28/01/25 BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

Fundamental Cosmology: Big Bang Cosmology

PART I
“"In the beginning the Universe was created.
This has made a lot of people very angry and been widely
regarded as a bad move.”

1
28/01/25 BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

The 4 pillars of Standard Cosmology

• The story so far

• Expansion of the Universe

• Universe began in a BIG BANG about 13.7billion years ago
• The Universe is expanding
• The Universe is Isotropic and Homogeneous on the largest scales

• Origin of the cosmic background radiation

• The CMB is the fossil of the Hot Big Bang Fireball
• The surface of last scattering is the last time the bulk of the background radiation
interacted with normal matter
• The temperature of that radiation has cooled from 3000K to 2.7K

• Nucleosynthesis of the light elements

• Nucleons synthesized into the light elements in the first few minutes of the Big
Bang
• The Big Bang correctly predicts the ratio of Helium to Hydrogen ~25%

•Formation of galaxies and large-scale structure

• Structure formation commences at the time of matter-radiation decoupling
• The Big Bang provides the framework from which matter condenses to form large
scale structure

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The Timeline of the Universe

THE HOT BIG BANGHow does the temperature of the early Universe evolve ?

redshift Wiens Law

2 3
Energy density of radiation

The Friedmann Equation for

radiation dominated universe

integrating

1
a = Radiation constant
G = Newton’s Gravitational Constant
c = speed of light

erature evolution in early Universe depends ONLY on Nature’s fundamental cons

3
 ?
Plan

t=0
ck T

T=∞
ime
28/01/25

Initial
Infla
tion

Singularity
E-W
Pha
se T
rans
ition
qua
rk -
anti
qua
rk a
-  nnih
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on
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Had
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ton
Rea
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e d ns s
eco hift
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-> P
1031K 1027K 1015K 1013K 1012K

uple
, e± roto
n
+

ann
ihila
te

n-p
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Atoms

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)
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atio Clumping
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The Timeline of the Universe

Form
109yrs

atio
n of S
olar
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ma
nd B
irth
BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

of L
ife
2.73K
1010yrs

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28/01/25 BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

The Timeline of the Universe

Epochs of the Universe

Epoch Time To(K) 

(kg/m3)
Big Bang 0   Birth of the Universe ?
Planck Era <10-43s >1031 >1097 String Theory / Quantum Cosmology
Inflation Era <10-35s >1027 Symmetry Breaking -> Exponential Expansion
Quark Era <10-23s >1022 >1058 Free Quarks in Thermal Equilibrium
Hadron Era <10-4s >1012 >1017 Matter Anti Matter Asymmetry
Lepton Era <100s >1010 >108 Rapid Expansion/cooling (leptons/photons
equilibrium)
Radiation Era <106yr >3000 >10-19 Nucleosynthesis, Decoupling
Matter Era >106yr <3000 <10-19 Structure Formation, first galaxies
Acceleration present 3 <10-27 Acceleration phase of the Universe
Era

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The Planck Time and Initial Singularity

• In the Beginning……
Planck era = 0 - 10-43 s after Big Bang

Running Time backwards Initial singularity - The Creation Event

From Plank time tp

define
• t<10 s known as the Planck Era
-43
• Planck length lp ctp
• Quantum Effects become important • Planck density p
• Einstein’s Theory of gravity breaks down 1/Gtp2
• Planck mass mp p
Planck time can be defined via lp3
the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

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The Planck Time and Initial Singularity

• In the Beginning……
What is the Planck scale ??

uantum fluctuations of spacetime, of scale equal to Planck length, are of cosmic magnitude

any particle of mass, m,

e at which quantum effects become important is given by the Compton Wavelength

le at which self gravity of particle becomes important is the Schwarzchild Radius

For a particle of mass, mP = the Planck Mass

C

RS
ompton Wavelength & Schwarzchild Radius are comparable
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The Planck Time and Initial Singularity

• In the Beginning……
Before the Planck time ?? • Require Quantum Theory of Gravity ?

(1) Quantum Gravity

Path Integrals (sum over possible histories) successful in Quantum Mechanics
For gravity, sum over possible geometries
Very complicated mathematical process  simplify  instantons.
Assume most of 4D geometries in the path integral  very small contributions  can be neglected
Path integral can be calculated but considering few geometries with largest contributions = instantons

•(2) Super Gravity

• A quantum theory of elementary particles based on particle symmetry known as
supersymmetry.
• Naturally includes gravity along with other fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak & strong
nuclear)
• Predicts quanta of gravity - graviton with spin 2 and its fermionic partner, the gravitino, spin 3/2.
• Neither has yet been observed.
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The Planck Time and Initial Singularity

• In the Beginning……
Before the Planck time ??

