitude and its

angular position with respect to the +X-axis which is taken as a
reference axis.
For ex. the phasor V in Fig. can be represented in polar form as :

= |Vrms| ° …
V
(2)
RM
S
Valu
e

RMS value of current I = 25 + j40

V
Amp is ____


a. 57.99 b. 47.1699 c. 60 Ref. axis

Multiplication and Division of Phasors in Polar Form
Multiplication of two phasors in polar form is done by taking the
product of their magnitudes and the sum of their angles.

On the other hand, their division is done by taking the quotient of

their magnitudes and the difference of their angles.
Two phasors are, V1 = 12 60o & V2 = 3 -30o Find : V1.V2 & V1 / V2

Solution :
V1 . V2 = 1260° × 3-30° = 12 *3 (60°-30°)
= 36  30° ... Ans.

1260 12
60  30  = 490°
o
V1 /V2 = 
3 - 30 3
In the next chapter, this technique will be extended

Procedure for Rect. to Polar Conversion:

V = x + j y = |Vrms| °

Press Shift then +ve button i.e. Pol, then type as

Pol(x, y) press = button, write magnitude (RMS),
then press RCL and F button, write angle .
Ex. V= 3+ j 4 = ? = V° V= 5 53.13°
I= 8 – j 6 = ? = I ° I =10 36.86°

Imp: If calculator is Deg Mode then o/p  will be

in Degrees and If calculator is Rad Mode then 
will be in Radians.
Procedure for Polar to [Link]:
V = |Vrms| °= x + j y

Press Shift then –ve button i.e. Rec, then type as

Rec (V, °) press = button, Notedown in-phase or x
component, then press RCL and F button,
Notedown out of-phase or y comp.

Important: Calculator must be in Deg Mode when

 given in Degrees.
Ex. V= 5 53.13° = 3+ j 4 =
I= 20 60°
 Pure R Pure L Pure C
Ckt. Ckt. Ckt.
Symbol R L C
v = Vm sint i = Im sin(t - i = Im sin(t+
v and i equations
i = Im sint π/2) π/2)
V(ref) I leading
Phasor (vector)
I V(ref) I
dia. lagging V(ref)

Phase / p.f. angle,   = 0  = 90  = 90

Power factor, cos cos0=1unity 0 Lagging 0 leading
Impedance, Z (Ω) Z=R Z=XL= L Z=XC
Impedance in
Z=R ±j0 Z=0+jXL Z=0- j XC
Rect. form
Avg. power drawn P=VI cos
V  I= V2/R 0 0
Waveform
 Pure Resistors R connected to AC
Let, the applied alternating voltage be
R
given by equation,
v =Vm sin t …….…
i
(1)
~
v =Vm sin t As, voltage v is applied in a close loop so an
alternating current will be set up in the circuit.
At any instant, the value of current is given by
v =Vm sin t
Ohm's law as,
i = Im sin wt
v Vm sin t Vm
i   sin t
R R R
The current will be maximum when sint becomes unity.
Vm
 Im 
R
i = Im sin t …….…(2)
Vmsinωt …….…(1)
v =Vm sin t

& Imsinωt …….…(2) i = Im sin wt

So the voltage and current are

in phase as shown in waveforms.

Also Phasor dia. is drawn in Fig. below

I V {It is an diagram in which voltage and current

Phasor diagram are drawn with their correct phase relationship.}

 Here the phase difference bet” V & I is is 0

 Angle bet” V & I is known as power factor angle, = 0 .
 Cosine of the angle between V & I is known as power factor.
 Here power factor , cos= 1( Unity)
 Pure Resistors R connected to AC
Power
v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin t =t

In a.c. circuits, power at any

instant is given by the product
of voltage at that instant and
current at that instant.

