Pyro Processing Training for

Process Engineers
July 18/2023 G.c
 Pyro-processing
1.1 Kiln Feed
 Both the chemical composition and the rate of feed of raw
meal to the kiln must be consistent to avoid kiln instability
and to minimize fuel consumption.
 Short term feed fluctuation (eg. hunting of feeder control) as
well as average feed rate should be monitored.
 Air -suspension preheater kilns lose a fraction of kiln feed by
entrainment in exhaust gas.
 As this fine fraction is usually of a typical composition, kiln
feed analysis must be biased to yield the desired clinker
composition.
 The dust loss, some 6-12% of kiln feed, is not usually
collected until after the exhaust gas passes through a raw
mill or dryer, so that dust catch is not the same quantity or
composition as preheater dust loss.
 Thus, even if the dust collector catch is returned directly to the
kiln, it must still be compensated
. Likewise, care must be exercised to
minimize the chemical disturbance due to
dust return.
Depending upon quantity and chemical
variation, one or more holding tanks may be
desirable to collect different dusts and allow
constant metered return either to blend silo
or to kiln feed.
Such dust can also occasionally be
employed as a cement inter-grind or disposed
of for agricultural or sludge stabilization
purposes
If the kiln exhaust passes directly and
continuously to dust collection, then the dust
may be returned directly to the kiln with kiln
1.2 Kiln feed is monitored by:
 Chemical analysis on one- or two hourly grab samples
to determine statistical variation.
 Analysis is usually of major oxides but may also be
carbonate titration.
 If oxides are measured, statistics should use C3S or LSF.
 Kiln feed should typically have an estimated standard
deviation for hourly grab samples of less than 0.2%
CaC03 or 3% C3S.
 Note 1.0% CaC03 is equivalent to 10-15% C3S.
 It should be born in mind that standard deviation is not a
perfect measure of variation as simply applied; it does not
distinguish between a steady trend and constant
fluctuation.
 One might also beware of the dubious practice of
eliminating extreme values from a set before
calculating standard deviation: a major equipment
supplier once tried to perpetrate this upon us to prove
compliance with specification of his blending system
Kiln feed is normally conveyed by bucket elevator to
the top of the preheater to minimize power
consumption.
 If this conveying is effected pneumatically, de-aeration
is desirable before injection as the entraining air
otherwise add to the kiln ID fan load and may reduce kin
capacity.
Kiln feed to clinker ratio is typically-1.65-1.75 and, after
determination, should be periodically reconciled with
clinker and cement inventories and with measured dust
loss in the preheater exhaust.

Kiln feed = clinker + LoI + Bypass dust + Down comer

dust - Coal ash

Where both by pass dust and down comer dust are

converted to ignited basis.
For the production of cement clinker the raw
material has to be heated to a temperature of
about 1450°C, so that clinkering occurs.
The burning process requires an oxidizing
atmosphere in the kiln, producing a
grayish green clinker.
If this condition is not satisfied the resulting
clinker will be of a brown color, and the
cement obtained from it will be of inferior
strength and will set more rapidly.
 Important chemico-physical processes occur already
during the heating-up of the kiln feed material and
especially at the burning temperature (clinkering
temperature), such as: dehydration of the clay
minerals, decarbonation (expulsion of carbon dioxide) of
the carbonates (this process is usually referred to as
calcining or calcinations), solid reactions and reactions
involving the participation of a liquid phase (melt),
and crystallization processes.
 All these processes are significantly affected not only by
chemical factors (chemical composition of the raw
materials), but also by mineralogical (mineral
composition) and physical factors (particle size,
homogeneity, etc).
 The due completion of these endothermic reactions
plays a decisive part with regard to the quality of
the cement produced.
The following table shows transformations in the processing of raw
meal

Tempera Process Chemical

ture oC transformation
<200 Escape of free water(drying)
100-400 Escape of adsorbed water
400-750 Decomposition of clay, eg. With Al4(OH)8Si4O10
formation of metakaolinite 2(Al2O3.@SiO2) +
4H2O

600-900 Decomposition of metakaolinite Al2O3 2SiO2

and other compounds with Al2O3 + 2SiO2
formation of a reactive oxide
mixture
600-1000 Decomposition of lime stone with CaCO3 CaO
formation of CS and CA +CO2
3CaO +2SiO2 +
Al2O3
2(CaO.SiO2) +CaO
Al2O3
800-1300 Uptake of lime by CS and CA, CS +C C2S
formation of C4AF 2C +S C2S
1. Evaporating free water, at temperatures up to 1oo oc
2. Removal of adsorbed water in clay materials 1oo oc –
300 0C
3. Removal of chemically bound water 45o oc - 9oo oc
4. Calcinations of carbonate materials 7oo oc – 850 0C
5. Formation of C2S, aluminates and ferrites 8oo oc -
125o oc
6. Formation of liquid phase melt > 125o oc
7. Formation of C3S 1330 0c – 1450 0C
8. Cooling of clinker to solidify liquid phase 1300 0C –
1240 0C
9. Final clinker microstructure frozen in clinker
<12000C
10. Clinker cooled in cooler 125ooc - 1oo oc
1.3 Kiln Burning systems
 Once raw materials have been selected and blended, and
ground and homogenized into a fine and uniform kiln feed, they
must then be subjected to enough heat to allow the clinkering
reactions to proceed.
 This is the preprocessing stage of cement manufacture, beginning
with the kiln feed material extracted from storage and weighed and
transported to the kiln, and finishing with the clinker from the
cooler going to clinker storage.

