Organisational Behaviour

Dr Yogeshwari
Phatak
 Unit – I Focus and Purpose

 Definition, need and importance of

organizational behaviour– Nature and
scope–Framework– Organizational behavior
models, Organization and the
environmental factors.
 Organizational Theory, Organizational
 Organisation :
 Organisation is a group of people who have
collected to work for a common goal with
collective effort.
 Behaviour:
 It is a verbal or physical impact shown by a
person as a consequence of the impact of his
or her surroundings.
 Organizational Behaviour Definition
 Robbins ”A field of study
 that investigates
 the impact that individuals, groups and organisation
structure
 have on behaviour within organizations,
 for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward
improving an organization’s effectiveness.”
Disciplines that contribute to Organisational Behaviour

 [Link]: science that seeks to measure, explain

and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and
animals.
 What things have come to OB from psychology: Things
that effect individuals:
a. Learning e. Personality
b. Motivation f. Attitude
c. Perception g. Work stress
 [Link]: As psychology focuses on individuals
while sociology is the study of the development, structure, and
functioning of human society.
 Things that come to OB from sociology
a. Organisation culture
b. Organisation structure
c. Power and politics
d. Organisational communication
 [Link] Psychology it is inherited from sociology
and psychology
 Social psychology is Social psychology is the study of how
individual or group behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior
of others.
 How ob is influenced by it:
a. Group decision making
b. Communication
c. Behavioural Change
 [Link]: Anthropology is the study of humanity
through the application of biology, cultural studies,
archaeology, linguistics, and other social sciences
 How it effects OB
a. Cross cultural Analyses
b. Organisational culture
c. Comparative values
Three levels of analysis
 Organisation behavior studies human behavior in
the organization on three main levels.
 The three levels are :
 [Link] level,
 [Link] or team level, and o
 [Link] level.
[Link] Level

 This is the first level of OB analysis. Each

individual’s behavior is different from others,
as it is natural, and some are affected by
social, cultural , and other social variables.
 At the individual level, ob studies the
behavior of an individual person such as
his/her attitudes, motivation, perception,
personality, values, ethics, satisfaction, and
other personal traits.
 The concept of psychology plays important role in
the individual-level analysis.
 A manager using his psychology, knowledge,
Understanding to helps managers to come up with
ideas to develop better and more positive
approaches to organizational systems.
Group Level

 The organization also consists of different groups and

teams. The group-level analysis of OB studies the
behavior of people at the group level, how groups
work, why they interact in group work, collaboration,
group decisions, etc.
 A group is a people who come together to reach some
common goals. They can be small or large and formal
or informal. In a group people work together, one’s
actions affect others, they are dependent on each
other, and the goal is achieved through collective
effort.
 By understanding the behavior of group-level managers
can develop ideas on how to effectively handle
groups in the organization and lead them.
Organizational Level

 At this last level organizational behavior analyses how the

organization works. It mainly studies how people interact
with organizational structure, how the organization with
them, and how the external environment forces interact
with the organization.
 Its major variables such as work environment,
organizational structure, culture, change, politics, and
environment within and outside of the organization. In
fact, it is the study of how to manage individuals, groups, or
teams effectively in the organization. Sociology, anthropology,
and political science are the major disciplines contributing to this
level.
 Organizational level helps managers to understand the
performance of individuals and groups and how they are
contributing to the organization. By getting this, a
manager can develop suitable plans, policies,
motivation programs, design jobs, manage change,
etc. in order to run the organization smoothly.
Importance of Organisational
Behaviour
 1. Skill Improvement: Study of Organisational
Behaviour helps to improve abilities and
knowledge.

 2. Understanding and enhancing Employee Motivation: OB helps to
understand the basis of Motivation and different ways to motivate
employees properly.

 3. Nature of Employees: Understanding of personnel and employee

nature is important to manage them properly. With the help of OB,
we can understand whether employees or people are Introvert,
Extrovert, Motivated, Dominating etc.
 4. Efficiency & Effectiveness: Study of organisational behaviour helps
to increase efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation
 5. Better Environment of Organisation: OB helps to create a healthy,
ethical and smooth environment in an organisation.
 6. Optimum or Better Utilization of Resources: o Study of OB helps to
understand employees and their work style and skill better way. o By
understanding this, management can train and motivate employees
for optimum utilization of resources.