Instantaneous power,
p=vi

p = Vm sin t  Im sin t
= Vm Im sin2 t
 1 - cos(2t) 
 
= Vm Im  2 
Conclusion:
 In case of purely resistive circuit, total opposition to
flow of current (i.e. impedance) is R, i.e. Z=R.
 Here applied voltage and current are in the same
phase i.e. phase difference bet” them is 0.
 As the phase difference bet” them is 0 i.e. = 0
therefore power factor, cos= 1.
 Average power consumed by resistance R= V  I
V2
= I2R=R
 PURELY INDUCTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT
v =Vm sin t
V(Ref)
i = Im sin(wt- π/2)
= 90

0 90 180
=t
= 90 

I (lagging)

v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin(wt- π/2)

V (leading)

0 90 180 2 =t

= 90 

I(Ref)

If i = Im sinwt taken as ref.

then v =Vm sin (wt+ π/2)

Conclusion: ( PURELY INDUCTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT )

 In case of purely inductive circuit, total opposition to

flow of current (i.e. impedance, Z) is XL, here Z= XL.

 Here applied voltage and current have a phase

difference of 90 where current lags the voltage by 90.

 As the phase difference bet” them is 90 i.e. = 90

therefore power factor, cos= 0 lagging.

 Average power consumed by purely inductive circuit is

Zero.
 V I 
Instantane ous power, p    m m sin 2t 
 2 
 C PURELY CAPACITIVE A.C. CIRCUIT
i

~
v =Vm sin t I (Ref)
(a) Circuit Diagram 90

v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin (t+ π/2)
V(Lagging)

0 90 180 =t

If i = Im sinwt taken as ref.
= 90 

then v =Vm sin (wt - π/2)

I (leading)

90
V(Ref)
Conclusion: ( PURELY CAPACITIVE A.C. CIRCUIT )

 In case of purely capacitive circuit, total opposition to

flow of current (i.e. impedance, Z) is XC, here Z= XC.

 Here also applied voltage and current have a phase

difference of 90 where current leads the voltageby 90.

 As the phase difference bet” them is 90 i.e. = 90

therefore power factor, cos= 0 leading.
 The nature of power factor is determined by the nature of current.
Here as the current is leading therefore power factor is zero leading.

 Average power consumed by purely capacitive circuit is

Vm I m
Zero. Instantane ous power, p  sin 2t 
2
 v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin (wt+ π/2)

As the phase difference bet” them is 90 i.e. = 90

therefore power factor, cos= 0 leading.

=t
Instantaneous power,
p=vi
 R + L series circuit across AC supply
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current,
Pure R Pure L Voltage drop across R, VR = IR
Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL

I
VR VL V = VR + VL Current I is taken as reference

v =Vm sin t

2
V=I R 2  XL = IZ
 VL V


VR I(Ref)
Phasor diagram

V= IZ

VL IX L X L
tan =  
VR IR R

R
cos =
Z
 I cos
 V (ref)

I sin

I} Active or Real or True power, P = V I cos unit- Watts or kW

True power (P) is the power consumed by the resistive loads in an
electrical circuit. Eq” P = I2Rtotal is also valid true power.

II} Reactive power or Imaginary Power, Q = V I sin  unit-

Var
Reactive power (Q) is the power consumed in an AC circuit
because of the expansion and collapse of magnetic (inductive) and
electrostatic (capacitive) fields. P  Q
2 2

III} Total or Apparent power: S = = VI unit-

Active and Reactive Power

• Active power (kW): real power used

• Reactive power (kVAR): virtual power that
determines load/demand
• Utility pays for total power (kVA)

kVA==(KW)
kVA (KW)2++(KVAR)
2 2
(KVAR)2
 Power Factor, cos

The cosine of angle between phasor current and phasor

voltage is known as power factor. Symbol-cos
 Let us consider the R-L circuit as shown
If applied Alt. voltage is represented by. v = Vm sin t
Now the current flowing through the circuit at any instant will be i = Im (t – ) (proved)

Now the instantaneous power is given as,

p = v.i
= Vm Im sint . sin (t – )
= Vm Im [cos - cos(2t -)]

Vm I m V I
= cos   m m cos2t   
2 2
In the above expression first term is constant and the second term having the
double of the supply frequency.

