First Exams 2025
C2.1 Chemical Signalling
Theme: Interaction and Interdependence
Level of Organisation: Cells
Additional
HL
Conte
nt
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From
IB Guiding Questions the IB
How do cells distinguish between the many different
signals that they receive?
What interactions occur inside animal cells in response to
chemical signals?
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Additional HL Content: From
the IB
C2.1 Chemical Signalling
C2.1.1: Receptors as proteins with binding sites for specific signalling
chemicals
C2.1.2: Cell signalling by bacteria in quorum sensing
C2.1.3: Hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines and calcium ions as
examples of functional categories of signalling chemicals in
animals
C2.1.4: Chemical diversity of hormones and neurotransmitters
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Additional HL Content: From
the IB
C2.1 Chemical Signalling
C2.1.5: Localized and distant effects of signalling molecules
C2.1.6: Differences between transmembrane receptors in a plasma
membrane and intracellular receptors in the cytoplasm or
nucleus
C2.1.7: Initiation of signal transduction pathways by receptors
C2.1.8: Transmembrane receptors for neurotransmitters and changes to
membrane potential
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Additional HL Content: From
the IB
C2.1 Chemical Signalling
C2.1.9: Transmembrane receptors that activate G proteins
C2.1.10: Mechanism of action of epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors
C2.1.11: Transmembrane receptors with tyrosine kinase activity
C2.1.12: Intracellular receptors that affect gene expression
C2.1.13: Effects of the hormones oestradiol and progesterone on target
cells
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Additional HL Content: From
the IB
C2.1 Chemical Signalling
C2.1.14: Regulation of cell signalling pathways by positive and negative
feedback
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HL Only Key Terms
Receptor Proteins Cytokines
Signalling Chemicals Calcium Ions
Ligand Secondary Messenger
Quorum Sensing Amine Hormones
Bioluminescence Peptide Hormones
Autoinducers Steroid Hormones
Hormones Natural Selection
Neurotransmitters Synapse
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HL Only Key Terms
Transmembrane Receptors G Protein
Intracellular Receptors G protein-coupled receptors
Hydrophilic Epinephrine
Hydrophobic Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Signal Induction Pathways
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Membrane Potential
Insulin
Acetylcholine
Phosphorylation
Acetylcholine Receptors
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HL Only Key Terms
Dimer Endometrium
Oestradiol Positive Feedback
Progesterone Negative Feedback
Testosterone
Hormone Receptor Complex
Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormones (GnRH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
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From
C2.1.1: Receptors as proteins with the IB
binding sites for specific signalling
chemicals
Students should use the term “ligand” for the signalling chemical.
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Protein Receptors
Protein receptors play a key role in
cell to cell communication.
Protein receptors have binding sites
with specific shapes and chemistry
that allows specific chemical signals,
ligands, to bind with them.
Ligand binding to specific protein receptor
Ligands are signalling chemicals that
bind to protein receptors, and cause a
change in metabolism within the cell.
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From
C2.1.2: Cell signalling by bacteria in the IB
quorum sensing
Include the example of bioluminescence in the marine bacterium Vibrio
fischeri.
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Quorum Sensing
Quorum sensing is
a form of cell to cell
communication in
bacteria, allowing
the bacteria to
regulate their
behaviour
according to
population density.
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Quorum Sensing
Bacteria produce and release
autoinducers, which are chemical
messengers that allow cell to cell
communication in bacteria.
As a bacterial population grows, the
concentration of autoinducers
increases.
Once the concentration of the
autoinducers reaches a critical
concentration, they bind to specific A High Concentration of Autoinducers Results in Group Behaviour
protein receptors.
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Quorum Sensing
The binding of the autoinducer to its
protein receptor triggers a cascade of
metabolic reactions within the
bacterial cells.
In many cases, the cascade of
reactions leads to activation or
repression of specific genes.
Quorum sensing leads to a common
response from all of the bacteria
present. A High Concentration of Autoinducers
Turns on Genes
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Bioluminescence in Vibrio fischeri
Vibrio fischeri bacteria use quorum
sensing to express genes for
bioluminescence.