 7. Importance of OB in the Goodwill of organization: Organisational

Behaviour helps to improve Goodwill of organization.
 8. increasing globalisatiion

 [Link] diversity of organisational workforce

 [Link] technological innovation with its accompanying need

for skill enhancement
 11. create ethical behaviour at work
The Elements Of Organisational Behaviour

•People: They form the internal and social system of the organisation. People
include the employees, the organisation’s stakeholders (those affected by the
actions of an organisation), and groups.
•Structure: It is the formal and informal set of rules and practices that govern
how work gets done in an organisation. It also includes policies, procedures,
guidelines, hierarchies, communication networks, etc.

•Technology: It constitutes the tools employed in an organisation for

achieving its objectives, including the machines, work processes, software,
tools, gadgets, etc.

•Environment: It can be defined as the social factors outside an organisation

that affect its employees. It includes cultural, economic, technological,
political and legal factors.
Environmental factors
 Organizations would prefer to control every aspect of their operations,
and rightfully so! However, there are a number of external factors at
play which do not allow organizations to have complete control
over every piece. Let’s explore some of these external factors and the
influence they have on organizational culture.
 Political Factors
 There are a variety of ways in which politics can influence organizational
culture. On a large scale, govt creates laws and regulations that may
change the way an organization operates. Even if the organization may
disagree with a law, they are still legally obligated to abide by it.
 Politics on a small or a large scale can change company goals and
objectives and the way they choose to work towards them. E.g. Minority
laws.
Economic factor
 The economy plays a role in our everyday lives. How much money we make,
how much money we spend, wants and needs, competitive pricing, etc. are all
factors in financial decisions we make on a daily basis. Organizations are also
heavily influenced by economic factors.
 A market crash or a recession will directly impact the sales of an
organization. When people are no longer able to afford a product or choose to
spend their money elsewhere, companies are directly impacted. On the other
hand, companies are affected when the economy is good and people are
able to spend or invest more money.
 Adapting to the changes in the economy and being able to adjust
organizational strategies to accommodate for them, is essential to company
survival.
Industry Factors

 In every industry, there are a number of competitors. The

actions your competitors take may influence the decisions you
make within your own organization. Being able to adjust
company culture to adapt to your competition is necessary to
ensure company longevity. Other industry factors include
updated industry standards and safety requirements that
change over time. Ensuring compliance with industry standards
requires adjusting company objectives to realign the business.
E.g quality requirements, safety requirements.
Social Factors

 Public opinion and societal expectations are large external factors that
force companies to reevaluate how they operate. If the public has a
negative perception of your organization, it could have a detrimental
impact on your company’s bottom line. Society has high expectations for
organizations to be socially responsible. Social responsibility incorporates
a wide variety of topics including community outreach, diversity
promotion, sustainability, and high ethical standards. Each of these topics
need to be incorporated into a company’s culture in order to be
successful. With the scrutiny of the public and instant access to
information through technology, companies are well monitored by society.
E.g sexual equality, fair practices, equal pay for equal work, women
representation in top management.
Technology factor
 Technology is a huge part of today’s workforce. It is constantly
updating and changing, making it challenging at times for
companies and their employees to keep up. Technology is an
important external factor of organizational behavior. It has
dramatically changed how companies do business over the years
and it continues to make waves with every new technology
innovation. Incorporating technology into the organizational culture
of every organization is important to develop and maintain a
successful, state of the art company.
 Use of smart classrooms, LMS.
Five Models Of Organisational Behaviour
Autocratic Model

The term ‘autocratic’ means authoritarian.

 Autocratic Model
• All major decisions are made by top management. There is little to no input from
employees.
• Employees are closely monitored to ensure compliance with directives. There is a
clear hierarchy, and subordinates are expected to follow orders without question.
• The organization values obedience and expects employees to adhere strictly to rules
and regulations. Any deviation from expected behaviour is typically met with
disciplinary action.
• Employees have very little freedom to make decisions or suggest improvements.
Innovation and creativity are often stifled.
Custodial Model

The term custodial in essence means responsibility, hence the custodial

model of organisational behaviour gets its roots from fulfilling
responsibilities towards the employees in the firm.
•
The organization provides substantial job security and several benefits
including pensions, health insurance, and other financial incentives.
• Employees receive regular bonuses, raises, and other monetary rewards to
ensure their financial well-being.
• The focus is on creating a safe and predictable workplace where employees
feel secure in their jobs.
• By meeting employees' economic needs, the organization fosters loyalty and
Supportive Model

The term supportive means encouraging. Therefore the supportive model of

organisational behaviour gets its roots from encouraging employees through a healthy
work environment.