The average power consumed over a one complete cycle by second term is zero.
Vm I m
Average Power consumed by ckt. = cos 
2
Vm I m
  cos 
2 2
= V. I . cos watt
 1.9 A.C. THROUGH SERIES R-C CIRCUIT
R C
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current,
I
Voltage drop across R, VR = IR
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC V ~
Circuit Diagram

V = VR + VC Current I is taken as reference

v =Vm sin t
VR I(Ref)
2 
V  I R 2  XC  I Z
VC

- V - IX c - X c -ve Y axis V
tan   c   b) Phasor diagram
VR IR R

R
cos  
Z
 Let us consider the R-C circuit as shown
If applied Alt. voltage is represented by. v = Vm sin t
Now the current flowing through the circuit at any instant will be i = Im (t + ) (proved)

Now the instantaneous power is given as,

p = v.i
= Vm Im sint . sin (t + )
= Vm Im [cos - cos(2t +)]

Vm I m Vm I m
= cos   cos2t   
2 2
In the above expression first term is constant and the second term having the
double of the supply frequency.
The average power consumed over a one complete cycle by second term is zero.

Average Power consumed by ckt. = Vm I m

cos 
2
Vm I m
  cos 
2 2
= V. I . cos watt
 1.10 A.C. THROUGH SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT
R L C

A pure resistance R, a pure inductance of L Henry

I VL VC
and a pure capacitance of C Farads are connected
in series across r.m.s. voltage V as shown in fig.
~
V volts
Let I is the r.m.s. value of the resultant current then, Circuit Diagram

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (VR in phase with I)

Voltage drop a/c L, VL = IXL (VL is leading I by 90)

Voltage drop a/c C, VC = IXC (VC is lags I by 90)

The relative values of XL and XC plays a very important role in the overall behavior of R-L-C
series circuit. Therefore let us consider THREE cases.
Case I : Inductive reactance, XL > Capacitive reactance, XC

Case II : Inductive reactance, XL < Capacitive reactance, XC

Case III: Inductive reactance, XL = Capacitive reactance, XC

 1.10.1 Case I: XL > XC

R 2  X L - X C 
2
V  I  I Z

VL  VC IX L  IX C X L  X C
tan    
VR IR R

In this case, when XL > XC, the circuit behaves like series R-L
circuit and total current I lags behind the total voltage V by an
angle  , power factor will also be lagging in nature.
1.10.2 Case II: XL < XC

R 2  X L - X C 
2
V  I  I Z

In this case, when XC > XL, the circuit behaves like series R-C
circuit and total current I leads ahead the total voltage V by an
angle  , power factor will be leading in nature.
1.10.3 Case III: XL = X C

Here XL & XC cancel out each other, therefore net impedance

becomes minimum and hence current becomes maximum under
this case.
A circuit consists of resistance of 20 and inductance of 0.1henry is
connected in series across single phase 200V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate:
Impedance, Z
Current drawn
Power consumed R=20Ω X =31.416Ω
L

Draw relevant phasor diagram

I

Vrms= 200 volts

A motor load of 10 kW operates at 0.8 power factor (lagging) when connected
to a 400V, single phase, 50Hz source, find:
1. Current drawn by motor 2. Power factor angle
3. Impedance 4. Resistance of motor
5. Reactance of motor 6. Write equation for voltage and current.
7. Draw phasor diagram.
A coil of resistance 40 and inductance of 0.1 H is connected in series
with a 150F capacitor, across a 200V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
• Impedance
Zcoil
• Current
XC
• Power factor
• Total power consumed R =10 X =31.42
coil Lcoil

