30.

Standing waves

Topic 4
Learning Objectives:
 Explain the formation of standing waves using superposition.

 Discuss the differences between standing waves and travelling waves.

 Describe nodes and antinodes.

 Work with standing waves on strings and pipes.

 Use the equation: separation between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) = λ/2

 Use the equation for the first harmonic on a stretched string.

 Find the frequencies of subsequent harmonics.

 Solve problems with standing waves on strings and pipes.

Reflection from a HARD boundary.
The animation below shows a wave pulse on a string moving from
left to right towards the end which is rigidly clamped. As the wave
pulse approaches the fixed end, the internal restoring forces
which allow the wave to propagate exert an upward force on the
end of the string. But, since the end is clamped, it cannot move.
Reflection from a HARD boundary.
According to Newton's third law, the wall must be exerting an
equal downward force on the end of the string. This new force
creates a wave pulse that propagates from right to left, with the
same speed and amplitude as the incident wave, but with
opposite polarity (upside down).

At a fixed (hard) boundary, the displacement remains zero and the

reflected wave changes its polarity (undergoes a 180o phase change)
 Standing Waves (superposition of two waves
traveling in opposite directions).
A traveling wave represents a disturbance that moves from one
location to another location at a speed which depends on the elastic
and inertia properties of the medium. The animation below shows
two traveling waves: the blue wave is traveling to the right and the
red wave is traveling to the left. Both waves have the same
amplitude, the same frequency, and the same wavelength.
Standing waves
This animation shows how a wave train reflects from a hard, rigid
boundary to form a standing wave. Just as we saw for a wave pulse
reflection from a fixed end, the reflected wave is inverted (upside
down) compared to the incident wave, and is now traveling in the
opposite direction.

As the reflected wave superposes with the incident wave, a standing

wave is quickly formed. There is no net transfer of energy The fixed
end of the string is a node.
A special wave is formed two identical waves travelling in opposite
directions meet and interfere. The result is a standing (or stationary)
wave: a wave in which the crests stay in the same place. The theory
of wind and string musical instruments is based on the theory of
standing waves.

You have observed standing waves on a string. Make a list of

observations that apply to standing waves but not to travelling waves.
Observations:
 The crests of a standing wave stay at the same place.

 There are some points on the string where, as a result of

destructive interference between the two waves, the
displacement is always zero. We call these points nodes. The
distance between two consecutive nodes is half a wavelength.
 Half-way between nodes are points where, as a result of
constructive interference, the displacement gets as large as
possible. These points are called antinodes.
 Points between consecutive nodes are in phase. This implies that
such points have a velocity in the same direction.
Observations (continued):
 Points in-between the next pair of consecutive nodes are 180o out
of phase.
 The amplitude of the oscillation is different at different points on
the string.
 A standing wave does not transfer energy: it consists of two
travelling waves that transfer energy in opposite directions so the
standing wave itself does not transfer energy.
 The ends of a standing wave are either nodes or antinodes. These
end or boundary conditions determine the possible shape of the
wave.
Two sine waves travelling in opposite directions create a standing wave

As the two waves pass through each other, the net result alternates
between zero and some maximum amplitude. However, this pattern
simply oscillates; it does not travel to the right or the left, and thus it
is called a "standing wave".

I have placed two

dots on the string,
one at an antinode
and one at a node.
Which is which?
Standing waves in a guitar string.
Musical instruments are examples of devices which make use of standing
waves. As the guitar strings are strummed, energy is given to the strings
which passes along the string in the form on a wave. Reflection occurs and
the wave interferes with itself to form a standing wave.

[Link]
Waves on a string.
Click on the following link:
[Link]
This wave is the second
harmonic of the system.
It is twice the
fundamental and thus
the second harmonic.
Every integer of the
fundamental is the nth
harmonic of the system.
Harmonics on a string.
Look at the image below showing the different standing waves on a
string.
Image shows 2nd Harmonic, n=2. Can you
derive a formula for the different frequencies
for each harmonic?
Standing waves on a string.
Strings (and in fact any system capable of wave motion) has a fundamental
frequency (natural frequency) and a series of harmonics which are higher
frequency waves which can also fit on the string.
The harmonics are not arbitrary - they can only appear when the length of
the string,corresponds to where is an integer and is the wavelength.
where
Questions
1. A guitar string is 80cm long. When it is plucked it vibrates at a
fundamental frequency of 220Hz. What is the speed of the
wave on the string?

2. By changing the tension in the string, a new fundamental

frequency of 440Hz is produced. What is different about this
new wave? Explain why the wave is different.
 Ruben’s Tube.
The video is showing a tube with gas passing through it. At the same time,
sound waves are being passed through the gas. Since sound travels as a
series of compressions and rarefactions, the pressure of the gas will change.
High pressures are created by compressions and low pressure by
rarefactions.
Where the pressure is high, more gas leaves the tiny holes in the pipe and
we see a larger flame and vice versa.
Standing waves in closed end pipe.
Standing waves with frequencies varying over a wide range can be formed
in an air column. Out of this the lowest frequency is called fundamental
frequency and all other frequencies are odd and even multiples of the
fundamental frequency. The sound wave of fundamental frequency has
the highest amplitude and is therefore most energetic.
Though resonance can occur with any of the harmonic frequencies, it is
more noticeable with fundamental frequency.
Standing waves in closed end pipe.
So when it is given that the pipe resonates at 450 Hz, it means that the
fundamental frequency is 450 Hz.
When the pipe vibrates in the fundamental mode, a node is formed at the
closed end and an anti node is formed at the open end. So the length of
the tube is one-fourth of the wavelength.