• Managers are expected to lead by example, showing genuine concern for their
employees and providing the support they need to succeed.
• The organization prioritizes creating a positive work environment where employees
feel valued and motivated.
• Opportunities to train, develop, and advance in career advancement are readily
available, encouraging employees to grow within the organization.
• Employees are regularly acknowledged for their contributions, boosting morale and
motivation.
Collegial Model

The term collegial means shared responsibility. Therefore the

collegial model of organisational behaviour gets its roots by
promoting teamwork among colleagues.

• Decision-making is shared among managers and employees. Input from all levels
is valued and considered.
• The organization fosters a team-oriented culture where employees work together
towards common goals.
• Employees and managers view each other as partners. There is mutual respect,
and responsibilities are shared equally.
• Employees are encouraged for taking initiative and coming up with innovative
solutions. Creativity is highly valued and supported.
System Model

The term system means a structure. Therefore the system model of organisational behaviour
gets its roots from the overall organisational structure and environment therein.

• The organization is seen as a system of interrelated parts that must work together
harmoniously.
• Efforts are made to align individual goals with organizational objectives to ensure
both employee satisfaction and organizational success.
• The organization is flexible and adaptable, recognizing that change is constant and
necessary for growth.
• Understanding that the success of one part of the organization depends on the
success of others. Collaboration and cooperation are essential for overall
effectiveness.
Nature Of Organisational Behaviour

Organisational behaviour is the systematic study of individual behaviour within

an organisation. According to experts, organisational behaviour has six distinct
characteristics. These are:

•It is a behavioural approach: It is a behavioural approach that deals with human behaviour
in relation to the work environment. It concentrates on individual behaviours in organisations,
including individuals’ attitudes and opinions towards their managers, co-workers etc.

•It is a cause and effect relationship- Organisational behaviour study predicts the human
actions and understands what causes the behaviour and its consequent effect on the
organisation. These projections assess the efficiency, time for production cycle etc.
•It is an art as well as science- Organisational behaviour is a science as it
involves systematic knowledge and prediction of human behaviour. It is also an
art as it uses soft skills, understanding, and communication to predict and control
behaviour.
•It is interdisciplinary- Organisational behaviour draws its know-how from
diverse disciplines like sociology, anthropology, human resource management,
psychology etc. Understanding different people of different ages, languages,
incomes and regional and religious groups requires diverse knowledge.
•It is goal-oriented: The main objective of this behavioural approach is to deal
with the behaviour of an individual in relation to the organisation’s goals,
objectives and desired outcomes. This means that it does not focus on
individual behaviours themselves but rather the fact that these behaviours are
linked to achieving certain organisational goals like job satisfaction, higher
efficiency, better management etc., that benefit both individuals and the
organisation.

•It is a branch of social science: It is a social science that deals with the
interaction of people in their organisation. It uses analysis, observation and
measurement to study the same.
Theories of ob
 There are different theories of organization to predict and
explain the process and also behavior patterns in an
organizational setting. There are three different types of
organizational theory: Classical Organization Theory,
Neo-Classical Organizational Theory, and Modern
Organizational Theory.
 Classical Organizational Theory
 As the first step towards a systematic study of organizations, the
Classical Organizational Theory is very important.
 It primarily deals with the anatomy of formal organizations and
also views one as a machine and the employees as parts of the
machine.
 Therefore, in order to increase the efficiency of the organization,
each employee working in it must become efficient.
 6 Pillars of Classical Organizational Theory

 The main pillars or elements of the Classical theory are as follows:

[Link] of Labor – In order to obtain a clear specialization in order to
improve the performance of individual workers, the organization must
divide work.
[Link] – The organization must group various activities
and jobs into departments. This allows it to minimize costs and also
facilitate administrative control.
[Link] – The organization must ensure harmony among diverse
functions. This allows it to arrange the group effort in an orderly manner
which provides unity of action while pursuing a common purpose.
[Link] (chain of command, vertical growth) and Functional
Processes (horizontal growth) – A scalar chain is the series of
superior-subordinate relationships from the top to the bottom in an
organization. Authority flows from top to bottom. It facilitates the
delegation of authority or command, communication or feedback,
and also remedial action or decision.
[Link] – Structure is the logical relationship of functions in an
organization. Further, these functions are arranged for effective
objective accomplishment.
[Link] of Control – This is the number of subordinates that a
manager can effectively supervise.
 Criticisms of the Classical Organizational Theory
• It takes a rigid as well as a static view of organizations.
• Most classical theorists view an organization as a closed system
with no interaction with its environment.
• The theory focuses more on the structural and also the technical
aspects of organizations.
• It is based on oversimplified and mechanistic assumptions.
Neoclassical theory
 It also referred to as human relations of thoughts was introduced
based on classical theory. The basic assumption of this theory is
that the physiological and social aspects of a worker as an
individual and his workgroup ought to be focused on.
 What are the Features of Neo-Classical Theory?

• Business Organizations are identified as a social system.

• Human factors are regarded as the most important elements in the
organization.
• The theory revealed the importance of social and psychological
factors in determining the worker's productivity and satisfaction.
• The management aims to develop social and leadership skills along
with technical skills. It must be done for the welfare of the workers
and the organization.
• Morale and productivity work together in an organization.
 Organization Structure in Neo-Classical Theory

 The neoclassical writers offered the following organizational structure:

 Flat Structure: In the case of flat structure, the wide span of control in an
organization helps in motivating the employees more effectively, a shorter chain of
communication and it is free from hierarchical control.

 Decentralization: Neo-classical theory adopted a decentralized organizational

structure which is close to the flat structure due to the wider span of control. It permits
autonomy and initiative at lower levels. It also encouraged people to occupy higher
positions in the organization.
 Informal Organizations: The neoclassical theorists emphasized
the need for both formal and informal organizations. The formal
organization indicates the motive of top management for
interactions among the people. Informal organization is significant
to promote the inadequacy of formal organization and to satisfy
the social and psychological needs of people. Both formal and
informal organizations are interdependent upon each other.
 The Criticism of Neoclassical Theory
1. The assumptions on which neoclassical theory is formulated is sometimes not
true. Thinking that there is always the possibility to find a solution that is
acceptable to all is not always true.
2. There are several conflicting interests among distinct groups that are merely
structural and not physiological. This aspect is not covered in neo-classical theory.
3. No specific organizational structure is suitable for all organizations. Various
organizational formats introduced by the neoclassicists are not acceptable in all
situations.
Modern theory

 Modern theory, also called modern organizational theory, includes multiple

management development approaches. This theory considers interactions
between people within an organization and the surrounding environment, as well
as the interpersonal interactions between members of the organization.
 Theorists based this approach on systems analysis and used both quantitative and
behavioral sciences to develop it. This means that professional leaders who adopt
this theory may use statistical and mathematical information to make business
decisions while also considering the satisfaction and happiness of their employees.
 Managers who implement this approach may require an in-depth knowledge of
their employees' behaviors in order to implement programs that further their
productivity and professional development.
 Benefits of the modern theory of management
 Here are the benefits of incorporating modern management theories:
• Boosts productivity: Modern management theory uses mathematical and statistical
methods to assess performance within an organization. Managers can use this data to
understand employee behaviors and develop solutions that maximize the potential of
their workforce. For example, they may implement processes that make employees' tasks
more efficient or offer training programs to improve their skills.
• Aids decision-making: Modern management theories often provide managers insights
into the factors they need to examine, which they can use to evaluate their organization or
department. When managers know what to look for, it can help them identify problems
and begin coming up with potential solutions. The use of mathematical techniques also
enables them to use data to support those solutions and final decisions.
• Improves employee engagement: As mentioned, the
modern management theory examines employees'
motivation for working beyond financial gain.
Managers who utilize this theory can then identify and
implement processes or procedures that take
employees' varying needs into account. If employees
feel satisfied at work, it can boost their morale and
engagement and make them want to continue working
for the organization.
• Promotes objectivity: The modern management theory emphasizes the use of
mathematical techniques. These techniques allow managers to make decisions based on
data and evidence rather than personal opinions or feelings. They also enable the testing of
different options to assess which one best supports the organization. As a result, managers
can implement more effective solutions.
• Enables adaptability: Modern management theory recognizes that today's organizations
often existing within rapidly changing environments. This theory emphasizes the
importance of recognizing the influence of internal and external factors on business and
encourages managers to use several techniques and approaches to work with them. For
example, managers can use new technology to streamline processes or perform statistical
modeling when developing solutions.
Contingency approach

The contingency management approach states

that there is not just one management approach
that fits every organization.
It believes that the optimal management style
depends on the situation.

