Stratigraphy and
Earth History
(Geol 2023)
By Tigist B.
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction to Stratigraphy [3 hrs]
2. Stratigraphic Data Collection [3 hrs]
3. The Geologic Time Scale [3-5 hrs]
4. Depositional Environments and Facies [4-6 hrs]
5. Stratigraphic Relationships: Event and Sequence Stratigraphy [4-6 hrs]
CONT...
6. Classification and Nomenclature of Stratigraphic units [4-6 hrs]
7. Principles and Application of stratigraphic Correlations [3-5 hrs]
8. History of the Earth and its Life [3-5 hrs]
9. Evolution of Earth’s Environments [3-4 hrs]
10. Introduction to the Ethiopian Stratigraphic Succession [3-4 hrs]
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definitions of Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the science that studied the origin, relationship and extent of rock layers (Strata).
It is the branch of geology concerned with the description, organization, and classification of
rocks.
plural - strata ; singular- stratum (a single layer or bed).
the term Stratigraphy was first used by William Smith (1817)
Stratigraphy deals with the vertical and lateral relationships between rock units (i.e. stratigraphic
units) that are defined on the basis of
lithologic, paleontologic,
geophysical properties, age relationships,
sequences, event horizons, cycles and stable isotopes.
CONT...
It is also the study of strata to determine the order and timing of events in Earth
history:
it provides the time frame that allows us to interpret sedimentary rocks in terms of
dynamic evolving environments.
The stratigraphic record of sedimentary rocks is the fundamental database for
understanding the evolution of life, plate tectonics and global climate change
through time.
1.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
STRATIGRAPHY
Nicholas Steno established the theoretical basis for stratigraphy, in a 1669, on the fossilization of
organic remains in layers of sediment.
Steno’s laws
Original horizontality
Superposition
Original continuity
In 1667 Steno developed the principle of superposition:
‘in a sequence of layered rocks, any layer is older than the layer next above it’.
In a succession of undiformed strata, oldest stratum is at base, with successive younger ones above.
This used to establish relative ages of all strata & their contained fossils.
CONT...
James Hutton (1726–1797): Father of Modern Geology
Concept of uniformitarianism and unconformities
The principle of Uniformitarianism states that the geologic forces and processes
that shaped our planet in the geologic past were the same that are at work on
Earth today.
“The present is the key to the past”.
Charles Lyell (1797-1875) - original principle of inclusions and components from his
1830 to 1833 multi-volume Principles of Geology.
An event that cuts across existing rock is younger than that disturbed rock.
Fragments of rock that are contained (or included) within a host rock are older than the host
rock.
Each stratum contained organized fossils peculiar to itself, and might, in case otherwise
doubtful, be recognized and discriminated from others like it, but in a different part of the
CONT...
Johannes walther (1860-1937) :
Facies adjacent to one another in a continuous vertical
sequences also accumulated adjacent to one another laterally.
Only those facies and facies areas can be superimposed
primarily which can be observed beside each others at the
present time.
Vertical successions do not always reproduce horizontal
sequence of environments.
Unconformities
Stratigraphic surfaces across which there is evidence for a significant time gap.
Angular unconformities: angular discordance between strata above and
below i.e. A contact in which younger strata overlie an erosional surface on
tilted or folded rock layers. It is easy to identify in nature.
CONT...
CONT...
CONT...
Disconformities – A contact representing missing rock between sedimentary
layers that are parallel to each other.
Since disconformities are parallel to bedding planes, they are difficult to see in nature.
Nonconformities – A contact in which an erosion surface on plutonic or
metamorphic rock has been covered by younger sedimentary or volcanic rock.
Paraconformity- A contact between parallel layers formed by extended
periods of non-deposition (as opposed to being formed by erosion).
These are sometimes called "pseudounconformities").
1.3. SUB-DISCIPLINES OF STRATIGRAPHY
There are three traditional branches of stratigraphy that existed before the 1960s.