• (3) SUPERSTRING THEORY

• String theory + supersymmetry = Superstring Theory
•Sub quantum scales - Universe composed of strings - fundamental building blocks
Requires ~10 dimensions with 6 being curled up at every point in space ( Calabi-Yau Manifolds and Orbifold
•Think of different modes of vibration as representing different particles
•Predicts a massless spin 2 particle !
graviton

quark

photon

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The Planck Time and Initial Singularity

• In the Beginning……
Before the Planck time ??

• (4) M THEORY
The superstring
Problem with String theories are that there is simply too much freedom
Planetary System
• Bosonic String Theory (just decribes bosons)
• Superstring (1,2) fundemental building block are closed strings
• Superstring (3) fundemental building blocks are open strings
• Bosonic String Theory + Superstring Theory = Heterotic String Theories (4,5)
Too many parameters
Like exploring 5 different planets !!

M theory
Superstring Theories not 5 different planets …
UT rather 5 islands on the same planet!
Different aspects of some greater underlying pattern or order

M- Theory (The Mother of all String Theories ??) formualted in 1 higher dimension ? (11 dimensions)
http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/

CURRENTLY OUR BEST BET FOR A THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE)

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The Inflationary Era

• Problems with the Hot Big Bang Model
Inflationary Era = 10-43 - 10-35 s after Big Bang

1.THE HORIZON PROBLEM

 the isotropy of the apparent causally disconnected regions of the CMB

2.THE FLATNESS PROBLEM

 the apparent remarkable closeness of  to 1

3.THE RELIC PROBLEM

 the apparent absence of relics from the Big Bang in our Universe

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The Inflationary Era

• The Horizon Problem

Speed of light is finite - define particle HORIZON

t 1800
(measure the same temperature in CMB)

(surface of last scattering- last time matter and radiation were in equilibrium)

Earth

x
Recall: SR Metric

Area outside light cone: dS2<0

Events that are causally disconnected from observer.
spacelike intervals  no communication possible.

y Area within light cone: dS2>0

This is a timelike interval  communication possible.
HORIZON - distance, for a given time, over which information can be
exchanged 12
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The Inflationary Era

• The Horizon Problem

R-W Metric 1800

(measure the same temperature in CMB)

(surface of last scattering- last time matter and radiation were in equilibrium)

HORIZON distance (dH) is the proper distance (dP) travelled by a photon since t=0 
tH

Horizon at the surface of last scattering (tSLS~3x105yrs ~1013s) dH (t=tSLS) ~ 0.3Mpc

The (angular diameter) distance to the surface of last scattering dA ~ 13Mpc

angular diameter distance not equal to proper distance NOW but rather the
proper distance at the time the light was emitted te (for our example
te=tSLS) !
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The Inflationary Era

• The Horizon Problem
1800
Horizon at surface of last scattering dH (tSLS)~0.3Mpc

The angular diameter distance dA~13Mpc

dH
The horizon distance of the surface of
last scattering subtends and angle of
dA

H

• CMB is highly isotropic -looking in opposite directions To is identical to 1 part in

10,000 )
• These opposite regions appear never to have been in causal contact
• But opposite points in CMB are ~90 horizon distances apart !!
• So how do they know that they should be at the same temperature??
• This apparently violates causality

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The Inflationary Era

• The Flatness Problem

WMAP CMB Observations: The Universe is almost flat today: ~1 0.02
How about in the past ?

Friedmann eqn.

Evolution of 

Matter dominated Era:

Radiation dominated Era:

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The Inflationary Era

• The Flatness Problem

to~ 13.7Gyr=4x1017s  ~1 0.02

Matter Radiation Equality teq~ 106yr = 1013s  1- < 5x10-7

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis tBBN~ 3mins = 180s  1- < 10-18

Planck Time tP~ 10-43s  1- < 10-63

• Why is the Universe so FLAT

• Fine Tuning to > 1 part in 1060
• Why did the Universe not expand - contract back to a big crunch very quickly
• Why did the Universe not expand so quickly that galaxies and life were unable to form
• Do we live in a very special part of the Cosmological Parameter Space
• Anthropic Principle ?
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The Inflationary Era