 The main chemical reactions to produce the calcium silicates

that later give cement its bonding strength occur in the kiln
system. There is a combination of endothermic and exothermic
reactions occurring in an extremely complicated chemical reaction
sequence.
 The raw material composition, mineralogical composition and the
time and temperature profile of these materials in the kiln
determine the ultimate composition and mineralogy of the clinker,
which in turn determines the performance of the cement produced.
 The pyro-processing stage is generally regarded as the heart of the
cement making process.
 It is the stage in which most of the operating costs of cement manufacture
appear, and is also therefore the stage where most of the opportunities
for process improvement exist.
 There are many different kiln system designs and enhancements, but they
are all in essence performing the following material transformation, in order
to from the feed end:
On the gas flow side, the sequence from the firing end is as follows:
1. Ambient air preheated by hot clinker from kiln 2ooc up to 6oooc to
110o oc
2. Fuel burns in preheated combustion air in kiln 2ooo oc to 2400 0C
3. Combustion gases and excess air travel along kiln, transferring
heat to kiln charge and kiln refractories 2400DC down to 1ooo oc
4. Preheating system for further recovery of heat from kiln gases into
the material charge in the kiln system 10oooc down to 35ooc to 10ooc
5. Further heat recovery from gases for drying of raw materials or coal

 All kiln systems aspire to optimize heat exchange between the gas streams and
material streams at various stages to minimize waste heat and maximize
thermal efficiency.
1.4 Kiln Systems
 Early kiln systems for cement clinker manufacture were based on
shaft kiln systems. However, as these are of little relevance to the
world at large, this chapter will deal with rotary kilns only.
 The first rotary kiln was introduced to the cement industry by
Frederick Ransom (1885) when he took out a patent in England
titled "Improvements in Manufacture of Cement." The first of these
rotary kilns were up to 2.0m in diameter and 25m long1 with an
"enormous" production of 30 to 50ton/ day.
 Today, some kilns are producing as much in a day(> 10,000 tpd)
as these kilns produced in a year.
 The nodules or pellets formed as kiln feed can either be
produced from dry raw meal mixed with about 13% moisture in a
pan granulator, or produced from raw meal slurry after it has
passed through a filter press and been extruded and sliced into
cylindrical pellets.
1.5. Cyclone preheater kilns
 The cyclone preheater was first patented in 1934 in Czechoslovakia by an
employee of F.L. Smidth. However, the first preheater kiln was built
and commissioned in 1951 by KHD. This system utilizes cyclone separatators
as the means for promoting heat exchange between the hot kiln exit
gases at 1000°C and the incoming dry raw meal feed.
 Cyclone preheater kilns can have any number of stages between 1 and 6,
with increasing fuel efficiency with more cyclone preheater stages.
 The most common is the 4-stage suspension preheater, where gases typically
leave the preheater system at around 35o oc.
 The rotary kiln is relatively short, with L/C typically 15. The material
entering the rotary kiln section is already at around 8oo oc and partly
calcined (20% to 30%) with some of the clinkering reactions already started.
 Material residence time in the preheater is in the order of 30 seconds and in
the kiln about 30 minutes.
 Kiln speeds are typically 2 rpm. Preheater pressure drops range from 300
mm to 600 mm water, with gas duct velocities typically 20m/s in the
preheater and cyclones.
 Kiln capacities up to 3500 tpd exist, with specific fuel consumption usually
around 750 to 800 kcal/kg (3.2 to 3.5 MJ /kg).
 The larger capacity kilns are built with two preheater tower systems to
keep cyclone sizes to economic proportions and required efficiency.
1.6 Cyclone Preheater Kilns with Riser Duct Firing
 The operation of the cyclone preheater kilns can be
improved by firing some fuel in the riser duct to
increase the degree of calcinations in the
preheater.
 The production rate can also be increased marginally,
depending on the limitation to output for a particular
plant.
 Preheater kilns can be subjected to flushing of material
due to the fluidization of raw meal that occurs during
calcinations in the kiln.
 Increasing the degree of calcinations in the riser (up
to 50%) before the material enters the kiln reduces
this tendency.
 Furthermore, burning some fuel in the riser duct
reduces the fuel requirement and thermal loading in
the kiln, thus improving the kiln refractory life.
1.7 Pre-calciner Kilns
In pre-calciner kilns, the combustion air for burning fuel
in the preheater no longer passes through the kiln, but
is taken from the cooler region by a special tertiary air
duct to a specially designed combustion vessel in the
preheater tower.
 Typically, 60% of the total fuel is burnt in the calciner,
and the raw meal is over 90% calcined before it reaches
the rotary kiln section.
 Since the calciner operates at temperature around the
calcinations temperature of raw meal (800 0C to 900 oc, there
may not be a flame as such.
 The calciner efficiency is dependent on uniform air flow
and uniform dispersion of fuel and raw meal in the
air. Typically, average residence times calculated on
gas flow for early units were about 1 to 2 seconds for coal and
oil, and 2 to 3 seconds for natural gas.
 In recent years, though, there has been a trend
toward larger calciner vessels to reduce some of
the combustion problems of the earlier designs and
provide greater flexibility for using lower grade fuels.
 An in-line calciner has kiln exhaust gases and
tertiary air making up the combustion air (reduced
oxygen levels) for the calciner, while the separate
line system has tertiary air only with 21 % oxygen
forming the combustion air.
 A separate line system therefore has a better
combustion environment and may be preferred
for difficult fuels.
 It has a further advantage when converting
preheater kilns to pre-calciners in that there is
minimal interference.
 2. Fuels
Fuels
-Fuels used in burning a rotary kiln are classified
into three groups: solid , liquid and gaseous
fuels. In many kilns a combination of two different
fuels are used.
 2.1 Solid fuels
Solid fuels used in rotary kilns are generally of the following
types and properties:

Group Moisture Volatile Fixed Ash Heating

(%) matter carbon (%) values
(%) (%) (kJ/kg)
Anthracite 2.3 3.1 87.7 6.9 31,508
Semi anthracite 2.2 12.4 67.4 18.0 28,435
Bituminous low - vol 3.5 18.2 74.4 3.9 33,858
Bituminous med - vol 3.1 25 66.8 5.1 33,253
Bituminous high - vol A 2.6 30 58.36 9.1 31,670
Bituminous high - vol B 8.2 36.1 48.7 7.0 28,296
Bituminous high - vol C 12.1 40.2 39.1 8.6 26,714
Sub bituminous A 16.5 34.2 38.1 11.2 22,665
Sub bituminous B 23.2 33.3 39.7 3.8 21,920
Sub bituminous C 24.6 27.7 39.9 7.8 20,035
Lignite 34.8 28.2 30.8 6.2 16,778
Delayed coke 13.0 1.2 33,974
Fluid coke 5.0 2.0 34,440
 Sub bituminous coal, lignite, oil shale, and other low-
grade, solid fuels are fired predominantly in the
flash calciner since these low heating -value fuels are
unstable to sustain good combustion conditions in
the burning zones.
 As a matter of fact, one of the most important
advantages of a pre-calciner kiln is that low grade
fuels can be used for firing in the auxiliary furnace
of the pre-calciner. petroleum coke is used either at
the pre-calciner furnace or intermixed with other
fuels in the burning zone.
 Several preheater kilns in various parts of the
world are being used to dispose of old
automobile tires, others use wood chips, and even
garbage for introduction to the back end of the kiln.
This method serves two purpose simultaneously. It
does away with an environmental problem of waste
material disposal and at the same time delivers
 Petroleum coke posses a much higher ignition
temperature (590 0C) and is therefore suited for
intermixing with raw feed in a suspension preheater
kiln.
 In effect, this method upgrades a preheater to pre-
calciner status without the need for installation of
auxiliary firing system at the preheater tower.
 There is one drawback in using petroleum coke in any
rotary kiln, namely its unusually high sulfur content.
 One of the inherent advantages of coal is not only its
expensive potential when finely ground but also its
tendency to ignite spontaneously while in storage.
 High volatile, high sulfur, high moisture, coals are
especially vulnerable to such ignition.
 Special precautions have to be taken when stockpiling
coal to prevent undesirable temperature rises in the
pile.
2.2 Liquid fuels
 Liquid fuels used for combustion in rotary kiln are
almost exclusively of the Bunker B or Bunker C class.
These are residual oils from refineries after the more
volatile products in the oil have been removed.
 Because both types falls into the class of heavy oils, they
have to be preheated before they can be pumped and
atomized. Steam plants usually deliver the necessary heat
to the heat exchangers when the fuel is raised to the
temperature that ensures the correct viscosity.
 To obtain a good combustion, fuel oil has to be atomized,
which means the oil has to be broken in to small droplets
to promote easy combination with the oxygen.
 This is done by means of an atomizer nozzle in which
the oil is forced through an orifice at high pressure,
creating the turbulence motion.
 The orifice size determines the pressure of the fuel at the
burner tip, which in turn influences the flame shape.
 A small orifice results in high fuel pressure and
less fuel passing through the burner than a large
orifice. Because certain high and low limits are
set for one given orifice, it is often necessary to
exchange the orifice for one with a different size
of opening when a large change in fuel rates is
required.
Fuel pressure is of utmost important for
the shape of the flame and consequently has
to be frequently checked by the kiln operator.
 If the pressure, for example, is too low, complete
combustion of the poorly atomized oil particles
cannot take place, resulting in impingement of
the unburned fuel on the coating and the feed
bed.
 2.3 Gaseous fuels
 Although other gaseous fuels such as liquefied
petroleum gas, hydrogen and coal gas are used
in some industries, gaseous fuel firing of rotary
kilns in cement industry is done almost
exclusively with natural gas, one reason being that
it is the cheapest of all gaseous fuels.
 Natural gas offers several advantages for the
kiln operators, as it needs no preparation such
as drying, grinding, or preheating and
combustion takes place readily once the gas has
been mixed with the proper amount of air and
ignition temperature has been reached.
 The burning zone atmosphere is much "cleaner"
because a natural gas flame is not as luminous as
oil or coal flame.

