Cell and Membrane

physiology
Winta tesfaye
University of Gondar
College Medicine and health science
Department of Physiology
wintitesfesh@[Link]

1
The Cell
• The most basic structural and
functional unit of an organism
is the cell.
• It is the smallest living unit of the
human body.
• There are many different types
of cells in the body including:
 Nerve cells
 Blood cells ( in the connective
tissues)
 Muscle cells
 Fat cells
The Tissue
• Tissues are groups of cells,
and the surrounding
environment, which work
together to produce a specific
function.
• There are only four types of
tissues in the body: This is an illustration
1. Epithelial tissue of muscle tissue. The
muscle cells and
2. Connective tissue surrounding matrix
3. Muscle tissue make up the structure
that works in concert
4. Nervous tissue with the brain to
produce movement in
the body.
The Organ

• Organs are structures that are made of two or

more different types of tissues.
• They have specific functions and a defined
shape.

The heart is an example of an organ.

It is made of muscle, as well as
connective and nervous tissue.
The tissues work in concert to move
blood through the body.
Human Body Systems
There are eleven organ systems in the body:
1. The Integumentary System The skin & derived
structures
2. The Skeletal System Bones & joints
3. Muscular System Skeletal muscle
4. Nervous System Brain, spinal cord & nerves
5. Endocrine System Hormone-producing cells &
glands
6. Cardiovascular System Blood, heart & blood
vessels
7. Lymphatic & Immune System Lymphatic vessels & fluid
8. Respiratory System Lungs & airways
9. Digestive System Organs of the GIT
10. Urinary System Kidneys, bladder and
ureters
11. Reproductive System Male & female reproductive organs
 The Organism

• An organism is the highest level of organization.

Structural levels of organization of human body
Muscle cells
Nerve cells
Cells: 4 types Epithelial cells
Cells in the connective tissues
Muscle tissue
Tissues 4 types Nerve tissue
Epithelial tissue
connective tissues
Organs: Example: Heart, lungs

Organ system: Example: Respiratory system, CVS

Organism: Human organism

7
Generalized cell

Components of cells
• A typical cell has two parts: nucleus and
cytoplasm.
• The nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane and
• The cytoplasm is separated from the
surrounding fluid (ECF) by the plasma
membrane
8
The plasma membrane
• It is a sheet-like structure that surround (enclose) the
cell, separating the cellular contents from the ECF.
• It is entirely composed of proteins and lipids in a ratio
of 55:43 respectively, and 3% of carbohydrates.
Percent proportion:
1. Proteins: 55 %
Phospholipids 25 %
2. Lipids: 42 % Cholesterol 13
%
Neutral Fats 4%
3. Carbohydrate: 3 %

 The level of cholesterol determines rigidity of the 9

membrane
 Function of the plasma membrane
1. Separates cellular contents from the ECF
2. Regulates the passage of substances in and out. It is
semi-permeable allowing some subs to pass through it
excluding others. This creates unequal distribution of
ions on both sides of the membrane.
3. It provides receptors for NTs, hormones and drugs.
4. It is a means of cell to cell contact.
5. Plays an important role in the generation and
transmission of electrical impulse in nerves & muscle.
6. Involved in the regulation of cell growth and
proliferation.
10
Lipid component of the cell membrane
• A plasma membrane is a
fluid in its nature.

ECF ICF • Lipids form the basic

structure of the membrane.

• The lipid molecules are

arranged in two parallel
raws, forming a lipid
bilayer.

11
Cont,d
• The lipid bilayer portion of the
cell membrane is impermeable to
water and water soluble
substances such as
– ions,
– glucose,
– urea and others.
• On the other hand, fat soluble
substances such as
– O2,
– CO2,
– alcohol and
– drugs can penetrate this
portion of the membrane.
12
 The plasma membrane
• The lipid molecules (primarily
phospholipids) contain a
– polar phosphate heads, soluble in water
(hydrophilic) and
– a non-polar tails that does not mix with
water (hydrophobic).
• The physical orientation of the lipid
bilayer structures is that the
hydrophilic ends of the lipid
molecules line up facing the ICF and
ECF.
• The hydrophobic tails of the
molecules face each other in the
interior of the bilayer.