Draw a diagram showing the next fundamental note. What is the

wavelength of this note?
Summary
Standing waves in a pipe, length L.

1. Both ends open (or both closed): ,

2. One end closed, the other open: ,

Measuring the velocity of sound in air.
The velocity of sound in air may be found
quite simply by using the resonance of a
column of air in a tube. An open- ended tube
is placed in a glass cylinder containing water,
as shown in Figure 5, so that the water closes
the bottom end of the tube. A tuning fork of
known frequency is sounded over the upper
end, the air in the tube vibrates and a note is
heard. The length of the air column is adjusted
by raising the tube out of the water until a
point is found where resonance occurs and a
loud note is produced. At this point the
frequency of the tuning fork is equal to the
resonant frequency of the tube.
Measuring the velocity of sound in air.
There are many possible standing waves that can occur in a closed-
end tube, however, you will just be producing the first harmonic,
where the wavelength will equal 4L.
Measuring the velocity of sound in air.
The vibrations within the tube will be transmitted to the air just outside the
tube, and the air will then also vibrate. In accurate work we must also allow
for this effect, by making an end correction (Figure 4).

This means that we consider that the tube is effectively longer than its
measured length by an amount e, that is:

The true length equals For the first harmonic, the wavelength now equals:

(𝒆)
Measuring the velocity of sound in air.
Since all waves obey the wave equation: , then we can write that:

By taking a series of measurements of L for different frequencies of

tuning forks, it is possible to find the velocity of sound in air. You will
need to plot a suitable graph and use the gradient to find the velocity of
sound in air.

Note: For accurate determinations the following precautions should be

taken:
(a) the temperature of the air should be taken, since the velocity of
sound is temperature-dependent, and
(b) the end correction should be allowed for. This may be done by finding
the resonance for the second harmonic with the same tuning fork.
Measuring the speed of sound in air.
Length of tube (m)
Frequency (Hz) Δf (Hz)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
287.6 0.3 0.299 0.297
304.4 0.4 0.269 0.275
319.7 1.0 0.260 0.268
341.1 0.2 0.235 0.246
361.6 0.2 0.228 0.228
383.0 0.3 0.215 0.215
405.9 1.0 0.202 0.202
425.5 0.3 0.192 0.196
455.5 0.3 0.175 0.185
479.1 1.0 0.165 0.175
511.9 1.0 0.157 0.161

Note: You will measure the frequency of the tuning forks using a
microphone connected to a data logger. To find its frequency and its
uncertainty, we can use the FFT function (Fast Fourier Transform)
Finding the speed of sound in air by investigating the
standing waves in a closed-end pipe.

Results table:
Frequency Length of tube (cm)
1/L (m -1 )
(Hz) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
256 33.0
288 29.8
320 26.4
341 23.5
384 21.5
426 19.2
480 17.0
512 15.7
 To do: (finish for homework)
1. Find the average length, L
2. Find 1/L with L in metres, so that the unit of 1/L is m-1.
3. Plot a graph of frequency (y-axis) against 1/L.
4. Add a suitable line of best fit.
5. Find the gradient of your line of best fit.
6. Knowing that: , find v (speed of sound in air)
7. Find the percentage error for your value of . (Room temp. = 24 oC)
8. Write an evaluation for the experiment. What are the strengths and
weaknesses of the methodology? How can it be improved? What
about the data collected? Is the data reliable and accurate? How do
you know?
The Physics of sound in tubes.
This part of the Physics of sound is
the basis of all wind instruments,
from the piccolo to the organ.

Basically the ideas are very simple

but they can become complex for a
specific musical instrument. For that
reason we will confine ourselves to a
general treatment of the production
of a note from a uniform tube.
The Physics of sound in tubes.
The stationary waves set up by the vibrations of the air molecules within
the tube are due to the sum of two travelling waves moving down the
tube in opposite directions. One of these is the initial wave and the
other its reflection from the end of the tube.

All air-filled tubes have a resonant frequency and if the air inside them
can be made to oscillate they will give out a note at this frequency. This
is known as the fundamental frequency or first harmonic.

Higher harmonics or overtones may also be obtained and it is the

presence of these harmonics that gives each instrument its individual
quality. A note played on a flute will be quite unlike one of exactly the
same pitch played on a bassoon!
The Physics of sound in tubes.
A harmonic is a note whose frequency is an integral
multiple of the particular tube's or string's fundamental
frequency.

Tubes in musical instruments are of two types:

(a) open at both ends, or
(b) open at one end and closed at the other.

