The translator and

translation: an
Introduction
The translator as

Bricklayer Intermediary
Copier
Controller
Mimic
Subject Artist
Cryptographer
metaphor Role Background
rebuilding bricklayer Classical
Copying copier Early Biblical
Imitating mimic Rhetorical, belles infidèles
creating artist German romantics
transcoding cryptographer Early linguistics , MT
sending intermediary Sociolinguistics,
translational action
manipulating controller Polisystem theory
thinking subject Cognition, protocols
What is translation?

From the Latin translatio – translatus - transferre

TRANS “across” + FERRE “to carry” or “to bring”

or the kindred TRADUCERE “to lead across” or “to
bring across”
the Greek term for translation “METAPHRASIS” (a
“speaking across”) = English “METAPHRASE” (i.e.
a literal, word-for-word translation) vs.
“PARAPHRASE” (a “saying in other words”)
DEFINITION:
= a process of transferring from one language to another
ideas expressed in writing and the product of this practice.

a process / activity / art / craft comprising the interpretation

of the meaning of a text in one language – the source text –
and the production, in another language, of a new equivalent
text – the target text. Both texts aim at
communicating the same meaning.
Human or machine?

Traditionally translation has

been a human activity, though
attempts have been made

– to computerize or otherwise automate the

translation of natural-language texts (machine
translation)
– or to use computers as an aid to translation
(computer-assisted translation = CAT)
Three types of translation

3 types of written translation (Jakobson,

1959):
– Intralingual: within the same language (e.g.
biscuits in BrE vs. cookies in AmE)
– Interlingual: from one language to another
(e.g. biscuits in BrE and biscotti in Italian)
– Intersemiotic: from verbal to non-verbal sign
(e.g. the word ‘ sea’ and its iconic
representation on canvas)
Translation equivalence

is often seen as a precondition/

requirement of translation (different from
other types transformations: adaptation,
abridgment, summary, etc.)

reader/listener assumes equivalence

(instinctive view),
translator creates equivalence (more or less
conscious view),
researcher investigates equivalence
(contrastive view)
Equivalence (2)

is never complete
 the TL text is identical with the original text
only from certain points of view (formal,
situational, contextual, communicative, etc.)
(various types and degrees of equivalence exist!)

– normative view: prescribes what the translator has to do to

produce an equivalent translation; what it is that he/she has to
definitely preserve, or can sacrifice from the original text
– descriptive view: describes, on the basis of the analysis of
numerous translating facts, how translators create equivalence,
what it is that they have preserved or sacrificed
Equivalence (3)

is text-type dependent
– no identical equivalence requirements
can be established for different text
types (e.g. a users’ manual, a movie
script):
• the number of text types determines the
number of equivalence types possible
(Reiss 1971)
Problems of Translating

comprehension / production problems

– The text: Creative exploitation of linguistic means of
expression
– The translator: Insufficient world knowledge and/or
insufficient linguistic knowledge
– Insufficient source text comprehension (e.g.
disambiguation, misunderstanding…)
Production problems
– Lack of semantic/communicative autonomy
– Continuing presence of the source text
• linguistic interference (translationese)
 A map of Translation
Studies
Holmes (1972; 1988)
Translation Studies

'Pure' Applied

Theoretical Descriptive

General Partial Product Process Function Translator Translation Translation

Oriented Oriented Oriented Training Aids Criticism

Medium Area Rank Text-Type Time Problem

Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted
What do translation studies
study?

Translation oriented text-analysis

(Hatim and Mason 1990, Nord 1997, Mauranen
and Kujamäki 2004)

• ST analysis
• ST/TT comparative analysis
• analysis of translated and non-translated
text in T language
What do translation studies
study? (2)

Translation assessment (House 1977,81)

• Principles and criteria
• Orientation (ST, TL, audience)

Translation and genres (Rega 2001, Scarpa

2001)
• Role of translators
• Strategies adopted
• Typical problems
What do translation studies
study? (3)

Multimedia translation (Perego 2005)

• Types of multimedia texts
• Transfer strategies
• Translator training/education

History of translation (Neergard 2002,

Robinson 2003)
• Effects of a particular transaltion on national culture
• Changing role and status of translators across time
• changing views of translation
What do translation studies
study? (4)

Ethical issues (Pym 1998, Bassnett and Trivedi

1999, Venuti 1995)
• Criteria for a “good” translation
• Cultural development/hegemony

Translation process (Hurtado Abir 2001,

Williams and Chesterman 2002)
• Individual vs. group production
• Professional vs “natural” strategies
What do translation studies
study? (5)

Translator training/education (Hurtado

Albir 2001)
• Syllabus/curriculum
• Competences
• Assessment

Translation as a profession (Robinson

2003)
• Positions and areas
• Professional bodies (AITI, ITI, BDÜ…)
The “empirical turn”?

Translation as motivated and

Translation as language
situated decision process
transfer

Studying translation means

a) Observing the behaviour of translators (as individuals or as a
professional group) in specific situations
b) Describing factors that co-determine specific situations
c) Describing what translators do rather than what they should be
doing
What data for empirical research ?
Translation as a
Translation as a
product
process

What texts? How many?