13
Membrane proteins are of two types
A. Integral or intrinsic proteins: interdigitated in the
hydrophobic center of the lipid bilayer
• Transmembrane proteins are integral proteins that span the
entire bilayer.
• Transmembrane proteins serve as:
– Channels through which ions pass
– Carriers which actively transports material. across the
bilayer e.g. glucose
– Pumps which actively transport ions
– Receptors for neurotransmitters and hormones

14
Membrane proteins (cont’d)
B. Peripheral or extrinsic proteins: bind to the
hydrophilic polar heads of the lipid or on integral
proteins.
• Peripheral proteins that are present only on one side
of the membrane, serve primarily as enzymes.
• Peripheral proteins that bind to the intracellular
surface contribute to the cytoskeleton.
• Peripheral proteins that bind to the external surface
contribute to the glycocalyx a cell coat

15
Membrane carbohydrates
• Attached on the outside surface of the membrane, binding with
protruded integral proteins and lipid,
• they form glyco-proteins and glyco-lipid respectively
(glycocalyx) .
Function
– It is the site of hormonal receptors (act as receptors for NTs,
hormones and drugs) and
– antigenic activity in ABO blood groups (immune reaction ,
antigenical importance),
– Cell to cell attachment

16
 The nucleus
• The nucleus is the control center for the cells.
• It contains the genes, which are units of heredity.
• Chemically each gene consists of highly compressed DNA in the
form of chromosomes
• Genes control cellular activity by determining the type of
proteins, enzymes, and other substances that are made by the
cell.
• The nucleus is also the site of RNA synthesis.
• There are three kinds of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the instruction from
DNA for protein synthesis to the cytoplasm
– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which moves to the cytoplasm
where it becomes the site of protein synthesis
– Transfer RNA (tRNA), serves as an amino acid transporter
system within the cell for protein synthesis.
17
 The nucleus (cont’d)
• DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides
• Nucleotides are composed of nitrogen containing
bases purine (A, G) and pyrimidin (C, T) as well as
deoxyribose sugar conjugated by phosphate.
• In RNA, the pyrimidin base T is replaced by U and
the 5-carbon sugar is ribose.
• In addition to the chromatin, the nucleus contains one
or two round bodies called nucleoli. It is here that
Ribosomal RNA is synthesized.
• The nuclear contents are surrounded by a double
walled nuclear membrane.
• The pores present in this membrane allow fluids,
electrolytes, RNA, and other materials to move
between the nuclear and cytoplasmic comportments.
18
Cellular organelles
• Embedded within the cytoplasm are organelles or inner
organs of the cell.
These include
– the ribosomes,
– endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Golgi apparatus,
– mitochondria,
– lysosomes, and
– the cytoskeletal system (microtabules and microfilaments).

19
Generalized cell

20
Ribosomes
•ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in
the cell.
•small particles composed of Ribosomal RNA and
proteins found in two forms: attached to the wall
of ER or as free ribosomes.
•Free ribosomes are found in two forms
-scattered in the cytoplasm and
-clustered (aggregated) to form
functional units called polyribosomes.

21
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• It is an extensive membranous structure that connects various
parts of the inner cell.
• ER is also connected with the nuclear membrane.
• There are two types of ER:
– rough ER and
– smooth ER.
• The function of rER is to segregate/isolate proteins that are
being exported from the cell.
• rER is the site of protein synthesis

22
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• The sER is free of ribosome. Endoplasmic reticulum (rER and sER)
• Function of sER varies in different cells.
• The sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal and
cardiac muscle cells are forms of sER.
• Calcium ions needed for muscle contraction are
stored and released from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum of muscle cells.
• In the liver, the sER is involved in glycogen
storage and drug metabolism.
• ER can synthesize a group of drug metabolizing
enzymes called microsomal system.
Function of sER:-
1. Glycogen storage
2. Calcium storage
3. Lipid biosynthesis
4. Drug metabolism (detoxify)
23
 Golgi Complex-Shippers
• The Golgi complex consists of
flattened membranous saccules
and cisterns that communicate with
the ER and acts as a
receptacle/container for hormones
and others substances that the ER
produces.
• It then modifies and packages
these substances into secretary
granules.

24
Rough ER and Golgi complex

25
Mitochondria-power house

• The mitochondria are literally the

“power plants-factory” of the cell,
capable of producing the energy rich
compound ATP, which is required
for various cellular activities.
• The mitochondria require oxygen to
produce energy (ATP) from food
stuffs.

Lysosomes:
• Membraneous tructures in the cytoplasm that contains
aggregates
of enzymes. Well developed in macrophages. 26
Function:
 Cytoskeletal system of the cell
• They are microfilament and
microtubules, rigid threadlike
structures dispersed through out
the cytoplasm.

Microtules organized as 9+2 doublets

27
 Transport via cell membrane
• Cells in the extracellular fluid and intracellular
fluid have different amounts which is an
important issue to life process. E.g.. ECF
contains
• High sodium but only small potassium.
• High chloride ions,ICF has low chloride.
• ICF contains high phosphates and proteins than
in the ECF

28
Transport through the cell membrane
Substances are transported
through the cell membrane
by:
1. Simple diffusion ECF
2. Osmosis
3. facilitated diffusion
4. active transport (1O and
2O) and
ICF
5. vesicular transport
mechanisms.