The vibration of the air columns of these types of tube in

their fundamental mode are shown in Figure 1. Notice that
the tubes have areas of no vibration or nodes at their closed
ends and areas of maximum vibration or antinodes at their
open ends.

An antinode also occurs at the centre of a tube closed at

both ends in this mode.
Nodes are areas where the velocity of the molecules is effectively zero but
where there is a maximum variation in pressure, while the reverse is true for
antinodes.
The Physics of sound in tubes.
Some of the higher harmonics for the different tubes are shown in
Figure 2. Notice that a closed tube gives odd-numbered harmonics
only, while the open tube will give both odd and even-numbered.

Notice that although the sound waves in the tubes are longitudinal it
is conventional to represent them as transverse vibrations for
simplicity. However two examples of what are really going on is given
for completeness.
The Physics of sound in tubes.
Questions.
1. If the speed of sound is 340 ms-1, what would be the frequencies
of the fundamental and next harmonics (stationary waves) in
a) a 2.0m long tube open at both ends
b) a 2.0m long tube open only at one end?
Questions.
2. A standing wave is set up on a string with both ends fixed. The
frequency of the first harmonic is 150 Hz. Calculate:
(a) The length of the string
(b) The wavelength of the sound produced
(The speed of the wave on the string is 240 ms-1 and in air is 340ms-1).

3. A pipe has one open and one closed end. Determine the ratio of the
frequency of the first harmonic to that of the next harmonic.

4. A source of sound of frequency 2100Hz is placed at the open end of a

tube. The other end of the tube is closed. Powder is sprinkled inside the
tube. When the source is turned on it is observed that the powder
collects in heaps a distance 8.0cm apart.
(c) Explain this observation
(d) Use the information to estimate the speed of sound.
 Describing stationary waves.
 The red points on the below wave are called nodes.
 A node is a point on a stationary wave where there is no
displacement at any time.
 The parts of the wave that move the most are called antinodes.
 An antinode is a point on a stationary wave which has
maximum displacement from equilibrium.
 Describing stationary waves
 At every point between two nodes the points on the wave are in phase.
 The points in adjacent sections of the wave are in antiphase.
 Each point on a stationary wave has the same period and frequency
except nodes which do not oscillate.
 Different points on the waves between two nodes have different
amplitudes.
 Write a paragraph contrasting the above points with a progressive wave.
 Stationary waves Vs Progressive waves
 At every point between two nodes the points on the wave are in phase –
There are no nodes in progressive waves, adjacent points on a progress
wave lag behind each other in phase.

 The points in adjacent sections of the wave are in antiphase – There are
no stationary sections on a progressive waves.

 Each point on a stationary wave has the same period and frequency
except nodes which do not oscillate – Every point on a progressive wave
has the same frequency and period.

 Different points on the waves between two nodes have different

amplitudes – Every point on a progressive wave has the same amplitude
 Stationary waves on a string.
How can we change the pitch of a note on a plucked string?
I.e. how can we alter the frequency of the first harmonic on
that string?
 Change the tension
 Change the length
 Change the string
 We relate these ideas using the following equation:

 Where is the frequency of the first harmonic, is length, is

tension and μ is mass per unit length.
 Stationary waves on a string

What effect does changing the following quantities have on the

frequency?
 Increase the tension of the wire
 Increase the length of the wire
 Increase the mass per unit length of the wire.
 Stationary waves in an open-open pipe
 We can make stationary waves in an air column. Waves are
reflected at the boundary at the end of the pipe causing the
superposition of reflected waves.
 In an open-open pipe there is an antinode at each end
 This means that again we can have only integer numbers of half
wavelengths
 Give 2 examples of instruments that use
an open-open pipe.
 Flute and trumpet.
Stationary Waves in an open-closed pipe.
 In an open-closed pipe there is an antinode at the open end and
a node at the closed end.
 Which gives us limited possibilities for harmonics.
 Name 2 instruments which use open-closed pipes.
 Clarinets and organ pipe.
Given the length of the tube is 0.82m and the speed of sound in air is
340ms-1 calculate the frequency of the first three harmonics.
Whirly tube
Exam question (6 marks).
The candidate’s writing should be legible and the spelling, punctuation and grammar should be
sufficiently accurate for the meaning to be clear.
The candidate’s answer will be assessed holistically. The answer will be assigned to one of the three
levels according to the following criteria.
High Level (good to excellent) 5 or 6 marks
The information conveyed by the answer is clearly organised, logical and coherent, using appropriate
specialist vocabulary correctly. The form and style of writing is appropriate to answer the question.
Mentions waves travelling in opposite directions or waves of same
frequency (and amplitude) and superpose or interfere or add together.

The explanation expected in a competent answer should include a

coherent account of the following points concerning the physical
principles involved and their consequences in this case.
 4 nodes where there is no movement/zero amplitude
 3 antinodes where amplitude is maximum
 wavelength 0.80 m
 between node and antinode, amplitude of oscillation increases
 waves reflect off the clamp (and the rod)
 waves travelling in opposite directions superpose/add/interfere
 wave have same wavelength and frequency (similar amplitude)
 always cancellation at nodes/always constructive superposition at antinodes
 energy is not transferred along string
Standing waves Kahoot