 This theory outlines three variables that it believes influence an
organization's structure: the organization's size, the technology it uses and
the leadership styles.
 For example, a small organization may represent more flexibility and less
separation between departments, whereas a large organization may be more
complex and divided. Managers in smaller organizations can have more
control over processes due to their flexibility and potentially make changes to
them more easily.
 Contingency approach is based on the view that there is no best way to
manage. In fact there are many effective ways to perform various
management functions. This theory emphasizes that the best way to lead,
plans, organise and conduct managerial activities varies with the situation. A
particular method may yield fruitful results in one situation but may drastically
fail in other situations. There is no universal principles to be applied in all
situations.
 Managers must analyse different situations and use the best approach which
is best suitable in that particular situation. For example to improve
productivity, supporters of scientific management may prescribe work
simplication and additional incentives, the behavioural scientist may
 But the supporters of contingency approach may offer a solution which is
responsive to the characteristics of the total situation being faced.
 Work simplication would be ideal where there is limited resources, unskilled
labour, limited training opportunities and limited products offered to the local
markets.
 Job enrichment would be ideal for that organisation where there are abundant
skilled labour force.
 This shows that managerial action depends upon circumstances within a given
situation. In this approach managers are supposed to diagnose a given
situation and adopt to meet the conditions present
 In short contingency approach emphasizes on two aspects,
 1) It focuses attention on specific situational factors that influence the
appropriateness of one managerial strategy over another,
 2) It highlights the importance of developing skills for managers in situational
analysis. Such skills will help managers find out important contingency factors
which influence their managing approach.
ORGANIZATIONAL
MISBEHAVIOR

 ORGANIZATIONAL MISBEHAVIOR (OMB) is defined

here as any intentional action by members of
organizations that defies and violates
 (a) shared organizational norms and expectations,
and/or
 (b) core societal values, mores and standards of
proper conduct
 Basic Types of OMB can be classified into three basic types in terms
of the underlying intention of the misbehaving individual:
 (a) Misbehaviors that are intended to benefit the self (OMB
Type S). These misbehaviors are mostly internal to the
organization, and usually victimize the employing organization or
its members. Thus, such behaviors may have three categories of
internal targets:
 (1) the work itself (e.g., distorting data);
 (2) the organization's property, resources, symbols or
regulations (e.g., stealing and selling manufacturing
secrets); and
 (3) other members (e.g., harassing peers). An exception
to the above is a behavior by a member that appears to
benefit the organization (e.g., overcharging customers),
but is, in fact, intended to eventually benefit the
individual (e.g., gaining a promotion).
 (b) Misbehaviors that primarily intend to benefit the member's
employing organization as a whole (OMB Type O). Those
misbehaviors (e.g., falsifying records in order to improve chances of
obtaining a contract for the organization), are mostly external in nature,
usually directed toward outside "victims" such as other organizations,
social institutions, public agencies, or customers. If the intention
underlying this form of behavior is not primarily to benefit the
organization, but is self-serving (e.g., for career considerations), it should
not be classified as OMB Type O. More likely, this would be OMB Type S.