Vibrio fischeri release autoinducers into
the environment.
The concentration of the autoinducers
increases as the population of Vibrio
fischeri bacteria increases.
Bioluminescence in Vibrio fischeri Bacteria
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Bioluminescence in Vibrio fischeri
High concentrations of autoinducer binds
to LuxR receptor proteins, and triggers a
cascade of metabolic reactions, which
activates genes responsible for
bioluminescence in the Vibrio fischeri
bacteria.
The enzyme luciferase is synthesised, and
catalyzes a chemical reaction, resulting in
the emission of light.
The same process happens in all of the Bioluminescence in Vibrio fischeri Bacteria
bacterial cells in the population.
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From
C2.1.3: Hormones, the IB
neurotransmitters, cytokines and
calcium ions as examples of
functional categories of signalling
chemicals in animals
Students should appreciate the differences between these categories.
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Chemical Signals in Animals
Animals use a variety of chemical signals for cell to cell communication
including:
● Hormones ● Cytokines
● Neurotransmitters ● Calcium ions
Do some research on the four categories of molecules that animal cells
use for chemical signalling.
❓ Distinguish between the roles of hormones, neurotransmitters,
cytokines and calcium ions as chemical signals in animals.
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Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers
that are secreted by endocrine glands
into the bloodstream.
Hormones travel through the
bloodstream to their target tissues.
Hormones may bind to receptors on the
surface of plasma membranes, or to
receptors in the cytoplasm of cells.
Hormones include epinephrine, insulin,
oestradiol, progesterone and
testosterone Endocrine Glands Secrete Hormones
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers
that are released by neurons into synapses.
Neurotransmitters allow for cell to cell
communication between neurons, and
between neurons and effectors such as
muscles and glands.
Acetylcholine is an example of a
neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitters are Secreted into Synapses
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Cytokines
Cytokines are chemical messengers
involved in the immune response
through cell to cell communication
within the immune system.
Cytokines regulate the
development, activation and
behaviour of cells within the
immune system.
Cells involved in Immune Responses Release Cytokines
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Calcium Ions
Calcium ions act as secondary
messengers within cells in a wide
variety of processes.
Calcium ions can be stored
intracellularly, or enter cells through
gated calcium channels in response
to stimuli.
Calcium ions act as secondary
messengers in muscle contractions
and the release of neurotransmitters.
Calcium Ions are Secondary Messengers involved
in Synaptic Transmission
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From
C2.1.4: Chemical diversity of the IB
hormones and neurotransmitters
Consider reasons for a wide range of chemical substances being used as
signalling chemicals.
Include amines, proteins and steroids as chemical groups of hormones.
A range of substances can serve as neurotransmitters including amino
acids, peptides, amines and nitrous oxide.
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Chemical Diversity of Hormones
There are a wide variety of chemicals used as hormones in animals.
Hormones may be:
● Amine Hormones are derived from amino acids. The amino acid is
modified, including the removal of the carboxyl group of the
amino acid. Epinephrine is an example of an amine hormone.
● Protein Hormones are large polypeptides that act as hormones.
Examples of protein hormones include insulin, FSH and LH.
● Steroid hormones are steroids that act as chemical messengers.
Examples of steroid hormones include oestradiol, progesterone
and testosterone.
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Chemical Diversity of
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are composed of a wide range of chemicals including:
● Amino acids: Individual amino acids can act as neurotransmitters
● Peptides: Chains of amino acids can act as neurotransmitters
● Amines: Modified amino acids can act as neurotransmitters
● Nitrous oxides: The gas nitrous oxide (NO) is a neurotransmitter.
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Reasons for Diversity of Signalling
Compounds
Possible reasons for the diversity of signalling compounds in animals
include:
● Natural selection: The process of natural selection would have
selected for genes which produced any signalling molecule that
was advantageous.
● Diversity of roles: There are many different functions of chemical
signals, resulting in a variety of different chemicals being used as
chemical signals.
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From
C2.1.5: Localized and distant effects the IB
of signalling molecules
Contrasts can be drawn between hormones transported by the blood
system and neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic gap.