• Voltage across coil and capacitor

• Vector diagram
I Vcoil VC
XL

Vrms= 200 volts

 Impedance, Z
A series circuit consist of resistance 50, R=50 XL=31.42 XC=63.66

inductance of 0.1 H and a capacitance of 50F

connected in series across a 230V, 50 Hz
I
supply. Calculate current drawn by circuit,
power factor of the circuit & its nature and total Vrms= 230 volt
power consumed by the circuit. Draw the
phasor diagram.
A series circuit consisting of a 12 resistance, 0.3 Henry inductance and a
variable capacitor is connected across 100V, 50Hz A.C. Supply. The
capacitance value is adjusted to obtain maximum current. Find this
capacitance value and the power drawn by the circuit under this condition.
Now supply frequency is raised to 60Hz, the voltage remaining same at 100V.
Find the value of inductive and capacitive reactance.

Solution: Given: Resis R= 12, Inductance L= 0.3H & Vrms = 100 V, f= 50 Hz

Inductive reactance, XL =  L = 2fL
= 100*0. 3= 94.25 
The current becomes maximum in R-L-C circuit under resonance which
occurs at XL = XC
i.e. when variable capacitive reactance, XC becomes equal to 94.25 , a
maximum current is observed. \ XC = 94.25 
R=12 XL=94.25 XC

Imax
Vrms= 100 volt
 I1 Impedance, Z1
Parallel A.C. Circuit
Itotal
A parallel A.C. circuits may consists of two
or more series circuits in parallel across the I2 Imp, Z2

same supply. The voltage applied across

this entire element is same and they are Vrms

called as branches of parallel circuits.

NOTE:
 The phase angle  of the resultant current I is power factor
angle of whole circuit. Cosine of this angle is the overall
power factor of the circuit.
 The voltage V is taken as reference and if phase angle of
resultant current comes out negative, means current lags the
voltage (i.e. ref.) therefore overall power factor of the circuit
is lagging in nature.
 If phase angle of resultant current comes out positive, means
current leads the voltage (i.e. ref.) therefore overall power
factor of the circuit is leading in nature.
Two impedances Z1 = 3045o and Z2 = 45-30o are connected in parallel
across a single phase 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate :
(1) Current Drawn by each branch
(2) Total Current
(3) Overall Power Factor
Also draw the phasor diagram indicating current drawn by each branch and
total current taking supply voltage as reference.

Solution: Given: Z1 = 3045o  and Z2 = 4530o , and Vrms = 230 V, f= 50 Hz

As the voltage across branch 1 and 2 is same, therefore let it is taken as
reference (i.e. along + X-axis).
\ V  V 0  2000 Volt
V 2300
current drawn by coil, I1 = 
Z1 3045

V 2300
Similarly current drawn by coil, I 2  
Z 2 45  30

Total Current, I total  I1  I 2

Two circuits the impedances of which are given by Z1 = (12 + j16) Ohm

and Z2 = (8 – j4) Ohm are connected in parallel across the potential

difference of (230 + j0) volts. Calculate : (1) The Total Current Drawn
(2) Total Power and Branch Power consumed and (3) Overall Power
Factor of the circuit.
Solution:
Z1 = 12 + j16 = 2053.13o  and {for R+L ckt., Z= R+jXL}

Z2 = 8 – j 4 = 8.94- 26.56o , {for R+C ckt., Z= R-jXC}

I1 Impedance, Z1

Vrms = (230+j0) V= 2300o V 12+j16

I2 Impedance, Z2
8- j 4
I

Vrms= 230 volt

 I1 Impedance, Z1

A coil having of resistance 50 and

inductance of 0.1 H is connected in
parallel with a capacitance of 25 F,
Itotal I2 Impedance, Z2
across single phase 200V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate the current in the coil and
capacitance. Calculate also the total Vrms= 200 volt

current drawn, total p.f. and total

power consumed by circuit.
 I1 Impedance, Z1
\Z1= 50+ j31.42 = 59.0532.15  and o

Z2 = 0 – j 127.3 = 127.3- 90o ,

In Parallel Ckt, Voltage across branch 1 and

I2 Impedance, Z2
2 is SAME, \ it is taken as as reference Itotal
(i.e. along + X-axis).
V  V 0  2000 Volt
Vrms= 200 volt
V 2000
current drawn by coil, I1 = 
Z1 59.0532.15