A natural gas - fired burning zone
appears" hotter" to the operator than
one with other fuels, making a short
adjustment period for the kiln operator
necessary whenever firing is switched
from another types of fuel to natural gas.
Another important advantage of natural
gas firing is the need for very little
poor no primary air, thus more valuable
hot secondary air can be used for
combustion in the kiln.

 2.4 Composition and Heat Value
A basic knowledge of heat generation and fuel
efficiency is essential for any kiln operators, who
should remember that the cost of fuel is one
of the major expenditures in the manufacturing
process of cement.
 Efficiency use of the fuel depends in a large
measure on the kiln operator's skill.
Composition and heat value of the fuel are of
significant importance to every concerned with
operation of a rotary kiln, as they are the
basis for heat transfer calculation and for
investigation of the fuel efficiency of a
kiln
 Fuels differ considerably in the amount of heat they
give out when burned, hence it is desirable to
measure their heating values by means of an
instrument called a calorimeter, expressing the
heating values as the number of calories or British
thermal units(BTU) given off when a measured
amount of fuel is burned.
 One gram-calorie, or small calorie, is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram
of water by one degree centigrade.
 Similarly, a kilogram - calorie, is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water by one degree centigrade.
 In the English units, one Btu is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water by one degree Fahrenheit.
The gross heating value is approximately 3.5% higher
than the net heating value.
It is quite possible that a particular kiln might show a
specific fuel consumption of 4886KJ/Kg (4.2 MB
tu/sh.t)in steady-state condition but the month -end
figures include the clinker and fuel losses due to
frequent kiln stops and starts or material losses that
might not be associated at all with the operation of
the kiln itself.
 It is easy to get on the wrong track in the matter of
fuel conservation when coal and clinker storage
areas are inadequate to prevent these materials from
being blown by the wind over the country, or washed
down the road during heavy downpours.
These areas can not be overlooked in a
fuel consumption under steady-state
conditions and then compare this with
the specific fuel consumption that is
derived from the month -end inventory
figure.
If the latter is higher than 3% from the
former, it is necessary to take a serious
look at the existing clinker and fuel
handling and storage systems. Attention
to this can save the company many
thousands of dollars every year.
3. Combustion
 Knowledge of fundamental laws related to
gases and combustion is essential in order for
any kiln operator to understand the duties involved
in his job. When malfunctions and unusual problems
occur, such as chain fires, rapid and unusual
temperature rises in the fuel or firing system, an
understanding of these laws combined with common
sense can make the difference between a potentially
serious, out-of-control condition and safe solution.
3.1 Gas laws
 All gases, including the hot gases in the kiln, behave
in certain manner under external influences. A
perfect gas is one that obeys closely certain
physical laws. For all practical purposes, the gases
under consideration here may be assumed to be
perfect gases. Adjustment to the air circuitry
of rotary kiln are part of the responsibility of
3.3 THE COMBUSTION REACTION
 Successful operation of a rotary kiln requires an
adequate source of heat that will first raise the kiln
to the desired operating temperature, and will then
maintain this temperature by compensating for the
various heat losses occurring in the kiln system,
including the heat required for the process.
 The required heat is obtained by the combustion of
the fuel, a chemical reaction in which carbon, C,
hydrogen, H2, and sulfur, S, in the fuel combine
with oxygen, 02, in the air. To obtain combustion,
two requirements must be fulfilled:
a) Sufficient oxygen must be present to mix with the
fuel, and
b) A certain temperature must be maintained to ignite
the fuel oxygen mixture .
An operator must always remember the
triangular relationship that leads to
combustion:
FUEL

HEAT AIR
If any one of the three links is missing, no
combustion will take place. If there is not
enough air in the kiln, there will be no
proper fire. Likewise in dry or wet kiln, too
much heat and air in the chain section will
result in chain fire because chains contain
carbon which acts as fuel. In order to stop a
fire, elimination of one of the components of
the triangle is necessary, e.g. chocking off
the oxygen (air) supply. In addition, firing
conditions inside the kiln must be such
that the fuel particles undergo complete
combustion while the fuel is still in
suspension in the kiln atmosphere.
 Fuel ignition temperatures, the third
components in the combustion triangle, are
approximately;