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Hormones and Neurotransmitters
Hormones and neurotransmitters are chemical signal molecules which
bind to protein receptors in animals.
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, and are released into the
bloodstream. Hormones travel long distances around the body before
attaching to protein receptors on target organs. Hormones may act on
many cells.
Neurotransmitters are produced by neurons, and are released into
synapses. They quickly diffuse across the synapse and bind to protein
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Neurotransmitters only act
locally.
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From
C2.1.6: Differences between the IB
transmembrane receptors in a
plasma membrane and intracellular
receptors in the cytoplasm or
nucleus
Include distribution of hydrophilic or hydrophobic amino acids in the
receptor and whether the signalling chemical penetrates the cell or
remains outside.
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Transmembrane Receptor Proteins
Transmembrane receptor proteins are
Receptor Protein Ligand
integral proteins embedded within the
plasma membrane of cells. Plasma Membrane
The signalling chemicals, ligands, are unable
to pass through plasma membranes, and
they bind to a specific binding site on the
receptor protein outside the cell.
❓ Suggest why some signalling chemicals
cannot pass through the plasma Transmembrane Receptor Protein
membrane.
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Transmembrane Receptor Proteins
The section of the transmembrane Receptor Protein Ligand
protein within the fatty acid tails is
hydrophobic. Plasma Membrane
The sections of the transmembrane
protein at the inner and outer surfaces of
the plasma membrane are hydrophilic.
Ligands and their binding sites on
transmembrane proteins are able to
interact because they are both Transmembrane Receptor Protein
hydrophilic.
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Intracellular Receptor Proteins
Intracellular receptor proteins are located
within the cytoplasm or the nucleus of the
cell.
The signalling chemicals, ligands, diffuse
through the plasma membranes, and bind to
a specific binding site on the receptor
protein inside the cell.
❓ Suggest why some signalling chemicals
can pass through the plasma membrane. Intracellular Receptor Proteins
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Intracellular Receptor Proteins
Chemical signals that can diffuse through
the phospholipid bilayer are hydrophobic.
The binding site of the intracellular
receptor proteins will also be hydrophobic.
Intracellular Receptor Proteins
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From
C2.1.7: Initiation of signal the IB
transduction pathways by receptors
Students should understand that the binding of a signalling chemical to a
receptor sets off a sequence of responses within the cell.
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Initiation of Transduction
Pathways
The binding of a signalling chemical to
Receptor Protein Ligand
a protein receptor initiates a sequence
of responses within the cell. Plasma Membrane
The binding of a signalling chemical to a
transmembrane protein receptor
initiates a cascade of reactions within
the cell.
The binding of a ligand to an
intracellular protein receptor initiates a
Binding of Signalling Chemicals
change in gene expression.
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From
C2.1.8: Transmembrane receptors the IB
for neurotransmitters and changes
to membrane potential
Use the acetylcholine receptor as an example.
Binding to a receptor causes the opening of an ion channel in the
receptor that allows positively charged ions to diffuse into the cell.
This changes the voltage across the plasma membrane, which may cause
other changes.
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Acetylcholine Receptors
Acetylcholine
receptors are
transmembrane
protein receptors
found in the
presynaptic
membrane of axons.
❓ Explain how
acetylcholine
changes the
voltage of the
postsynaptic
membrane.
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Acetylcholine Receptors
Neurotransmitters, such as
acetylcholine, bind to voltage-gated
sodium channels which are integral Sodium channels are closed
closed if acetylcholine is not
proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. attached.
The binding of acetylcholine opens the
sodium channels, allowing sodium ions
to diffuse into the neuron or muscle
fibre.
Sodium ions entering the cell changes The binding of acetylcholine
the voltage across the plasma causes a conformational
change in the sodium channel Sodium channels open
membrane and may lead to an action Acetylcholine is a ligand which attaches to sodium voltage gated channels
potential.
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From
C2.1.9: Transmembrane receptors the IB
that activate G proteins
Students should understand how G protein-coupled receptors convey a
signal into cells.
They should appreciate that there are many such receptors in humans.
