Chapter One

Chemistry: The Study of Change

1
 Classifications of Matter
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass.
There are some fundamental ways in which matter is classified, the
most important of these are:
1) according to its physical state:
All substances can exist in three states, which are liquid, solid, and

gas.
gas state: - no fixed volume and shape
- take the shape and volume of the container
- can be compressed
- their molecules far apart and move fast

2
 liquid state: - has distinct volume
- no specific shape (take the shape of the container)
- can not be compressed
- close to each other but are not held so rigidly in position
and can move past one another
solid state: - has definite shape and volume
- rigid in shape.
- can not be compressed
- held close to each other with little freedom of motion
The following figure shows the three states of matter, it can be
interconvert without changing its composition

3
 Freeze Condense

Melt Evaporate

Solid Liquid Gas

4
2) According to its composition:

Pure substance mixture

Homogenous Heterogeneous
elements compounds mixture mixture

5
Elements:
- simplest kind of matter, cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.
- building blocks for all complex
- about 117 elements are known. Most of them occur naturally on earth.
The others have been created by scientists via nuclear process.
- building blocks of elements are atoms
- the same type of elements combine to for molecules
e.g.: O2 , Cl2 , N2 …ect
Compounds:
- Forms due to interaction of two or more elements chemically united in
fixed proportions. e.g.: H2O, NaCl , Na2CO3 ….ect
- Unlike mixtures, compounds can be separated only by chemical means into
their pure components
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 mixture:
 A combination of two or more substances.
 Variable composition.
 each substance retain its own chemical identity and its own
properties. Examples: air, soft drink, milk …
a) Heterogeneous mixture
- mixture is not the same from place to place.
- consist of two phases - e.g.: soil, oil and water
b) Homogeneous mixture (solution) - same composition throughout.
therefore uniform properties
- Every part keeps its properties.
- consist of a single phase. - e.g.: air, salt dissolved in H2O
Any mixture can be separated by physical means into pure
components without changing the identities of the components.
7
 Physical and Chemical Properties of
matter
Every substance has a unique set of properties that allow us
to recognize it and distinguish it from other substances.
e.g: water: state: liquid, m.p.=0°C , b.p=100°C ,
density = 1g/ml , flammability: not flammable
Properties of matter can be grouped into two categories:
1) physical properties
2) chemical properties
Changes of matter can be grouped into two categories:
1) physical changes
2) chemical changes

8
Physical properties:
It is the one that can be measured or observed without changing
the composition or identity of substance.
e.g.: color, m.p., b.p., state of matter, viscosity …ect
these physical can be divided to:
Extensive Properties - only depends on the amount of matter,
e.g: mass, volume, length
as the amount of substance increase, these properties increase
Values of the same extensive property can be added together.
Intensive Properties - only depends on the type of
matter, not the amount. e.g.: state of matter, color,
melting point, boiling point . … do not depend on the amount
of substance.
Values of the same intensive property are not additive
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The ratio of two extensive properties will give an intensive
properties.
example: the density (d), which is the ratio of mass to
volume

Extensive property
d= m
V Extensive property
The SI- derived unit for density is kg/m3. This unit is large for
most chemical applications. Therefore, (g/cm3) and its
equivalent (g/mL) are used for solid and liquid densities.
Because gas densities are very low, we express them in (g/L)
 Useful for identifying a compound
 Useful for predicting weight

10
 1.0 g/cm3 = 1.0 g/mL = 1000kg/m3
1.0 g/ L = 10-3 g/mL
The following table lists the densities of several substances:
substance Density (g/mL)
Air 0.001
Ethanol 0.79
Water 1.00
Mercury 13.6
Table salt 2.2
Iron 7.9
Gold 19.3
Osmium 22.6

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Example:
 carbon tetrachloride (density 1.53 g/cm3 ) weighs 161.9 g. What
is the volume of the carbon tetrachloride ?
d=m/V V=m/d
V = 161.9 g / 1.53 (g/cm3)
V = 105.82 cm3
Example:
 A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a
volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass
m
d =
V
m=dxV = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g