?
NB: The distinction “should ignore the fact
that the one is the result of the other, and
that the nature of the product cannot be
understood without a comprehension of the
nature of the process" (Holmes 1978: 81)
 Translation as a product
Data
Translations, parallel and comparable corpora

Hypotheses
– Translation Universals
– presence/absence of specific features

Research questions
– “What is the frequency of main clauses and subclauses in corpus X?”
– “Why does corpus Y have more relative clauses than expected?”
– “How are theme and rheme patterned in corpus Z?”
 Translation as process
Data
• “off-line”: translations, notes, revisions
• “on-line”: Think-Aloud Protocols; logs; use of dictionaries; measures of eye
movement and cerebral activity

Hypotheses
• the translator: expertise, competence stages
• the task: text type, brief, languages, direction
• situational factors: tools, resources

Research questions
• “What are the differences between professional and non professional translators as to use of dictionary
/global translation strategies etc.?”
• “What role does creativity play in translation?”
• “What features of a source text create translation problems?”
• “What is the relationship between the translation quality and translator attitudes/ working conditions
etc.?”
Translation as a profession

a core skill for any language service provider

Frame of reference
 house rules, style guides, standards (incl. ISO)
 increased availability of CAT tools to monitor
quality post-translation:
a. Terminological consistency
b. Translation memory
e.g. [Link]
c. Technical aspects: tags, software testing
Localisation

= adaptation of language, content and design to

reflect local cultural sensitivities in web design
and software
= adapting software for non-native environments,
especially other nations and cultures, so that it
is as familiar as possible to a specific place
local language + local conventions (e.g. units of measurement,
currencies, symbols, paper size, colours?)

also internationalization = the process of

ensuring that an application is capable of
adapting to local requirements (e.g. writing
system)
Translation and new technologies

• Computers have changed the

work of translators

• Machine translation is
increasing in accuracy

• Research: corpora
 Analysing
Translation
Translation Procedures
procedures
• Modulation
• Transposition
• Amplification vs deletion
• Literal translation
• Loan words & naturalization
• Pragmatic equivalence
• Notes and glosses
 Modulation

a variation of the form of the message, obtained by

 a change in the point of view
 abstract for concrete
 cause for effect
 one part for another
 active for passive

e.g.
ST: It is not difficult to demonstrate that it was false.
TT: È facile dimostrare che era sbagliato. (change in the
point of view)
ST: We are revitalising the NatWest Brand. (active)
TT: Il marchio NatWest è in fase di rivitalizzazione.
(passive)
 transposition

= replacing one word class with another, a

phrase with a clause, or parataxis with
hypotaxis.
e.g. ST: All our clients can benefit from our technology –
it complements our advisory services and allows us to
deliver our services faster, more widely and more cost-
effectively than ever before. (parenthetical clause)
TT: Tutti i nostri clienti possono beneficiare della nostra
tecnologia avanzata, che integra i servizi di
consulenza da noi offerti e ci consente di fornire le
nostre prestazioni in modo più rapido, estensivo e
conveniente che mai. (a relative subordinate clause)
 amplification or explicitation
vs. deletion or reduction

increasing number of words in TT in comparison

with ST
ST: UBS is one of the world’s leading financial firms,
serving a discerning global client base.
TT: UBS è una delle aziende finanziarie leader a livello
mondiale, che fornisce i propri servizi (amplification) a
una competente clientela globale.
ST: Which one is the right for you depends on such things
as how often you go abroad, whether you plan to use the
card as a supplement to another, or if having a special
card design is a priority for you.
TT: Quale delle carte di credito proposte (amplification) sia
la più adatta per voi dipende (da cose quali: deletion) dalla
frequenza con cui andate all’estero, dalle intenzioni che
avete di utilizzarla come carta complementare o
dall’importanza che attribuite a un particolare design.
 Translation procedures
at a lexico-semantic level

• literal translation (= one-to-one translation)

e.g. Bonviva is a very attractive package of products
and services.
Bonviva è un pacchetto di prodotti e servizi molto
allettante.
• transference or ‘loan words’ (= transferring
an SL word to a TL text)
e.g. leader (Eng. and It.)
private banking (Eng. and It.)
investment banking (Eng. and It.)
 …

names of living and dead people

geographical and topographical names

names of periodicals and newspapers

titles of untranslated works

names of private institutions, companies

street names, addresses…
 Naturalization (1)

= the SL word is adapted to the normal pronunciation and

morphology of the TL
e.g. Thatcherism (Eng.) __ thatcherismo (It.)