• The Relic Problem

Strong Nuclear

Electromagnetic GUT
STRENGTH

ELECTROWEAK t=10-35s
T=1027K TOE
t=10-12s E=1015GeV
T=1015K
Weak Nuclear E=102GeV t=10-43s
T=1031K
E=1019GeV

Gravity

PHASE TRANSITION

• At high energies the forces of nature unify

• Symmetry  Forces become indistinguishable from each other
• Universe cools  temperature drops  symmetry breaks  phase transition
• Like water freezing into ice  defects appear on cooling
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The Inflationary Era

• The Relic Problem

• Phase transition  loss of symmetry  topological defects

• Predicted for GUT (strong/electroweak unification) t=10-35s, T=1027K, E=1015GeV
• Compare with freezing water
• different ice nucleation sites
• different axes (domains) of symmetry  topological defects

• 0D point like defects = Magnetic Monopoles (isolated North/South poles)

• formed when spherical symmetry is broken
• 1D linear defects = Cosmic Strings
• formed when axial / cylindrical symmetry is broken
• 2D sheet like defects = Textures
• formed when higher symmetries are broken

agnetic Monopole rest energy ~ 1015GeV  E=mc2  mass  bacterium

IG !!
RYB
VE
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The Inflationary Era

• The Relic Problem
• Magnetic Monopoles

THE MAGNETIC MONOPOLE SONG

Marian McKenzie, 2-01
(To the tune “Toplady”,which is usually used for the hymn “Rock of Ages”)

As the day requires the night,

As the left requires the right,
So are north and south entwined.
Then be sure to bear in mind --
As you strive for physics goals --
NO MAGNETIC MONOPOLES!

Recording (As performed by the choir of St. James United Church of Christ, Havertown PA):

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The Inflationary Era

• The Relic Problem
• Phase Transition  symmetry breaking  topological defects
• Symmetry survives were areas of Universe are in equilibrium
• Therefore, expect one topological defect / horizon distance

Horizon distance at tGUT

Number density of Monopoles

with energy density

Still small compared to radiation energy density

BUT: Monopoles become non-relativistic at early times R-3 (c.f., radiation R-4)
t~10-12s  Dominate the energy density and CLOSE the Universe
However…. We are here ….. So where are the Monopoles ????

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The Inflationary Era

• Problems with the Hot Big Bang Model
Inflationary Era = 10-43 - 10-35 s after Big Bang

1.THE HORIZON PROBLEM

 the isotropy of the apparent causally disconnected regions of the
CMB

2.THE FLATNESS PROBLEM

 the apparent remarkable closeness of  to 1

3.THE RELIC PROBLEM

 the apparent absence of relics from the Big Bang in our Universe

The Cure ?

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation
Inflationary Era = 10-43 - 10-35 s after Big Bang

Inflationary Epoch

 1980s, Alan Guth - Inflation Theory -

 Period between 10-36 and 10-34 s
 Small portion of Universe balloons outward to become today’s visible
Universe.
 Can solve horizon, flatness, relic problems !!

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation
Inflationary Era = 10-43 - 10-35 s after Big Bang

• During inflation the Universe accelerates

• Need negative pressure, or large, positive 

Friedmann Equations become

De Sitter expansion

注意 : Hubble Parameter during inflation is constant =(/3)1/2

Universe expands exponentially

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation - A Possible Mechanism ?
•GUT symmetry breaking
• t<10-36s  Universe dominated by a scalar field 
• GUT theories Higgs Field mediated by Higgs Boson pervades all of space-time, at high
temperatures,  =0
• Higgs Boson responsible for the particle masses ?
• For the symmetry to break and the forces to separate, the Higgs field must acquire a non-zero
value

Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking important aspect of particle physics gauge theories

In the language of group theory:

schematically GUT QCD EW EM

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation - A Possible Mechanism ?