12
physical changes:
A change that changes appearances, without changing the
composition.
e.g: water change from solid to liquid to vapor (cutting woods)

Chemical properties: is the tendency of a substance to

undergo a particular chemical reaction.
e.g: flammability, reactivity toward acids
Chemical changes
A change where a new form of matter is formed. Also called
chemical reaction.
Alter not only the physical appearance but also the chemical makeup
as well Example: wood burning , Rusting

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 Units of measurements
Making observations is fundamental of all science.
Quantitative observation or measurement, always consists of two parts:
- Number - Scale (unit)
Any measured value must contain both parts to be meaningful. Two
major systems of measurements are adopted in different parts of the
world:
1)English system: used in U.S.A.
length…yard, feet, inch.
mass….tons, pounds, ounces
volume…gallon, quarts, pints
2)International System of Units (abbreviated SI)
(le System International) based on the metric system. used by
most of the rest of the world and in science.

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The SI system specify a set of seven basic
units which are:
Physical quantity Name of unit symbol

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

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 Derived units
The SI units seems to be very limited, there are many
quantities such as area, volume, speed whose units don’t
appear in the previous table.
In the SI system, units of such quantities are obtained by
appropriate combination of the base unit and called the
derived unit.
Examples:
Area = length x width = m (base unit) x m (base unit) = m2
speed = distance/time = m (base unit)/s (base unit) = m/s
force = mass x acceleration
= mass x [distance/(time)2 ] = kg x m/s2

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Because the fundamental units are not always
convenient (e.g: expressing the mass of a pen in
kg), prefixes are used to change the size of the
unit.

Some of these prefixes a listed in the following

table:

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prefix symbol meaning Exponential
notation
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
hecto h 100 102
deka da 10 101
- - 1 100
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2
milli m 0.001 10-3
micro µ 0.000001 10-6
nano n 0.000000001 10-9
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12

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prefix factor example
kilo 1000 (103) 1.0kilometer (km)= 103m
1.0 kilogram (kg) = 103g
milli 1/1000 (10-3) 1.0millisecond(ms)=10-3s
1.0milligram (mg) = 10-3g
centi 1/100 (10-2) 12.5 cm = 12.5x10-2m
pico 10-12 7.91x109 pg =
7.91x109x10-12g =7.91x10-3g

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Example:
7.3 * 10 -10 pmol = mol ??

3.5 * 10 -5 Kg = g ??

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 Uncertainty in measurement
The number associated with a measurement is
obtained using some measuring device.
For example, consider the measurement of the
length of an object.

1 2 3 4 5

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Note that the length of the object occurs at
about
4.55 cm.
note that we must estimate the last number
by interpolating between the 0.1 cm marks.
Since the last number is estimated, its value
may be different if another person makes the
same measurement. If several persons make
the same measurement, they obtain the
following values: 4.54 cm, 4.56 cm,..ect.
These results show that the first two numbers
(4.5) remain the same ..called certain digits
The digit to the right of the (5) must be
estimated and therefore varies; it is called an
uncertain digit. 22
Any measured value contain : certain digits +
uncertain digit. These numbers are called the
significant figures of a measurement.
Measurement always has some degree of
uncertainty,
which depends on the precision of the
measuring device.
Example: consider the measuring the same
object by using the following meter… its length
will be 4.6 or
4.5 or 4.7 or 4.4 …( 4 is certain), (6, 5, 7, 4
uncertain)
1 2 3 4 5
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The convention of sig. fig. automatically
indicate something about the uncertainty in
measurement. The uncertainty in the last
number is usually assumed to be ± (smallest
marks /2)
In the previous examples: ± 0.1/2 =0.05
± 1/2 = 0.5
example: what is the length of
certain the following
uncertain
object
142 (± 5)
uncertainty
cm

50 100 150 200 250

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 Significant figures and calculations
Rules for counting sig. fig.:
1) Nonzero integers: always count as sig. fig.
e.g: 234 cm 3 sig. fig., 4.742 g 4 sig. fig.
2) Zeros: there are three classes of zeros
a) leading zeros: zeros that precede the
nonzero digits, do not count as sig. fig., their
purpose is to indicate the placement of decimal point
e.g.: 0.23 2 sig. fig.; 0.00432 3 sig. fig.
b) captive zeros: zeros between nonzero digits
count as sig. fig.
e.g. 1.08 3 sig. fig. ; 3.0502 5 sig. fig.