0C 0F
For coal 250 480
For fuel 200 400
For natural gas 550 1050
For petroleum coke 620 1150
 It should be pointed out that a rotary kiln, for
safety reason, is never allowed to be operated
with such a deficiency in air supply. There is no
room for any compromise in such a situation;
the operator must do everything in his power
to obtain complete combustion of the fuel
within seconds after the first indication of
incomplete combustion is given. It is deficiency
of air is already present and the burning zone
starts to lose temperature
 More common is a rotary kiln operating with a
large percentage of excess air, usually resulting
from inefficient attendance of the kiln by the
operator. The question might be raised now
why too much air is also harmful to the
efficient operation of the kiln, the reason being
that with plenty of air available a total burning
 Through experience it has been found that the rotary
kiln operates best when the kiln exit gases have oxygen
content of not less than 0.7% and not more than 3.5%
under stable operating conditions.
 The optimum target point is between 1.0 and 1.5%
oxygen.
 In addition, under no circumstances should there be
any carbon monoxide present in the kiln exit gases.
 The given targets and ranges for oxygen levels do not
apply at times when the kiln is in an upset condition.
 New and more advanced types of gas analyzer have
recently been installed in many kilns. These advanced
technology analyzers have capacity of detecting and
recording minute traces of gas components such as O2,
CO2, CO, and NOx.
 Recording on these units are usually in terms of
ppm( parts per million) instead of percentages
 The fact that both too little and too much air for
combustion is detrimental for fuel economy, has
led to the practice in some plans of maintaining a
constant fuel-to- air ratio at all times when the kiln
is operating, even reaching the stage on some
kilns in which controllers automatically adjust the
total mass of air entering the kiln whenever a
change in fuel rate is carried out. Although
such an approach is fully justified from the
viewpoint of combustion efficiency, it is not
conductive to overall operating stability of the kiln.
 Furnace with less complex reactions than a rotary
kiln can operate efficiently under the above
principle. In the rotary kiln, however, there are
many more factors that have a direct influence
on the stability of the operation.
For example, an important factor that is neglected
when the principle of a constant fuel-to-air ratio is
used to control the kiln is the heat profile through the
entire length of the kiln. A rigid application of this
burning technique causes the temperature profile
to change towards the back end of the kiln.
The table below shows the results of a burning
technique in which the temperature profile has
not been considered.
 Example A and C follow the recommended
practice of controlling the oxygen level within a
range of 0.7-3.5%, and at the same time giving full
consideration to the back end temperature. Example
A shows how the fuel rate and the air rate into the
kiln are proportionally changed with succeeding
increases in the kiln feed rate.
 With each feed rate increase there must be a
corresponding increase in fuel rate and air flow rates
as well as a rise in back end temperature to take
care of increased production.
 This then is the procedure for stable kiln operation.
Failure to make all these required increases could lead
the kiln into an upset.
 There is little doubt that such an approach as shown
in Example A will meet the approval of experienced
operators.
 Examples of upset kiln conditions are shown in B and
C in which the feed rate remains constant. Example B
shows the technique of maintaining a constant fuel-to-
air ratio; that is, the oxygen percentage remains
constant. This results in uniform combustion but very
serious fluctuations in burning zone and back end
temperatures.
 changes in back end temperature result in uneven feed operation
(drying, calcinations) in turn creating cyclic operating conditions.
Because the feed rate is constant, heat distribution should be
unchanged to maintain the same drying and calcining conditions.
 Example C is the recommended procedure for kiln upsets in which an
attempt is made to maintain back -end temperature constant. Small
adjustment are made to_ Induced draft fan speed to compensate for
the temperature drops or rises that occur in the back end due to
changes in the fuel rate.
 The preceding discussion of combustion has centered on and is
applicable to firing system where the air supply to the furnace can be
independently controlled. In other words; it applies to all kilns (wet,
dry, semidry, pre-heater) that have one single firing system in the
