Methods of Proof
Rosen 1.7, 1.8
Lecture 4: September
09
Some terminology
• Theorem: a mathematical statement that can be shown to
be true
• Proposition: less important theorem
• Axiom (postulate): a statement that is assumed to be true
• Lemma: less important theorem that is helpful in the proof
of other results
• Corollary: a theorem that can be established directly from
a theorem that has been proved
• Conjecture: a statement proposed to be true, but not
proven yet
Basic Definitions
An integer n is an even number
if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k.
An integer n is an odd number
if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k+1.
Proving an Implication
Goal: If P, then Q. (P implies Q)
Method 1: Write assume P, then show that Q logically follows.
Claim: If , then
Reasoning: When x=0, it is true.
When x grows, 4x grows faster than x3 in that
range.
Proof:
When
Direct Proofs
The sum of two even numbers is even.
Proof x = 2m, y = 2n
x+y = 2m+2n
= 2(m+n)
The product of two odd numbers is odd.
Proof x = 2m+1, y = 2n+1
xy = (2m+1)(2n+1)
= 4mn + 2m + 2n + 1
= 2(2mn+m+n) + 1.
Divisibility
a “divides” b (a|b):
b = ak for some integer k
5|15 because 15 =
3∙5
n|0 because 0 =
n∙0
1|n because n =
1∙n
A number p > 1 with no positive integer divisors other than 1 and
itself n|n because n =
is called a prime. Every other
n∙1 number greater than 1 is called
composite. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13 are
prime,
4, 6, 8, and 9 are composite.
Simple Divisibility Facts
1. If a | b, then a | bc for all c.
2. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
3. If a | b and a | c, then a | sb + tc for all s and
t.
4. For all c ≠ 0, a | b if and only if ca | cb.
Proof of (1)
a|b
a “divides” b (a|b):
b = ak
b = ak for some integer k
bc = ack
bc = a(ck)
a|bc
Simple Divisibility Facts
1. If a | b, then a | bc for all c.
2. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
3. If a | b and a | c, then a | sb + tc for all s and
t.
4. For all c ≠ 0, a | b if and only if ca | cb.
Proof of (2)
a | b => b = ak1
a “divides” b (a|b):
b | c => c = bk2 b = ak for some integer k
=> c = ak1k2
=> a|c
Simple Divisibility Facts
1. If a | b, then a | bc for all c.
2. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
3. If a | b and a | c, then a | sb + tc for all s and
t.
4. For all c ≠ 0, a | b if and only if ca | cb.
Proof of (3)
a | b => b = ak1
a “divides” b (a|b):
a | c => c = ak2
b = ak for some integer k
sb + tc
= sak1 + tak2
= a(sk1 + tk2)
=> a|(sb+tc)
Proving an Implication
Goal: If P, then Q. (P implies Q)
Method 1: Write assume P, then show that Q logically follows.
Claim: If r is irrational, then √r is irrational.
How to begin with?
What if I prove “If √r is rational, then r is rational”, is it equivalent?
Yes, this is equivalent;
proving “if P, then Q” is equivalent to proving “if not Q, then not P”.
Rational Number
R is rational there are integers a and b such that
numerator
and b ≠ 0.
denominator
Is 0.281 a rational number? Yes, 281/1000
Is 0 a rational number? Yes, 0/1
If m and n are non-zero integers, is (m+n)/mn a rational Yes
number?
Yes, a/b+c/d=(ad+bc)/bd
Is the sum of two rational numbers a rational number?
Note that 100x-x=12, and so x=12/99.
Is x=0.12121212…… a rational number?
Proving an Implication
Goal: If P, then Q. (P implies Q)
Method 2: Prove the contrapositive, i.e. prove “not Q implies not P”.
Claim: If r is irrational, then √r is irrational.
Proof: We shall prove the contrapositive –
“if √r is rational, then r is rational.”
Since √r is rational, √r = a/b for some integers a,b.
So r = a2/b2. Since a,b are integers, a2,b2 are integers.
Therefore, r is rational. Q.E.D.
Proving an “if and only if”
Goal: Prove that two statements P and Q are “logically equivalent”,
that is, one holds if and only if the other holds.
Example:
An integer is even if and only if the its square is even.
Method 1: Prove P implies Q and Q implies P.
Method 1’: Prove P implies Q and not P implies not Q.
Method 2: Construct a chain of if and only if statement.
Proof by Contraposition
An integer is even if and only if the its square is even.
Method 1: Prove P implies Q and Q implies P.
Statement: If m is even, then m2 is even
Proof: m = 2k
m2 = 4k2
Statement: If m2 is even, then m is even
Proof: m2 = 2k
m = √(2k)
??
Proof by Contraposition
An integer is even if and only if the its square is even.