• synonymy = a near TL equivalent to a SL word

e.g. ST: We implemented a major business re-engineering

programme which […] enabled us to become the fastest
growing bank in the UK in terms of income growth
during the five years to 1998.
TT: Abbiamo realizzato un programma volto alla
riprogettazione delle nostre maggiori attività che […] ci
ha permesso di divenire la banca con la più rapida
crescita a livello di entrate nel quinquennio antecedente
il 1998.
Naturalization (2)
• through translation or calque = literal
translation of a foreign expression
e.g. Ltd. (limited company) _____ Srl (società a
responsabilità limitata)

• compensation (= when loss of meaning in one

part of a sentence is compensated in another
part)
e.g. ST: Our client philosophy puts advice at the heart of
relationships.
TT: La nostra filosofia pone la consulenza al centro delle
nostre relazioni con i clienti (the reference to clients
in relation to philosophy was omitted at the beginning
but emphasized in connection with relationships at the
end of the sentence).
 Naturalization (3)

• paraphrase
e.g. ST: In Switzerland, we are the clear market leader in
corporate and retail banking.
TT: In Svizzera, siamo ampiamente i leader di mercato nel
settore dei servizi bancari per la clientela aziendale e
privata.

• cultural, functional or descriptive equivalent (= an

approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated
by means of a TL cultural, culture-free word or a word which
hints at the features and the function expressed by the SL word)
e.g. ST: at the heart TT: al centro
 Pragmatic Equivalence

= the same situation is rendered by two texts by

means of different semantic, stylistic and
structural methods

e.g.
ST: With head offices in Zurich and Basel, we operate in
over 50 countries and from all major international
financial centres.
TT: Oltre a Zurigo e a Basilea, dove sono ubicate le
nostre sedi principali, operiamo in oltre 50 paesi
nonchè in tutti i maggiori centri finanziari
internazionali.
 +notes, additions, glosses

- = additional info, normally cultural, technical…

e.g.
x or y
x which is y
x (y)
x “y (translated term)”
notes at the bottom of the page
notes at the end of the chapter
notes or glossary at the end of the book
 Problematic areas

“untranslatability” : expressions referring to

concepts which do not exist in another language
• e.g. the French verbs “tutoyer” vs. “vouvoyer” in
English = to use the informal “tu” vs. to address
someone using the formal “vous”

metaphors (sense or image, modification of one,

or combination of both)
e.g. ST: In a climate of tough competition, the bank’s
lending business remained buoyant.
TT: In uno scenario dominato da una strenua
competizione, le operazioni di credito attive della banca
sono risultate in rialzo (literally: “galleggianti”).
•
neologisms (TL equivalent or explanation)
e.g. ST: e-initiatives TT: iniziative online
ST: home banking TT: telebanca

abbreviations (TL abbreviation)

ST: Corp. (corporate) TT: soc. (società)

acronyms (TL equivalent or explanation)

ST: plc. (public limited company) TT: Spa (società per
azioni)
 Register

• the use of language according to the context or

situation (field, tenor and mode).
e.g. informal tenor formal tenor
a lot of much / many
to start wit first / firstly
what’s more in addition
anyway / anyhow however
talking about as for / as to
you one(=Italian
impersonal si)
• fixed register (language is conventionalized:
legal documents, religious observance…) vs.
open-ended register (e.g. verses on greeting
cards, official forms, weather bulletins…)
 And…

• creative use of language, phonological features (rhyme,

rhythm…), figurative use of language (i.e. metaphors and similes,
personifications, puns…)
e.g. ST: safe and sound TT: sano e salvo

• nominal (technical, scientific and formal texts) and verbal

(informal texts) style
e.g. ST: Our vision is to be the pre-eminent global
integrated investment services firm and the leading bank
in Switzerland.
TT: Il nostro obiettivo è quello di divenire la migliore
azienda integrata di servizi finanziari a livello mondiale,
nonchè la banca leader in Svizzera.
 personal vs. impersonal style

ST: we have put in place a single management structure

throughout the enlarged Group.
(personal style)
TT: Abbiamo messo a punto una struttura gestionale unitaria
che coordina l’intero gruppo allargato.

ST: A number of innovative products and services were

launched during 1999.
(impersonal style)
TT: Un gran numero di prodotti e servizi innovativi è stato
lanciato nell’anno 1999.
 Collocation

fixed and recurrent combinations of

words that co-occur in close proximity

e.g. ST: to provide / launch services

TT: erogare / lanciare / offrire servizi
TRANSLATION COMMENT
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED
1) Introduce Text (with a brief description of its characteristics: function, register, use of nouns,
verbs, etc., goal of the text to be translated, audience)+ General Translation Strategy, or the
"strategy that the translator applied consistently in the translation of a given text (Delisle et al.
2002),e.g. source-oriented or target-oriented [Newmark 1988] and the reasons why a particular
general strategy has been selected.

2) Identify Problems: words/expressions/terms that are particularly difficult to translate or

require specific procedures. Remember to say why you think they are problematic and to explain
what is problematic in them.
a. specify what resources you used, compare the results, and specify why you opted for the
solution you propose in your translation.
3) Specify lexical resources and concordances used to solve the problem:
a. specify all the resources used (dictionaries, thesauruses, corpora, or other online tools):
list them extensively providing information as to what help they provided
b. make sure you refer to at least one concordance
c. comment on the results of your searches (lexicographic tools + concordance)
d. use the results to justify your translation choice
4) Identify and justify specific Translation procedures = description of the various procedures used
when translating

44