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G Proteins
G proteins are found in the cytoplasm of GPCR
Transmembrane
cells coupled with a transmembrane protein
receptor protein, known as a GPCR
protein.
The G protein is composed of three
polypeptide subunits: alpha (α), beta (β)
and gamma (γ). G Protein
In the G proteins’ inactive state, GDP Cytoplasm
(guanosine diphosphate) is attached to the Inactive G protein.
alpha subunit of the G protein.
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Activation of G Proteins
When an extracellular ligand, such as a
hormone, binds to a GPCR protein, the
GPCR protein changes shape.
The change in shape of the GPCR protein
causes the G protein to release GDP, which
is replaced by GTP (Guanosine
triphosphate). Cytoplasm
This activates the G protein, causing the
alpha subunit to dissociate from the other Inactive G protein.
subunits.
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Activation of G Proteins
The alpha subunit interacts with a
secondary messenger, which initiates a
cascade of reactions within the cell.
G protein coupled-receptors are the largest
class of cell surface receptors in humans.
Cytoplasm
Inactive G protein.
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From
C2.1.10: Mechanism of action of the IB
epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors
Include the roles of a G protein and cyclic AMP (cAMP) as the second
messenger.
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From
C2.1.10: Mechanism of action of the IB
epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors
Nature of Science: Students should be aware that naming conventions
are an example of international cooperation in science for mutual
benefit.
Both “adrenaline” and “epinephrine” were coined by researchers and
are based on production of the hormone by the adrenal gland;
“adrenaline” comes from Latin ad = at and ren = kidney and
“epinephrine” comes from old Greek epi = above and nephros = kidney,
respectively.
Unusually, these two terms persist in common use in different parts of
the world.
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Hormone Action
Amino acid
derivative
hormones and
peptide
hormones use
G protein-coupled
receptors to
change
metabolism
within a cell.
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Epinephrine
Insulin is a
hydrophilic
peptide hormone,
which cannot pass
through the
plasma membrane
of cells.
❓ Explain the
action
mechanism of
epinephrine.
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Action Mechanism of Epinephrine
Epinephrine is a peptide hormone, and cannot pass through the plasma
membrane.
Epinephrine binds to a binding site on a GPCR protein, which changes
shape to activate a G protein.
The alpha subunit dissociates from the other two G protein subunits.
The alpha subunit activates an enzyme which converts ATP to cyclic AMP
(cAMP).
cAMP is a secondary messenger which triggers a cascade of reactions
within the cell, resulting in a change of metabolism.
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Epinephrine or Adrenaline
Nature of Science:
Naming conventions used for chemicals such as hormones is an example
of international cooperation to facilitate communication between
scientists.
Unusually, epinephrine and adrenaline are both commonly used for the
same hormone (in different parts of the world).
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From
C2.1.11: Transmembrane receptors the IB
with tyrosine kinase activity
Use the protein hormone insulin as an example.
Limit this to binding of insulin to a receptor in the plasma membrane,
causing phosphorylation of tyrosine inside a cell.
This leads to a sequence of reactions ending with movement of vesicles
containing glucose transporters to the plasma membrane.
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Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Tyrosine kinase receptors are a group of transmembrane
receptor proteins that activate kinase enzymes.
Tyrosine kinase receptors have an extracellular ligand
binding site, with tyrosine kinase sections within the
cytoplasm of a cell.
The intracellular tyrosine kinases of the protein receptor
are enzymes that catalyse the phosphorylation of itself.
Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate to a
molecule.
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors.
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Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
The hormone insulin
binds to a tyrosine
kinase receptor.
This initiates a
sequence of reactions
leading to vesicles
containing glucose
transporters moving
to the plasma
membrane.
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Action of Insulin
The hormone insulin binds to
transmembrane receptors with kinase
activity, which leads to the following
events:
● Two proteins combine and form a
dimer which activates the tyrosine
kinase.
● The activation of the protein causes
the phosphorylation of the tyrosine
section of the protein. Phosphorylation of Tyrosines
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Action of Insulin
● Phosphorylated tyrosines attract and
bind to other proteins.
