Thermodynamics-I

Shahroze Umar
IST Islamabad
 Modules
Module:1 Introduction to First Law of
Thermodynamics
Module:2 Working Fluid
Module:3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Module:4 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Module:5 Heat Engine Cycle

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 Thermodynamics and Energy

Various energy sources and

 All living things depend on Energy for survival
the possible
 Energy exists in many Forms: From energy conversion paths
locked in the atoms of matter itself to the
intense radiant energy emitted by the Sun
e.g.

• Chemical Energy of fossil fuels→ Heat →

Mechanical Energy in Turbines or Engines
• Nuclear Energy of Uranium Atoms → Heat
• Potential Energy of Water → Kinetic Energy
→ Water turbines → Electrical Energy
• K.E of Wind → Windmills → Electricity
• Energy of Tidal Waves → Floating
Turbine → Electricity

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 Thermodynamics and Energy
 Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work and those properties of
substance that bear a relation to heat and work.
 The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamics
(power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power..

More specifically, thermodynamics deals with:

(a) energy conversion
(b) the direction of change.

 Science of Energy focusing on Energy Conversion Processes and Energy Storage

 Science of the relations between Heat, Work and the Properties of the systems

 Science of the Regularities governing processes of Energy Conversion

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 Thermodynamics and Energy

 Basis of thermodynamics is experimental observation. In

that sense it is an empirical science. The principles of
thermodynamics are summarized in the form of four laws
known as zeroth, first, second, and the third laws of
thermodynamics.
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with thermal
equilibrium and provides a means of measuring
temperature.
 The first law of thermodynamics deals with the
conservation of energy and introduces the concept of
internal energy.

Greater Energy Input (Food) than energy output

(Exercise) will gain weight (Store Energy in the form
of fat), and a person who has a smaller energy
input than output will lose weight
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 Thermodynamics and Energy
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Energy has quality (ability to work) as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
 The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.

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 Thermodynamics and Energy

Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach

 Classical Thermodynamics: A Macroscopic  An elaborate method to study the
Approach to the study of thermodynamics behavior of individual particles.
that does not require a knowledge of the  We will occasionally use this approach to
behavior of individual particles at enhance our basic understanding.
molecular level.
 We study the gross or time averaged
effects of the particles which may be
observable and measurable by
instruments.
 It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems
WITHOUT GOING INTO THE MICRO-LEVEL
OF STUDY and it is used in this course.

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 Real Life Applications
All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it is
hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner

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 Real Life Applications

 Human Body
 Heating and Air Conditioning Systems
 Refrigerator
 Water Heater
 Automobiles Engine
 Solar Collectors
 Steam Power plants
 Jet Engines
 Energy Efficient Home

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 System
 A certain quantity of matter on which the attention is paid is known as System.
 The mass or region outside the system is known as Surroundings.
 The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the
boundary.

Based on the types of exchange which take place or don't take place, we will define three types
of systems:
Isolated systems: No exchange of matter or energy
Closed systems: No exchange of matter but some exchange of energy
Open systems: Exchange of both matter and energy

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 System

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 System

Fluid in a Turbine as Open System Fluid in a Closed Cylinder as a Closed System

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 System
Control Mass System Control Volume System
(Closed System) (Open System)
• Mass remains fixed by its quantity • Volume is fixed.
and its identity. • Total mass may change.
• Volume may change. • Identity is lost even if mass is
• Mass interaction is zero. same.
• There may be energy interaction.

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 Control Volume

• Control volume is defined as a volume which

encloses the matter and the device inside a control
surface.
• Everything external to the control volume is the
surroundings with the separation given by the
control surface.
• The surface may be open or closed to mass flows
and it may have flows from energy in terms of heat
transfer and work across it.
• The boundaries may be moveable or stationary.
• In the case of a control surface that is closed to the
mass flow, so that no mass can enter or escape the
control volume, it is called a control mass
containing same amount of matter at all times.

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 Interactions of thermodynamics Systems

Types of Mass Flow Work Heat

System

Open   
Closed   
Thermally
Isolated   
Mechanically
Isolated   
Isolated   

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 Thermodynamic Properties
Any characteristic of a System to which some Physically Meaningful Numbers can
be assigned without knowing the history behind it, is known as its PROPERTY

Extensive Properties Intensive Properties

Properties that directly Properties which don't
depend on size/mass. directly depend on
Volume, momentum, mass/size.
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, Pressure, Temperature,
Entropy. Density
Properties
Specific Properties: at a point.
Properties per unit mass.
Specific Properties are the intensive properties.
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 Continuum
This concept is used in macroscopic approach when:
a) The dimension of individual particles constituting the system is
negligible w.r.t overall dimensions of system.
b) When the number of individual particles is very large.
• When both the above stated points are satisfied, we can apply
macroscopic approach.
Concept :
• We define the properties as continuous function of space in matter.
• For example: We say that a given solid body has Temperature T , we
don't define its temperature at molecular level.
• We assume that the molecules are closely space such that the gap
between them is negligible. This is strongly valid for solids and liquids.
It is also true for gases.
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 State and Equilibrium
 State: Condition of the system at an instant of time as described or
measured by its Properties OR
 Each unique condition of a system is called a State.