V 2000
Similarly current drawn by coil, I 2  
Z 2 127.3  90

Total Current, I total  I1  I 2

= 3.387-32.15o + 1.57+90o

= (2.867 – j 1.8) + (0 + j1.57) {into rect. form for addition}

 I1 Impedance, Z1
= (2.867– j 1.8) + (0 + j1.57)

= (2.867) + (– j1.8 + j1.57) {addition}

Itotal I2 Impedance, Z2

= (2.867 – j 0.23) {Rect to Polar now}

Vrms= 200 volt

= ( 2.876– 4.6) {Polar}

Total Current, I total  I total total

573.34 W
 I1 Impedance, Z1

Itotal I2 Impedance, Z2

Vrms= 200 volt

 Concept of Power Factor
• Two types of Electrical load are normally required at use
point
1. Resistive load- For lighting system and heating
application. Here, P= V*I,
Active Power- For Performing actual work, Shaft Power (KW)

[Link] load-For elec. motors, furnaces, transformers

Reactive Power- To create and maintain Electromagnetic field.
(KVAR)
a. The vector sum of active power and reactive power is called Total
Apparent Power in KVA.
b. The ratio of KW to KVA is called Power Factor.

MANDATORY P.F. FOR H.T. CONSUMERS IS 0.9 or above it

When Electrical utilities (MSEDCL) supply power, if all loads have unity
power factor, maximum power can be transferred from the same
distribution system capacity. However this distribution network is under
stress due to lagging PF . Hence, MSEDCL insists for unity power factor.

PF Incentive Structure for Industries by

MSEDCL for PF improvement
POWER FACTOR %Incentive
0.95 1
0.96 2
0.97 3
0.98 4
0.99 5
0.99-0.995 6
0.995 and above 7

PENALTY OF 1% FOR P.F. BELOW 90%

 [Link]
Electric equipment's like motors, furnaces, welding transformers,
tube lights, all draw reactive current from power supply.
This current affects heating of lines, cables, conductors and hence
their utilization.
A 3 phase circuit of 415 V and 10 amps can carry different
amounts of power for different PF.
V I P.F. POWER = √3 VI COSǾ

415 10 0.5 3594 WATTS

415 10 0.7 5032 WATTS

415 10 1.0 7188 WATTS

FOR POWER SYSTEM OPERATION, HIGHEST PF IS DESIRED

P.F. Is improved by connection of capacitors near load centers
like motors, tube lights.
OTHER ADVANTAGES
• P.F. IMPROVEMENT REDUCES KVA DEMAND
• KVA = KW/P.F

• Increases Capacity of Transformer /Lines

• REDUCES DISTRIBUTION LOSSES
• IN FUTURE BY RESIDENTIAL,COMMERCIAL CONSUMERS
 TIME OF DAY TARRIFFS

• POWER SYSTEMS GET PEAK LOADS IN MORNING AND

EVENING
• PEAK LOADS ALSO COME IN SUMMER DUE TO FANS,
COOLERS, AIR CONDITIONING.
• SINCE 1 MW REQUIRE 4 CRORE TO 6 CRORE INVESTMENT,
UTILITIES REQUIRE CONSANT DEMAND
• FOR OPTIMUM CAPACITY USE LARGE CONSUMERS GIVEN
INCENTIVE TO SHIFT LOAD TO NIGHT FROM PEAK PERIOD
• FOR GUJARAT
• 75 PAISE/KWH 7.0 TO 11 A.M.
• EXTRA 18.0 TO 22 HRS.
• 75 PAISE/KWH 10 P.M. TO 6 P.M
• REBATE FOR MORE THAN 33% CONSUMPTION
 THANK
YOU ALL