● This initiates a cascade of reactions,
Insulin
which leads to the movement of
glucose transporter vesicles to the
plasma membrane.
● Glucose is removed from the
bloodstream.
Activation of Transmembrane Receptors with Kina
se Activity
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From
C2.1.12: Intracellular receptors that the IB
affect gene expression
Use the steroid hormones oestradiol, progesterone and testosterone as
examples.
Students should understand that the signalling chemical binds to a site
on a receptor, activating it. The activated receptor binds to specific DNA
sequences to promote gene transcription.
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Steroid Hormones
Oestradiol,
progesterone and
testosterone are
examples of
steroid hormones.
❓ Explain the
action
mechanism of
testosterone.
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Action of Steroid Hormones
Testosterone is a hydrophobic steroid hormone that can diffuse through
the plasma membrane of the cell.
Steroid hormones bind to specific receptor proteins in the cytoplasm (or
nucleus) to form an active hormone-receptor complex.
The active hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus and binds to
specific DNA sequences to promote gene transcription.
The steroid hormone controls when an enzyme (or other protein) is
synthesized, ultimately controlling activity in the target cell.
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From
C2.1.13: Effects of the hormones the IB
oestradiol and progesterone on
target cells
For oestradiol, limit to cells in the hypothalamus that secrete
gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
For progesterone, limit to cells in the endometrium.
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Oestradiol
Oestradiol is an oestrogen hormone secreted by
the ovaries. Oestradiol is a steroid hormone.
Oestradiol binds to protein receptors in the
cytoplasm of cells in the hypothalamus, which
Oestradiol is a Steroid Hormone
stimulates the secretion of gonadotropin-
releasing hormones (GnRH).
GnRH stimulates the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which
stimulates the development of follicles during the menstrual cycle.
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Progesterone
Progesterone is a steroid hormone produced in
the ovaries.
The level of progesterone increases after
ovulation.
Progesterone is a Steroid Hormone
Progesterone binds to protein receptors within cells of the
endometrium.
Progesterone stimulates the thickening of the endometrium, in
preparation for implantation of the developing embryo.
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From
C2.1.14: Regulation of cell signalling the IB
pathways by positive and negative
feedback
Limit to an understanding of the difference between these two forms of
regulation and a brief outline of one example of each.
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Feedback
Organisms use
positive and negative
feedback loops to
regulate metabolism.
Read the linked article
.
❓ Distinguish
between positive
and negative
feedback.
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Positive Feedback
Positive feedback is a response which
amplifies a detected change.
The role of oxytocin, a peptide
hormone, in childbirth is an example of
positive feedback.
An increase in oxytocin causes the
uterus to contract, which stimulates an
increase in oxytocin production, and
stronger uterine contractions.
Childbirth is controlled bhy Positive Feedback
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Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is a response which
reverses a detected change, to return
the body to homeostatic equilibrium.
The body’s responses to temperature
changes are an example of negative
feedback.
A detected fall in body temperature
causes the body to return itself to
normal body temperature. Body Temperature is Controlled by Negative Feedback
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HL Only Key Terms
Receptor Proteins Cytokines
Signalling Chemicals Calcium Ions
Ligand Secondary Messenger
Quorum Sensing Amine Hormones
Bioluminescence Peptide Hormones
Autoinducers Steroid Hormones
Hormones Natural Selection
Neurotransmitters Synapse
HL Content Only
HL Only Key Terms
Transmembrane Receptors G Protein
Intracellular Receptors G protein-coupled receptors
Hydrophilic Epinephrine
Hydrophobic Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Signal Induction Pathways
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
Membrane Potential
Insulin
Acetylcholine
Phosphorylation
Acetylcholine Receptors
HL Content Only
HL Only Key Terms
Dimer Endometrium
Oestradiol Positive Feedback
Progesterone Negative Feedback
Testosterone
Hormone Receptor Complex
Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormones (GnRH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
SL and HL Content
From
C2.1 Chemical Signalling - IB the IB
Linking Questions
What patterns exist in communication in biological systems?
In what ways is negative feedback evident at all levels of biological
organization?
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