Method 1’: Prove P implies Q and not P implies not Q.
Statement: If m2 is even, then m is even
Contrapositive: If m is odd, then m2 is odd.
Proof (the contrapositive):
Since m is an odd number, m = 2k+1 for some integer k.
So m2 = (2k+1)2
= (2k)2 + 2(2k) + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
So m2 is an odd number.
Proof by Contradiction
P F
P
To prove P, you prove that not P would lead to ridiculous result,
and so P must be true.
You are working as a clerk.
If you have won Mark 6, then you would not work as a clerk.
You have not won Mark 6.
Proof by Contradiction
Theorem: 2 is irrational.
Proof (by contradiction):
• Suppose 2 was rational.
• Choose m, n integers without common prime factors (always
m
possible) such that2
n
• Show that m and n are both even, thus having a common
factor 2,
a contradiction!
Proof by Contradiction
Theorem: 2 is irrational.
Proof (by contradiction): Want to prove both m and n are even.
m m 2l
2 so can assume
n
m 2 4l 2
2n m
2n 2 4l 2
2n 2 m 2 n 2 2l 2
so m is even. so n is even.
Divisibility by a Prime
Theorem. Any integer n > 1 is divisible by a prime number.
• Let n be an integer.
• If n is a prime number, then we are done.
• Otherwise, n = ab, both are smaller than n.
• If a or b is a prime number, then we are done.
• Otherwise, a = cd, both are smaller than a.
• If c or d is a prime number, then we are done.
• Otherwise, repeat this argument, since the numbers are
getting smaller and smaller, this will eventually stop and
we have found a prime factor of n.
Idea of induction.
Infinitude of the Primes
Theorem. There are infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof (by contradiction):
Let p1, p2, …, pN be all the primes.
Consider p1p2…pN + 1.
Claim: if p divides a, then p does not divide a+1.
Proof (by contradiction):
a = cp for some integer c
a+1 = dp for some integer d
=> 1 = (d-c)p, contradiction because p>=2.
So none of p1, p2, …, pN can divide p1p2…pN + 1, a contradiction.
Proof by Cases
e.g. want to prove a nonzero number always has a positive square.
x is positive or x is negative
if x is positive, then x2 > 0.
if x is negative, then x2 > 0.
x2 > 0.
A proof by cases must cover all possible cases that arise in a
theorem
The Square of an Odd Integer
Idea 0: find counterexample.
2
= 9 = 8+1, 52 = 25 = 3x8+1 …… 1312 = 17161 = 2145x8 + 1, ………
Idea 1: prove that n2 – 1 is divisible by 8.
n2 – 1 = (n-1)(n+1) = ??…
Idea 2: consider (2k+1)2
(2k+1)2= 4k2+4k+1
= 4(k2+k)+1
If k is even, then both k2 and k are even, and so we are done.
If k is odd, then both k2 and k are odd, and so k2+k even, also done.
So n2 = (2k+1)2 = 4(2m)+1
Proof by Cases
Show that there are no solutions in integers x and y of x 2 + 3y2 = 8.
• When |x| 3, x2 8
• When |y| 2, 3y2 8
• This leaves possible x = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} and possible y
= {−1, 0, 1}
• Possible x2 are 0, 1, 4 and possible 3y2 are 0 and 3
• Largest sum of possible values for x2 and 3y2 is 7
• Consequently, it is impossible for x2 + 3y2 = 8 to hold
when x and y are integers
Mistakes in proofs
• What is wrong with this proof “1=2”?
1. a=b (given)
2. a2=ab (multiply both sides of 1 by a)
3. a2-b2 =ab-b2 (subtract b2 from both sides of 2)
4. (a-b)(a+b)=b(a-b) (factor both sides of 3)
5. a+b=b (divide both sides of 4 by a-b)
6. 2b=b (replace a by b in 5 as a=b and simply)
7. 2=1 (divide both sides of 6 by b)
24
What is wrong with this proof?
• “Theorem”: If n2 is positive, then n is positive
“Proof”: Suppose n2 is positive. As the statement
“If n is positive, then n2 is positive” is true, we
conclude that n is positive
• The mistake occurs when one or more steps of a
proof are based on the truth of the statement
being proved
• Counterexample: n = -1
25
In Summary
Direct Proofs (cases/induction) H1 ∧ H2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ Hn ⟹ C
Proofs of the Contrapositive ¬C ⟹ (H1 ∧ H2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ Hn)
H 1 ∧ H 2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ H n ∧ ¬C ⟹ a
contradiction
Proofs by Contradiction
Challenge for the Bored – Rational vs
Irrational
Question: If a and b are irrational, can ab be rational??
We know that √2 is irrational, what about √2√2 ?