29
 [Link] Diffusion
• Diffusion is passive movement of substances down their
concentration gradient.
Factors affecting the net rate of diffusion
– Lipid solubility of the subs.
– Membrane permeability
– Concentration difference or Pressure difference
– Electrical potential difference of ions
Membrane permeability is affected by
– Membrane Thickness
– Lipid solubility
– No of ion channels per unit area
– Temperature: T =  thermal motion of molecule
permeability
– MW (molecular weight)
30
Osmosis
• It is the power of movement of
H2O from an area of higher
amount of water to an area of
lower amount of water through
the semi permeable membrane.
• The direction of movement of
water is governed by the amount
of osmoticaly active particles
(solutes).
• The pressure that opposes osmosis
of water is called osmotic pressure
• H2O molecules have very small
(0.3 nm) in diameter, so that they
can not traverse the lipid bilayer
simply. Instead they pass through
specific water channels called
aquaporins:
31
 Facilitated diffusion

• Carrier mediated transport

• Carriers are saturable, do not
Glucose
need energy
• Transports substances down
ECF
their concentration gradient Cell membrane
• Examples: transport of glucose, ICF
proteins. (Macromolecules)
Carrier protein

32
 Active transport
• Substances are transported Common examples
against concentration, 1. Na+ - K+ ATPase
electrochemical gradient, up 2. H+ - K+ ATPase
hill direction. 3. Ca2+ ATPase
• Used for the transport of Na+,
K+, Ca2+, Fe2+, H+, Cl-
• Consumes energy in the form
of ATP
Primary active transport
• - Carrier protein in involved
• - Consumes energy from ATP
• - Carrier protein is anti-porter
33
Active transport: Na+ - K+ ATPase
• Na-K-Pump
• It pumps 3Na+ outward and 2K+ inward
• It maintains Na outside and K+ inside
• It maintains electropositive outside and
electro negation, inside.
• Na+ - K+ pump is a carrier protein that is
made up of two subunits. It has 3 binding
sites for Na+ inside
• It has 2 binding sites for K+ on the
outside
• It has ATPase activity inside.
ATP = ADP + ---P + energy.
• Energy brings conformational change
of the pump so that Na+ pumped outward
and K+ inward.
34
 Secondary active transport

Secondary active transport

• Carrier protein is involved
• Consumes energy
• Carrier protein is symporter

Uniport carriers: Carry single substance to one direction

Antiport carriers: Carry two substances in opposite directions
Symport carriers: Carry two substances into the same direction
35
 Vesicular transport

There are two types:

1. Endocytosis:
[Link]-drinking
[Link]-eating
2. Exocytosis

36
Intercellular signaling

37
 Cell to Cell communication
• Intercellular communication
– Classifications
• Endocrine signals
– produced by endocrine cells
– travel through the blood to reach all parts of the body.
• Paracrine signals
– target only cells in the surrounding area of the releasing cell.
E.g Neurotransmitters
• Autocrine signals
– affect only cells that are of the same cell type as the emitting
cell.
– An example for autocrine signals is found in immune cells
• Juxtacrine signals
– are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or lipid
components integral to the membrane and
– are capable of affecting either the emitting cell or cells
immediately adjacent
 Junctions between Cells

• Four kinds of junctions

– Tight junctions
– Adherens
junctions
– Gap junctions
– Desmosomes
 Tight Junctions

• Provide the interface between masses

of cells and a cavity or space (a lumen)
 Adherens Junctions

• Provide strong mechanical attachments between

adjacent cells
• They hold cardiac muscle cells tightly together as the
heart expands and contracts
• They hold epithelial cells together
• They seem to be responsible for contact inhibition
• Some adherens junctions are present in narrow
bands connecting adjacent cells
 Gap Junctions

• Gap junctions are intercellular channels

some 1.5–2 nm in diameter

• These permit the free passage between

the cells of ions and small molecules (up to
a molecular weight of about 1000 Daltons)

• They are cylinders constructed from 6

copies of Transmembrane proteins called
connexins
Desmosomes
…con’t
• Desmosomes are localized patches that hold two cells tightly
together
• They are common in epithelia (e.g., the skin). Desmosomes are
attached to intermediate filaments of keratin in the cytoplasm

Hemidesmosomes
• These are similar to desmosomes but attach epithelial cells to
the basal lamina ("basement membrane" instead of to each
other