25
c) trailing zeros: zeros at the right end of the number.
They are significant only if the number contains a
decimal point e.g.: 2.0 mg 2 sig. fig.
For numbers that do not contain decimal point, (zeros after the
last nonzero digit) may or may not be significant,
400. 3 sig. fig. , 400 1 sig. fig.
3) Exact numbers: determine by
- counting: 3 apples, 10 students…
- definition: 1 inch = 2.54 cm
they do not considered in as sig. fig.

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Scientific notation:
If the length of an object is 150 cm, is the zero
consider as sig. fig. or not ?
It depends on the measuring device used as
shown in the following example:

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 certain uncertain

140 (3 sig.
cm fig.) Uncertainty ±5

50 100 150 200 250

uncertain
certain
Uncertainty
±50 140 cm (2 sig. fig.)

100 200
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Note the number 140 can be written in exponential
notation :
the first measuring device : 1.40 x 102 (3 sig. fig.)
the second measuring device: 1.4 x 102 (2 sig. fig.)
This type of notation has at least two advantages
- indicate the no. of sig. fig. easily
- fewer zeros are needed to write a very large and a very
small number.
e.g.: 0.000060 represent as 6.0 x 10-5
660000 represent as 6.6 x 105 ( 2 sig. fig.)
6.60 x 105 (3 sig. fig.)
6.600 x 105 (4 sig. fig.)

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 Problem
500 is only 1 significant figure.
if it really has three, how can I write it?
Three ways to write it:
 500.
 500 (± 5)
 In scientific notation: 5.00 x 10 2

now the zero counts.

If it contain two sig. fig.:
5.0 x102 or 500 (± 20)

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 write
 10300 (‫ الرقم غير علمي‬:‫)مالحظة‬

 3 sig.fig 4 sig.fig. 5 sig.fig.

Copyright©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 31

Example(1): How many sig figs in the
following measurements?
 458 g (3)  405.0 g (4)
 4085 g (4)  4050. g (4)
 4850 g (3)  0.450 g (3)
 0.0485 g (3)  4050.05 g (6)
 0.004085 g (4)  0.0500060 g (6)
 40.004085 g (8)

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Example (2): write the following measurements in
scientific notation to the correct number of sig. fig.
- 67000 (to 3 sig. fig.) = 6.70 x 104
- 67000 (to 2 sig. fig.) = 6.7 x 104
- 0.00009010 = 9.010 x 10-5

Example (3): how many sig. fig. in the following

number
- 896000 (± 100), it contains (4 sig. fig.)
uncertaint
y Scientific notation= 8.960 x
105

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 Rules for sig. fig. in mathematical operations
 For addition and subtraction:
The result has the same number of decimal places
as the least precise measurement used in
calculation. For example:
12.11
+
18.0 one decimal places
+ 1.013
31.123 correct 31.1
e.g: 27.93 + 6.4 = 34.33 = 34.3
45.86 – 32.467 = 13.393 = 13.40

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 For multiplication and division:
The number of sig.fig. in the result is the same as the
number in the least precise measurement used in the
calculation. For example:

4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 correct 6.4

3 sig. fig. 2 sig. fig. 2 sig. fig.