 (c) Misbehaviors that primarily intend to inflict damage and be destructive (OMB
Type D). Targets of these behaviors could be as listed above, both internal and
external.
 Whereas the intentions underlying Type S and Type O misbehaviors are to benefit
either the individual or the organization, the intention behind OMB Type D is to
hurt others or the organization.
 Such intentional misbehaviors (e.g., sabotaging company-owned equipment)
may be perpetrated by members either on their own initiative (e.g., as a revenge
or a response to perceived or actual mistreatment), or on behalf of "significant
others" (e.g., interfering with organizational operations to comply with Union's
expectations). However, the underlying intention must be to cause some type of
damage whether minor or considerable, subtle or visible.
 Meaning of Organisational Behaviour Modification:
 Modern behaviorists lay great emphasis on operant conditioning for molding
behaviour of individuals and motivating them. Behaviour modification, popularly
known as OB MOD makes use of various reinforcements to influence the behaviour
of individuals. OB Mod is derived and developed from the work of B.F. Skinner.
This technique helps the managers in modifying or eliminating undesirable
behaviour and replacing it with behaviour that is more compatible with goal
attainment.
 OB Mod in simple words can be defined as a technique for modifying the
modifying or behaviour of the organisational members so that they are engaged in
desirable undesirable behaviour and. replacing it with behaviour. It can be used
for motivating the employees as well as for enhancing organisational effectiveness.
 According to Stephen P. Robbins:
 “OB Mod is a programme where managers identify performance
related employee behaviours and then implement an intervention
strategy to strengthen desirable behaviour and weaken undesirable
behaviours.”
 According to Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn:
 “OB Mod is the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behaviour
and the non reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work
behaviour. It includes four basic reinforcement strategies. Positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction”
Skinners operant conditioning
 Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as
instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs
rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.1
 For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on,
they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever
when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result,
they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid
the red light.
 Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that
are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more
likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class
and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that
story again in the future.
 If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises
your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the
next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior
was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the
preceding action is strengthened.
 Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable
consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in
the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but
nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story
again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your
teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the
class again.
 Types of Behaviors
 Skinner distinguished between two different types of
behaviors
• Respondent behaviors are those that occur
automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand
back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor
taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these
behaviors. They simply occur automatically and
involuntarily.
 Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under
our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously
and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these
actions that then influence whether or not they occur
again in the future. Our actions on the environment and
the consequences of that action make up an important
part of the learning process.
 Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
 Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior
it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of
reinforcement, the behavior increases.
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are
presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a
response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a
direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives
you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
 Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an
unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a
behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened
by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For
example seatbelt makes noise till you put it on. Alarm
goes off tikl you switch it off
 Punishment in Operant Conditioning
 Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a
decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both
of these cases, the behavior decreases.
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it
follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when
a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away
a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative
punishment.
• You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever
he performs the behavior correctly. This is another positive reinforcer.
• A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then
they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an
unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to attend
class regularly.
• If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your
performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher, making it
less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.
• A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away
her phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in
which a positive stimulus is taken away.
 There can be two contingencies of behaviour:
 (i) The Antecedents. These are the events preceding the behaviour.

 (ii) The consequences i.e. the events that follow a particular behaviour.
 Both these variables put together form the A-B-C model.