o At a given state, all properties of a system have fixed values.

o Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change
is called a Change of State
 Thermodynamics deals with Equilibrium States
 Equilibrium: A state of balance, in an equilibrium state there are
no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system
 Thermal equilibrium: If temperature is same throughout the system
 Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any
point of the system with time
 Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there
 Chemical equilibrium: If chemical composition of a system does
not change with time, i.e., no chemical reactions occur
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 State and Equilibrium
State Postulate
 We do not need to specify all the properties in order to fix a state
 Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume
certain values automatically

 The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate:

– The state of a Simple Compressible System is completely specified by 2

independent, intensive properties
→ Simple Compressible System: If a system involves no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects

→ If e.g., Gravitational Effects are to be considered, the elevation z needs to be specified

in addition to the two properties necessary to fix the state.

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 State and Equilibrium

 Two properties are Independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant
 Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and
together they can fix the state of a Simple Compressible System

State of nitrogen is fixed by

two independent,
intensive properties

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 Processes and Cycles

 Process: Any change that a system undergoes from

one equilibrium state to another
 Path: Series of states through which a system passes
during a process
 To describe a process completely, one should
specify the Initial and Final States, as well as the
Path it follows, and the Interactions with the
Surroundings

Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium Process: When a

process proceeds in such a manner that the system
remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

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 Processes and Cycles

Piston is moved slowly, molecules will have Molecules near the face of piston will not have
sufficient time to re-distribute and there will enough time to escape and they will have to pile up
not be a molecule pileup in front of the piston in a small region in front of the piston, thus creating
⇒ Pressure will rise at the same rate at all a high-pressure region there
locations ⇒ Process is Non Quasi-equilibrium due to pressure
difference

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 Processes and Cycles

NOTE : Process Path is a CONTINUOUS line only if it is having Quasi-Static Process.

Non-Quasi-Static Process is denoted by a DASHED line.

Quasi-equilibrium Process is an idealized process and is not a true

representation of an actual process.
Many actual processes closely approximate it, and they can be modeled as Quasi-
Equilibrium with negligible error.
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 Processes and Cycles
 Process diagrams plotted by employing Thermodynamic
Properties as coordinates are very useful in visualizing the
processes
 Some common properties that are used as coordinates are
temperature T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume v).
 The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which
a particular property remains constant
 Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T
remains constant
 Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains
constant
 Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the
specific volume v remains constant
 Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are
identical
→ i.e., A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to
its initial state at the end of the process
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 Processes and Cycles

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 The Steady Flow Processes
 The term steady implies no change with time
→ The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient
 A large number of engineering devices operate for long
periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices
 Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows
through a control volume steadily
→ properties can change from point to point within the
control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the
same during the entire process
→ Volume V, the Mass m, and the total Energy
Content E of the control volume remain
constant during a steady-flow process
 Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems
 Term Uniform implies no change with location over a
specified region
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 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Statement:
Bodies in equilibrium after
If two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with the being brought into contact in
third body, they are also in Thermal Equilibrium an isolated enclosure
w i t h each other

A B C

25 ºC 25 ºC 25 ºC

 By replacing the Third Body with a Thermometer; the Zeroth Law can be stated as :
→ Two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium, if both have same TEMPERATURE, even if they
are not in contact with each other.

 Temperature bears as important relation to Thermodynamics as Force does to Statics or

Velocity does to Dynamics
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 Temperature Scales
 All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the Freezing and Boiling
points of water: the Ice Point and the Steam Point
 Ice point: The temperature, equal to 0°C (32 °F), at which pure water and ice coexist in equilibrium at 1
atm of pressure
 Steam Point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor in equilibrium at 1atm Pressure (100°C or 212 °F)

Celsius Scale: In SI units

Fahrenheit Scale: In English units

Comparison of magnitudes of
various temperature units.
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 Temperature Scales
Comparison of Temperature Scales

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 Pressure
 Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
 When dealing with liquids and gases, we ordinarily
speak of Pressure; for solids we speak of Stresses
SI Units :
1 Pa = 1 N/m2

1 kPa = 103 Pa

1 MPa = 106 Pa = 103 kPa

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1MPa = 100 kPa

1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar

1 kgf/cm2 = 9.81 N/m2 = 9.81 X 104 = 0.981 bar = 0.9679 atm

N/m2

English Units :
psi = Pound per square inch ( lbf/in2)
1 atm = 14.696 psi Some basic pressure
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi gages.
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 Pressure
 Absolute pressure: Actual pressure at a given position → measured relative to
absolute vacuum i.e absolute zero pressure
 Gage pressure: difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
→ Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and
so they indicate gage pressure
 Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure

Local Atmospheric Pressure

( 1.01325 bar @ Sea Level )

Absolute Zero pressure

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 Pressure

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 Summary

• Thermodynamics and Energy

• Microscopic Vs Macroscopic
• Real Life Applications
• System, Surrounding, Boundary
• Types of System
• Intensive vs Extensive Properties
• State and Equilibrium
• Processes and Cycles
• Steady Flow Processes
• Zeroth Law and Temperature Scales
• Pressure
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