lower part of the kiln (burning zone). It also applies to pre-calciner
kilns that have tertiary air corning from the cooler for the
flash furnace.
 The discussion on for the proper air supply to the kiln and the
optimum percent of excess air does not apply to the precalciner
kilns where all the air for the precalcining chamber (flash
furnace) originates from and goes through the rotary kiln [i.e. no
tertiary air duct present). in such kilns one single air supply route
must serve two combustion process namely the flames in the
burning zone and the flash calciner.
 Obviously, the excess air at the rotary kiln back end
must be much higher otherwise; incomplete
combustion will take place in the flash furnace.
Excess air from 60 -90% at the feed end is not
uncommon on such kilns. Through experience it
has become known that large percentage of excess
air renders a kiln inefficient by lowering the
thermal level of the gases.
 As a whole, such a precalciner might be efficient
but the fact remains that the burning of the fuel in
the burning zone is done by large amounts of excess
air hence no optimum conditions prevail here.
This too, is reason why precalciner, without
tertiary air duct, usually does not achieve the high
output rates that a precalciner of equal size with
tertiary air duct does.
 Combustion air requirements to burn fuel (solid or
liquid) can be calculated as follows
O = [1 + m/ 10o) [0.115944Ac + 0.34783{AH - Ao/ 8 +
0.04348As] Where:
0 = combustion air required (kg air /kg fuel)-(lb air /lb fuel)
m= percent excess air in the exit gas (use 5.0)
Ac = percent Carbon in fuel
AH= percent hydrogen in fuel
Ao= percent oxygen in fuel
As =percent sulfur in fuel
 Products of combustion are mathematically determined by
the following formulas:
C02 = from fuel= 0.0367 AcWA
S02 = from fuel = 0.02 AsWA H20 = from fuel= 0.09
AHWA
N2 from fuel = [AN/ 100 + 3.3478(0.0267Ac + 0.0 lAs +
0.08AH-0.01lA0
Subtotal = ----------------
Add excess air: m/ 100 (subtotal) = --------
Where:
Ac= percent carbon in fuel
As= percent sulfur in fuel
AH= percent hydrogen in fuel
AN= percent nitrogen in fuel
Ao= percent oxygen in fuel
m= percent excess air in exit gas (use 5.0)
WA= lb fuel fired /lb clinker or kg fuel/ kg
clinker
If the operator notices an increase or decrease in
the carbon dioxide recording, no adjustment having
been made to such variables as fuel rate, air
flows rate, or kiln speed, he knows that some
changes taken place in the calcining zone.
 The conditions under which a carbon dioxide recorder
become of value is when calcining conditions changes in
the kiln, that is, when the kiln is in an upset state.
 A change in the feed rate( including the dust
return rate, if any), feed composition, or feed
advancement within the kiln, can result in a change in
the C02 content in the exit gases even at constant
combustion conditions in the burning zone.
 The reason why the C02 changes in these instance is
because more feed, less feed, or different feed is being
calcined in the kiln.
 Changes that occur in the calcining zone can
not be seen by the kiln operator when he looks
into the kiln to observe the burning zone
because calcining takes place behind the
burning zone.
 For this reason, a change in the character of
the feed bed could occur unknown to the
operator until it latter becomes visible in the
burning zone.
 Most common of such occurrences are kiln
feed dust waves that flush at high speed into
the burning zone, the arrival of large chunks
of scale, or change in the amount of feed
entering the burning zone.
 By the use of a carbon dioxide analyzer and
recorder, the operator is able to recognize the
 This is an early warning of possible changes in
burn ability that will soon occur. Once an operator has
become accustomed to a particular kiln, he will know
what setting in co2, 02, fuel rate, feed rate, other
variables will most likely result in an efficient and
stable operation for a given feed composition.
A carbon dioxide analyzer is also helpful in
obtaining stable operating conditions again after a
kiln upset.
 Assuming that the kiln has been in an upset ‘
condition with oxygen lower and C02 higher than
normal, then when the recorder starts to show an
increase in oxygen With the corresponding decrease
in C02 without any changes in feed rate, the operator
will know that calcining conditions behind the burning
zone are improving and can expect an increase in
burning zone temperature within a few minutes.
Proper combustion requires that the kiln be operated
in such a manner that:
1. The kiln exit gases have an oxygen content of not
less than 0.7% nor more than 3.5 % under normal
operating conditions.
2. The kiln exit gases contains no carbon monoxide.