 The main aim of this model is to change Behaviour by managing its

antecedents and consequences as is shown in the following diagram:
 These steps are discussed as follows:
 1. Identification:
 The first step in the OB Mod is identification of performance related
behaviours. First of all the behaviour should be identified as desirable or
undesirable from the point of view of the organisation. Then in the next
stage, critical behaviours, that have significant impact on the employees’
performance, should be given due attention. The critical behaviours can be
identified through discussions with the particular employee and his
immediate superior as both are closely intimated with the job behaviours.
 .
 Some of the critical behaviours which affect job
performance are absenteeism or attendance, tardiness
or promptness, complaints or constructive criticism,
listening to or not listening to the instructions, etc. If
such behaviours are modified, good results could be
expected. Due attention should be given to the critical
behaviour because they get repeated again and again
 2. Measurement:
 After the critical behaviours of the employees have been identified,
the next step for the manager is to measure the frequency of the
critical behaviour over time. The measurement can be done by
observation and by extraction of information from records. If the
frequency is within the acceptable limit, it will require no action,
but if it exceeds the acceptable limit,
it will need immediate attention. The measurement of behaviour
will also help the managers in determining the success in
changing the employees’ behaviour.
 3. Analysis:
 At the next step, the managers will have to do a functional analysis of
the behaviour that requires modification. This analysis will determine
what circumstances lead to a particular type of behaviour, what are
the consequences of such behaviour etc. Contingent consequences of
behaviour should be identified because these consequences have
impact on subsequent behaviour. Moreover, some contingent
consequences appear to be affecting the critical behaviour on the
surface only, the functional analysis should try to find out the
competing contingencies for every behaviour also.
 4. Intervention:
 Once the critical behaviours have been identified and the circumstances
which cause such behaviours have been determined, the next step will be to
develop an effective intervention strategy. There are several strategies that
can be used at this stage. These include positive or negative reinforcement,
extinction or punishment.
 5. Evaluation:
 The last stage in OB Mod is the evaluation whether the intervention strategies
are working properly or not. The basic purpose of OB Mod is to bring change
in undesirable behaviours so as to improve performance. Evaluation will
reveal whether the undesirable behaviours have been substituted by
desirable behaviour or not. If there has been a change in behaviour, whether
it is permanent or just temporary.
 The major strengths and utilities of OB Mod are as follows:
 1. Can be Put to Testing:
 OB Mod concentrates on a person’s external behaviour and this
allows a manager to realistically observe and deal with outward
manifestations of behaviour. Since it deals with observed behaviour
it can be put to testing.
 2. Development of Employees:
 OB Mod presents a set of tools by which people can learn new
behaviours and skills and thereby replacing undesirable behaviours.
Positive reinforcement could be used to encourage desirable
 3. Control and Regulation of the Employees’ Behaviour:
 OB Mod provides various tools to the managers for effectively controlling and
influencing the behaviour of employees in the organisation. Most behaviour in the
organisation are learned, controlled and changed by the consequences. The
managers can use operant conditioning to control and regulate the behaviour of
subordinates by manipulating the reward system.
 The behavioural consequences that are rewarding increase the probability of
desired behaviour whereas aversive consequences decrease the probability of
desired response.
 4. Easy to Understand and Use:
 The understanding of OB Mod techniques is comparatively easy.
Managers can use these without many problems. OB Mod has received
great attention from several organisations in the recent years. It is
widely applied in large organisations in the areas of human resource
management, executive development, motivation, introduction of
change and organisational development.
 Criticism of OB Modification:
 OB Mod has been applied in many organisations and has actually
benefitted organisations also. Still some people criticise it on the
grounds that it is unethical and manipulative in character and so it
should not be used by the managers to regulate the behaviour of
others.
 The main objections raised against OB Mod are as follows:
 1. The basic criticism against OB Mod is that Skinner’s operant conditioning
principles were developed after a series of experiments with white rats. The
critics suggest that this technique is an applied rat morphism and tends to
equate human beings with rats, but organisations are more complex than
Skinner’s boxes.
 2. Operant conditioning techniques ignore the individuality of person and
constitute a threat to the concept of personal autonomy. These techniques
are employed by managers to manipulate and control the human beings into
another person’s concept of ideal person.
 3. OB Mod techniques restrict freedom of choice of behaviour. This works
against the basic concept of creativity and innovation; which are required
for successful working of the organisations.
 4. OB Mod is based on the assumption that individual behaviour is a function or is
controlled by his environment and that forces internal to the individual have little
effect on operant behaviour. However, empirical evidence suggests that operant
behaviour is also a function of certain cognitive and affective variables residing in
the individual. It does not take care of people’s perception, beliefs, needs and
expectations.
 5. OB Mod is an exercise in over simplification. It cannot be considered as an
innovative and new technique of management. It is just a new name given to the old
concepts. In past, many techniques of behaviour modification have been in practice.
 6. The idea of changing employees’ behaviour through reinforcement under OB Mod
is in conformity with the traditional thinking that people need to be directed to get
the work done. In the modern world, where the people are enlightened, and self
motivated, this view cannot be accepted.
 7. External awards under OB Mod amounts to bribery as some
rewards are presented when the person shows the behaviour
according to the wishes of the changing agent. OB Mod ignores the
internal causes of behaviour. It ignores the fact that intrinsic pleasure
of job is more important to some employees.
 8. OB Mod is also criticized on the ground that managers are forced to
psychoanalyse the workers and tie performance to rewards
continuously. Quite often, it is too difficult to measure the complex
behaviour most employees engage in. It may be more difficult to teach
reinforcement principles to lower level managers and design reward
system that help creativity and are not manipulative.
 9. Behaviour modifications have been applied primarily
with groups such as younger students in schools,
delinquents in institutions, patients with behavioural
disorders etc. However, organisational settings are
different than laboratory settings and therefore,
behaviour modifications cannot be applied in
organisational settings, as applicable to laboratories.
 In-spite of the criticisms levied against OB Mod, it has been
increasingly used in business organisations. It is being utilized as a
practical tool for shaping, improving and motivating behaviour of
organisational members. OB Mod should not be treated as a
technique to be applied indiscriminately as panacea for all
organisational behavioural problems. Rather the management should
keep in mind its shortcomings and to apply it within the context of its
limitations and shortcomings.
Thank You