The product should have only two sig. fig.

e.g : 6.56 x 8.215 = 53.9904 = 54.0

(3.97 x 5.870) / 2.10 = 11.0970952… = 11.1

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 Practice
 4.8 + 6.8765 = 11.7
 520 + 94.98 = 615
 0.0045 + 2.113= 2.118
 500 -126 = 374
 6.0 x 103 - 3.8 x 102 = 5.6 x 103
 6.0 x 10-2 - 3.8 x 10-3 = 5.6 x 10-2
 5.33 x 1022 - 3.8 x 1021 = 5.0 x 1022
 4.5 / 6.245 = 0.72
 4.5 x 6.245 = 28
 9.8764 x 0.043 = 229.6837… = 230 or 2.3 x 102
 3.876 / 1980 = 0.001957575… = 0.001958

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 Practice
 4.184 x 100.62 x (25.27 – 24.16) =
4.184 x 100.62 x 1.11 = 467.3034288
= 467
• 9.2 x 100.65 = 74.996355.. = 75
8.321 + 4.026

• 1.00866 – 1.00728 = 0.00138 = 2.29 x 10-27

6.02205 x 1023
6.02205 x 10 23

37
 Rounding rules
 Look at the number behind the one you’re
rounding.
 If it is 0 to 4 don’t change it.
 If it is 5 to 9 make it one bigger.
 Round 45.462 to four sig figs.: 45.46
 to three sig figs.: 45.5
 to two sig figs.:
45
 to one sig figs.: 50

38
 Units for lab. measurements
In chemistry, it is necessary to measure mass, volume,
length, and temperature.

Length: The SI unit is meter (m), we use smaller

units for length in lab. which are cm and mm.
1 cm = 10-2 m or 1 m = 100 cm
1mm = 10-3 m or 1m = 1000mm
1 cm = 10 mm

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 Mass and Weight
 Mass: amount of matter in an object.
Mass is a measure of the resistance of an object to change in its state of
motion
 Weight: the response of mass to gravity.

weight measure the force with which the object of a given mass is attracted by
gravity.
 Sometimes used interchangeably
 Mass can’t change, weight can
 Your mass on the earth is the same as your mass on the moon, but your
weight will be differ.
 SI unit for mass is kg (the only base unit that contain prefix, kilo).
 In the lab. We use the unit of gram, (g) (1.0 kg = 103 g)
we use the balance to measure the mass.

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 Volume: it is not a fundamental SI unit, it is a
derived unit from the length.
A cube that measure 1 m of each edge has a
volume = 1 m3

41
 1 m = 10 dm
1 m3 = (10)3 dm3 = 103 dm3
Another common unit of volume is the Liter (L):
which is the volume occupied by 1.0 dm3
1 L = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
(1dm = 10-1 m) 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
in the same way:
1dm = 10 cm 1 dm3 = 103 cm3
cm3 = ml so 1 dm3 = 103 ml
also 1 L = 103 ml

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•Temperature
It determine the direction of heat flow spontaneously. Heat
always flows spontaneously from a substance of higher
temp. to one of lower temp.
Temp. is measured by a device called thermometer.

Three temp. scale employed in scientific studies:

1) Celsius scale: (known as centigrade) (°C)
two reference temp.’s are chosen to make
marking on the scale of thermometer which
are the m.p.(0°C) and the b.p.(100°C) of water
difference between m.p and b.p. = 100

43
2) Fahrenheit scale (°F): used in U.S.A.
m.p. of water = 32°F b.p = 212°F
difference between m.p and b.p. = 180
100°C = 180°F 1°C =(180/100)°F
1°C = (5/9)°F
So:
T(°C) = (T(°F) – 32) (5/9)
T(°F) = T(°C) x (9/5) + 32
Celsius degree is nearly twice as larger as
degree in Fahrenheit scale

44
3) Kelvin scale (K): it is the SI base unit for temp.
at Kelvin scale m.p. for water = 273.15K
b.p. for water = 373.15K
difference between m.p and b.p. = 100
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15
in K-scale all temp. have positive values
Zero point in Kelvin scale (0K) is called the absolute
zero 0 K = - 273.15 °C
0 K is lowest temp. that can be reached

45
 Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin

Boiling point
of water - 212°F - 100°C - 373.15 K

180°F 100°C 100 K

Melting point - 32°F - 0°C -

of water 273.15K

- - 40°F - - 40°C - 233.15

K

46
Example: a) Convert 172.9 0F to degrees Celsius.
0
F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
0
F – 32 = 9 x 0C
5
5 x (0F – 32) = 0C
9
0
C = 5 x (0F – 32)
9
0
C = 5 x (172.9 – 32) = 78.3ºC
9
b) Convert 172.9 0F to Kelvin
T (K) = 78.3ºC + 273 = 315.3 K