3. The kiln exit gases contain the maximum

percentage of carbon dioxide.
In addition, the operator should:
4. Strive for optimum combustion conditions at all
times by stabilizing kiln gas oxygen content
between 1.0 - 1.5%.
5. Take immediate steps to eliminate combustibles in
the exit gases whenever any carbon monoxide is
detected therein.
 Part 2
Kiln Operating and Control Methods
1. Kiln Operation
 Kiln operating and control method
 Methods of kiln control vary from plant to plant, and even between different
operators, because each operator- is apt to have his own ideas as to how to
proceed when confronted with any given situation. Kiln control, however,
must be a continuous around-the-clock matter, hence it is necessary for all
operators on all shift to operate the kiln in the same manner. This in turn means -
that all operators should be trained in the same principles of kiln operat10n.
 There is nothing more destructive to operating stability than the changing of
controller set point in mass during shift changes. Unless an emergency exists or
an obvious change must be made, it is not possible for an operator to assess the
need for controller-setting changes in the first few minutes after coming on duty. A
difference in setting from the previous day is not necessary an indication to
change these setting back to where they were 24h before. An operator should allow
20 min at the onset of the shift to first observe the process before
deciding that a change is indeed warranted.
 1.2 CLINKER-BURNING TECHNIQUES
 There are three common techniques for burning in a rotary kiln:
 a) Maintain a constant kiln speed, and vary the fuel rate to counteract
temperature changes in the burning zone.
 b) Maintain a constant fuel rate, and vary the kiln speed to hold the burning zone
temperature at the desired level.
 c) Vary the kiln speed, the fuel rate, or both, to maintain the desired burning
zone temperature.
 These techniques have one error in common; they show
concern only for the burning zone temperature. Unfortunately,
many kiln operators think that this is good enough, reasoning that,
as long as good clinker is produced, what more is necessary? The
fallacy of this reasoning lies in the fact that ideal stable kiln
conditions can be obtained faster and more economically when
equal consideration is given to all zones in the kiln and not the
burning zone alone. Drying and calcining of the feed must be
considered before one can consider making clinker. The process
of clinker burning, and therefore the process of rotary kiln
control, starts not at the place where the feed enters the
burning zone, but at the point where the feed enters the kiln. In
preheater and precalciner kilns this applies to the point where
the feed is given to the top stage of the preheater cyclone
VARY THE KILN SPEED, THE FUEL RATE, AND THE
INDUCED DRAFT-FAN SPEED IN ANY COMBINATION TO
MAINTAIN THE PROPER BURNING-ZONE
TEMPERATURE AND A CONSTANT KILN BACK-END
TEMPERATURE FOR A GIVEN FEED RATE.
 This is sometimes referred to as "burning "a kiln from the
rear," the most reliable techniques that fulfills the four
fundamental rules of clinker burning which, in order of priority,
are:
1. Protection of the equipment and personnel at all times
a) Protection of the Equipment and Personnel: Safe operation
must have first priority at all times; the operator should never
allow himself to bypass this rule. Red grate in the cooler, red
spots 9n the kiln shell, or overheated chains can do much more
damage than the production of few barrels of bad clinker, if
bringing the equipment trouble under control would happen to result
in the production of a small amount of poor clinker. It is usually
during times of unusual and severe upset of the operating
conditions that an operator will most likely forget this
fundamental rule. This is because of the attention
understandably being given in such instance to leading the kiln
back to normal operating conditions. but, it is precisely during
theses" tight" moments that the shift in attention towards the
safety of the equipment and fellow workers must be made.
The majority of accidents happen when the kiln is in an
unusual operating condition such as during kiln starts, stops, and
upsets.
b) Production of Well Burned Clinker : A well- Burned Clinker
is a clinker that is !1-either under burned nor over ,.turned, has
been properly cooled, and posses the correct free-lime content and
the desired liter weight.
c) Continuous Stable Kiln Operation: continuous Operation should
always have priority over maximum production. More can be gained by
having emphasis on continuous operation rather than by ·<pushing the
kiln to peak production at the expense of periodical kiln upsets. Stable
kiln operation is the key to long refractory life, high fuel efficiency, and
uniform quality clinker.
 The term "stable kiln condition" means the condition in which only very
small changes or no changes at all have to be' made to the control
variables to hold the kiln in state of equilibrium. It is the kiln
operator's duty to obtain stable conditions and not be satisfied until this
goal has been achieved. The capability of a kiln operator is measured
not so much by length of time a stable kiln condition is maintained but
by how well kiln upsets are handled, and how much skill is used in leading
the kiln back to stable conditions after an upset.
 Stable operation is also identified by the recording charts, most note-
worthy being the kiln speed and burning zone and back end temperature
(all deviating very little over a long period of time). Upset conditions are
marked by large changes in kiln speed, and, when these speed changes
occur in frequent intervals. E.g every 2h, the kiln is in a cycling
condition. Working a kiln out of cycle, i.e breaking a cycle, is the most
challenging task a kiln operator faces. This is kiln upset can happen not
only on dry and wet process kilns but, although less sever and less
frequent, also on preheater and precalciner kilns. Even kilns with
sophisticated computer and automatic control are not immune to these
cycling conditions.
d)Maximum production with Maximum Fuel
Efficiency: only after the three previous requirements
have been met can one try to raise production and start
to concentrate on details fuel efficiency. Any move
made in this direction should be one very slowly in
order to avoid upsetting the prevailing stable Kiln
condition. Large kilns usually operate better in the
upper range of their rated production rate; hence
production increase can help to stabilize the
operation if the kiln been operating somewhat below
its rated capacity
5.3 Reaction zones in the rotary kiln
Controlling the kiln operation means keeping a watch
on all the different zones and reactions that takes place
within the kiln system. There are five distinct zones