Lithostratigraphy - studies the vertical and lateral relationships between
rock units (i.e. stratigraphic units) that are described on the basis of lithologic
or physical properties, such as rock type, color, mineral composition and
texture.
Biostratigraphy - based on paleontological characteristics (fossil contents)
Chronostratigraphy - based on ages of strata and their relationships (chrono
means time)
CONT...
There are relatively new branches that emerged after 1960s.
Seismic Stratigraphy - based on the response of strata to seismic waves (elastic
waves).
Sequence Stratigraphy - based on depositional sequences (packages of strata that are
bounded by unconformities).
Allostratigraphy - based on bounding discontinuities between units.
Event Stratigraphy -based on event horizons and marker beds.
Cyclostratigraphy -based on sedimentary cycles in the
stratigraphic record.
Chemostratigraphy - based on stable isotopes (e.g. O, C, S, Sr).
1.4 The importance of studying Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy allows the reconstruction of the sequence of the events in Earth history and
the evolution of life on Earth.
Very important for oil exploration and mining.
For Plate tectonic studying
Fossils in these rocks provide a record of climate change.
generally, it is useful in interpretation and reconstruction of the paleo-environment and
the geological history record.
PROBLEM WITH STRATIGRAPHY
many geologists have fallen prey to, is believing that rock layers are laid down in a uniform
thickness over the entire earth’s surface, or at least over a large portion of it.
This misguided way of thinking is commonly referred to as “layer cake” geology.
It is important for a geologist to understand that the rocks he or she sees are not laid down in
uniform layers, but reflect natural conditions similar to what we see today.
When the sediments eventually lithify and become rock, the same sequence is preserved and might
someday be studied by a geologist.
The geologist needs to know that just because he or she only sees sandstone, doesn’t mean that
sand was the only thing that was deposited.
1.5. INTRODUCTION TO SEDIMENTOLOGY
Why do strata form? Because of changes in the conditions of their formation (stratification).
Sedimentary rock strata are formed by a process called Sedimentation.
Sedimentology is the study of the processes of formation, transport and deposition of
material that accumulates as sediment in continental and marine environments and
eventually forms sedimentary rocks.
Formation of sedimentary rocks involves either
the transport of particles to the site of deposition by gravity, water, air, ice or mass flows
(terrigenous sedimentary rocks) or
the chemical precipitation of the material in place (chemical sedimentary rocks).
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Based on their mode of formation, mineralogical composition and texture. sedimentary rocks can
be grouped into three broad categories,
terrigenous (clastic),
allochemical and Chemical
sedimentary
rocks
orthochemical.
Terrigenous (clastic) rocks: are made up of particles or clasts derived from pre-existing rocks (detrital
fragments).
Therefore, the terms detrital sediments and siliciclastic sediments are also used for this types of sedimentary rocks.
Examples are conglomerates, sandstones and mudstones that make up 80-85% of the total sedimentary rocks in the
stratigraphic record.
CONT...
Allochemical sedimentary rocks: are made up of biochemical or biogenic sedimentary particles or
clasts, but possess clastic texture.
These include carbonates (limestones, marls, dolostones), phosphorites, organic deposits (coals and oil
shales) and cherts (siliceous sedimentary rocks).
Limestones constitute 10-15% of the sedimentary rocks in the stratigraphic record.
Orthochemical sedimentary rocks: are the result of direct chemical precipitation in the depositional
basin.
These include evaporites (formed by the precipitation of salts), banded iron formation, bedded cherts and
travertine.
These are volumetrically less common than the above, making up about 5% of the stratigraphic record, but
some are of considerable economic importance.
SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES
Four main processes are involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks, and thus sedimentary strata. These are:
weathering,
erosion/transport,
deposition and
diagenesis.
Weathering: is the in situ breakdown and alteration of bedrock by mechanical and chemical processes that
create a regolith (layer of loose material), which is then available for transport away from the site.
Erosion and transport: is the process of carrying away of loose material from the land surface down slope under
gravity, by running water, by wind, by ice or by a combination of these processes.
Deposition:
Diagenesis:
CONT...