47
 Dimensional Analysis
(Using the units to solve problems)

48
 Dimensional analysis
Dimension: unit
Analyze: solve
So dimensional analysis is use the units to solve problems.
Use the conversion factors to change the unit.
Conversion factor: a ratio of equivalent measurements.
Start with two things that are the same
1 cm = 10-2 m

49
Dived each side to come up with two ways of
writing the number 1.0

1 cm 10-2 m
= = 1
10-2 m 10-2 m
10-2 m 10-2
m =1
=
1 cm 10-2 m
1 cm = 1 = 1 cmm
10 -2
So :
10-2 m

50
Choose the conversion factor that get rid of the unit you do not
want.
Conversion factors = 1
1 kilogram = 103 gram (equivalent statement)

1 103
10 = 1 =
kg3 g 1gkg
 There are 2 conversion factors.
 Multiply by the one that will give you the correct unit in your
answer.
given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit

51
 Examples:
Perform the following conversions
1. 172 mm to m.
1 mm = 10-3 m
conversion factors: 1 mm or 10-3 m
10 m
-3
1
mm
10-3
172 mm x = 172 x 10-3 mm
mmm
1

52
2. 172 cm to dm.
cm m dm
1 cm = 10-2 m 1 dm = 10-1 m
1 cm 10-2 m
conversion factors (cm to m ): or
10 m
-2
1 cm
1 dm 10 -1
m
conversion factors (m to dm): or
10-1 1 dm
m
172 cm x 10 1 dm = 172 x 10-1 dm
-2
x
m
1 cm 10-1
m

53
3. 16.85 feet to inches
1 foot = 12 inches (equivalent statements)

1 = 1 =12 (2 conversion
foot
factors) inches
1
12 inch
foot
12
16.85 feet x inch.
1 = 202.2 inch.
foot
4. 2.85 cm to inches
1 inch. = 2.54 cm

1 inch.
2.85 cm x 2.54 = 1.12 inch.
cm
54
 Example:
A race is 1.25 miles. How long is the race in meters,
and kilometers?
mile yard meter km

1 m = 1.094 yd 1 mile = 1760 yd 1 km = 103 m

1760 1m
race in (m) = 1.25 mile x x
yd
1 1.o94
mile yd
=2011 m
1 km
race in (km) = 2011 m x 103 m =

55
 Units to a Power
 How many cm2 is 15 m2?
1 cm = 10-2 m
1 cm x 1 cm = 10-2 m x 10-2 m
1 cm2 = 10-4 m2
15 x 1 cm 2
= 15 x 10 4

m2 10-4 m2 cm2
 How many m3 is 1500 cm3?
1 cm = 10-2 m
1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm= 10-2m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
1 cm3 = 10-6 m3
1500 x 10-6
m 3
1500 x 10-6
1.500 x 10 -3
1 cm3 = =
cm3 m3 m3
56
 how many mm3 are in 36 cm3 ?
1cm = 10-2 m 1cm3 = 10-6 m3

1 mm = 10-3 m 1 mm3 = 10-9 m3

1 mm3
36 cm3x 10 m
-6 3
x = 36 x 103
1 cm3 10-9 m3 mm3

57
 Multiple units
Example (1)
The speed limit is 65 mi/hr. What is this in
m/s?
1 mile = 1760 yds
1 meter = 1.094 yds

65 mi 1760 yd 1m 1 hr 1 min
hr 1 mi 1.094 yd 60 min 60 s

58
Example (2): A particle has a velocity of 6.51 x105
cm/h what is its velocity in mile/s.
1 m = 1.094 yd 1 mile = 1760 yd 1 cm = 10-2m

1 h = 60 min. 1 min. = 60 s

cm 10-2 m 1.094
velocity (mile/s) = 6.51x10 h
5
x x1 m
yd
cm
x
1 mile 1h 1
x xmin.
1760 yd 60 min. 60 s

59