within the kiln, their location and length being different
for each of the kiln system used. These zones are
shown below
Figure, coating
 There is a temperature drop between surface (CS) and the kiln
shell(KS), the heat flowing in the direction indicated by arrow in
the fig above. (Heat always travels from a place or body of high
temperature to a place of body of lower temperature) This heat
transfer is governed to a great extent by the conductivity of
refractory and coating. The better the conductivity of the
refractory, the better chance of coating formation, explained by
the fact that the more neat that travels in the direction of the
arrow, the lower the temperature will be at the surface of the
coating. Because the coating consist of particles that have changed
from a liquid to a solid state, the amount that any kiln feed
liquefies at clinkering temperature plays a very important role
in coating formation. A kiln feed with a high liquid content
at clinkering temperatures is more effective in coating formation
than a feed low in liquid. Kiln feeds with-a high liquid phase
(easy burning mixes) have a high content of fluxes: the iron,
alumina, magnesia, and alkalis.
 On the other hand, hard burning mixes (low in iron, alumina,
magnesia, and alkalis, and high in silica and lime) do not have
a favorable influence on coating formation. Alkalis entrained in
the gas stream promote the formation of coating (unfortunately
rings also) because of their high fluxing characteristic.
 Because the surface temperature is probably the
most important factor in the formation of the
coating, it is obvious that the flame itself has a
significant effect on coating formation because the
shape of the flame directly governs the surface
temperature at any given point in the burning
zone. A flame that is too short, snappy, wide can
erode the coating because of the great heat released
over a short area with this kind of flame. A long
flame is more favorable to coating formation in the
burning zone.
 Once all the factors have been taken care of and
foundation for a good protective coating established,
it is then up to the kiln operator to control the
coating during operation of the kiln. It is his
responsibility to form and maintain a good solid
coating in the burning zone.
 1.2 Operating conditions
 Operating conditions are just as vital for coating formation as all
the other factors mentioned above. Assume that a kiln will be
operated from one extreme of temperature to the other, that is,
cold, normal. And a badly overheated kiln; that the same kiln-feed
composition is burned in all three that the examples; solidifying
temperature is 1315 C; and that 24% liquid is formed at the point of
investigation, under ideal operating condition.
 First, consider the cold kiln, (fig 11.2A). In this case almost no coating
is formed. the coating surface temperature as well as the feed
temperature is to0 low to produce the necessary amount of liquid
matter that would promote coating formation. The condition in this
example is commonly reoffered to be kiln operators as the kiln being
in a "hole“. This example also supports the widely known fact that no
new coating can be formed while the kiln is cold.
 In the normal kiln (n fig 11. 1B), enough liquid (24%) is present form
a coating. Temperature of the coating when it emerges from the feed
bed, as well a when in contact with the feed, is below the solidifying
temperature of the feed particles. The particles will adhere to the wall
and solidifying, and will continue to do so as long as the surface
temperature of the coating remains below the solidifying temperature
of 1315 C. whenever the wall reaches this temperature no new coating
will form. The coating is in equilibrium.
In the hot (fig 11.2 c], because of the extremely
high temperature of the feed and coating, too much
liquid is formed. As all temperatures are above the
solidifying temperature, the coating transforms
from a solid back to a liquid again. In such a
condition coating will come off, and the feed
because of its high liquid content will "ball up"
Needless to say. This condition is extremely
harmful to the kiln and to the refractory.
 Most basic refractories, and especially the Dolomite
liners, are not able to withstand prolonged exposure
to the high flame temperatures without this
protective coating. The burning zone is divided in
three subzones namely the upper-transition,
the sintering, and the lower-transition
zones.
 Because of the lower liquid content in the feed and
because of the frequent temperature changes, the upper-
and the lower -transition zones are areas where formation
and maintenance of coating is the most unstable.
Shifting burning zone location produces a similar shift in the
location where coating is formed; thus, unstable coating
conditions are most frequently observed in the upper and
lower end of the burning zone. This is clearly supported by
the fact that most rotary kilns experience the most frequent
refractory failures in these two critical areas. It should be
noted that since the upper and lower burning zones are
also within the vicinity of the first and second tires, brick
failures are not only the result of variations in the
burning-zone conditions but, are also often the direct
result of excessive tire clearance and shell ovality. Both
the frequent falling out of coatings in these areas and
formation of too much coating can lead to troublesome
ring formations.
Ring formations in the lower-transition zone
(i.e. at the kiln discharge are referred to as
nose rings. Others refer to these as ash rings
when the kiln is coal fired. Ring formations in
the upper-transition zone are referred to as
clinker ring. These ring formations can in
many instances be so severe that they force to
operators to shut down the kiln and shoot these
rings out with an industrial gun. The cardox
system has been successfully used for many
years in Europe on several kilns to remove such
rings. These devices are affixed to the kiln shell
in strategic locations and use C02 cartridges to
blast the rings while the kiln has only to be
stopped for a short interval to load and trigger
the cartridges.
1.3. Possible causes for ring formation in the burning zone
a) Coal fineness too coarse.
b) Low fusion temperature of coal ash
c) Kiln feed high on liquid content( silica, A/F ratios
as well as lime saturation factor low)
d) Incomplete calcinations of the feed as it enters the
burning zone(frequent dust flushes into and poor
calcinations behind the burning zone)
e) Frequent changes in chemical composition and fines of
the kiln feed.
f) Excessive dust generation in the cooler and burning
zone (including changes in dust insufflations on wet-
process kilns.)
g) Kiln speed too slow and feed loading too high in normal
operation.
h) Excessive variations of flame temperature and length
during normal operation
THANK
YOU!!