• In the ordinary vacuum, Higgs field is non-zero

• This is lowest (degenerate) energy state or TRUE VACUUM

•  =0 state = meta-stable state

• Shape of the Higgs field has unique characteristic
• Phase transition is slow compared to cooling of Universe
• Regions of Universe supercool without breaking symmetr
• Like water super cooling 253K without turning to ice
• Supercooled regions in a state known as FALSE VACUUM

ggs field finally reaches lowest state- symmetry breaks, domains of true vacuum eat into false vacuum

ue vacuum represents lowest energy density state  pressure =0

or true vacuum to expand into false vacuum, pressure of false vacuum must be negative  Repulsive F

alse Vacuum acts like a Cosmological Constant 

ymmetry breaks - latent heat stored in Higgs Field released and re-heats the Universe - inflation ends
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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation - The Mechanics

Assume an inflation scalar field  and corresponding potential V

Gives a pressure 1 and a energy density 2 of the inflation field

If inflation field changes only very slowly with time

Inflation can drive expansion if there is a period of

• small
• Large V such that the potential dominates energy density of the Universe
• The Higgs Mechanism

1
SEMINAR 3 :Fluid
2
Equation

Equation of motion of a particle being accelerated by a force  dV/d

and being impeded by a frictional force  particle speed (the Hubble
Friction)

The Expansion of the Universe provides the Hubble Friction term that slows the transition of the Inflation Field

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation - The Cure for the Problems

1. THE HORIZON PROBLEM

 the isotropy of the apparent causally disconnected regions of the
CMB

• Inflate from a small sub horizon region

•Seemingly causally disconnected points today would’ve been in causal contact before inflation
• Inflation creates bubble Universes seperated by domain walls of order of Horizon

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation - The Cure for the Problems

2. THE FLATNESS PROBLEM

 Can make the Universe arbitrarily flat

• During inflation, H is constant:  is driven relentlessly towards unity

• We needed flatness to ~10-63

  need >1031 inflation

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The Inflationary Era

• Inflation - The Cure for the Problems

3. THE RELIC PROBLEM

 the apparent absence of relics from the Big Bang in our Universe

• Inflation pushes domain boundaries beyond our horizon distance

• The density of relics is diluted

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The Inflationary Era

• INFLATION - SUMMARY

• Require Flatness 1031

• Require Horizon ~100
• For Relics depends on details of the physics
• For inflation from t1=10-36 (1/H1) to t2=10-34 s  100 e foldings !

40
g
r d b ig ban
20 Stand
a
During the inflationary era
lg(R) {m}

-20

-40

-60 inflation But energy in Higgs Field reheats

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
lg(t) {s}
Inflation of quantum fluctuations  macroscopic scales  the seeds of STRUCTURE FORMATION
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28/01/25 BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

Fundamental Cosmology: Big Bang Cosmology

PART II
“"In the beginning the Universe was created.
This has made a lot of people very angry and been widely
regarded as a bad move.”
The
The Hitch
Hitch Hiker's
Hiker's Guide
Guide to
to the
the Galaxy
Galaxy
—
— Douglas
Douglas Adams
Adams (1952-2001),
(1952-2001), British
British writer
writer
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28/01/25 BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

The Evolution of the Big Bang

Thermal Equilibrium in the Early Universe
For any particle X of mass, m, there will be an epoch where kT~mc2

Creation of particle anti-particle pair creation becomes favourable

For kT>mc2 : number of particles ~ number of photons
For kT<mc2 : pairs can no longer be created  annihilation & freeze out

e-


e+ e-
LEPTONS 
 
GUT
(Higgs? 
)
q
QUARKS q q
q
q 
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The Evolution of the Big Bang

THE QUARK ERA
• 3 Quarks for Muster Mark (Finnegan’s Wake)
Quark era = 10 -34 - 10-23 s after Big Bang
The Primordial Soup :

• 10-34s inflationary period ends

• Energy in inflation field released
•Universe reheats to 1022 K
 primordial soup in thermal equilibrium
• photons
• free quarks, antiquarks, exchange particles

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The Evolution of the Big Bang

THE QUARK ERA
• Brief Review of Particle Physics

1995 年 発見した !

FUNDEMENTAL

http://CPEPweb.org

 http://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquiring/physics/discoveries/pr/top_news_release.html 34
28/01/25 BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE HADRON ERA
Hadron era = 10-23 - 10-4 s after Big Bang

• 10-12 s ElectroWeak Symmetry breaking (g, W, Z0)  E-M and Weak Nuclear Force
• 4 fundamental forces of nature now distinct
• Expansion of Universe cools Big Bang Fireball ~10 13K (10-6s)  1GeV
• Quarks bond to form individual Baryons  Quark Confinement  Baryogenesis

1) Why are there so many photons in the Universe ?

2) Why is there no antimatter in the Universe ?

1) Photon Background produced from matter/antimatter anihilation

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The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE HADRON ERA
MATTER ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY

Assume some tiny tiny asymmetry between quarks & anti quarks (matter & antimatter)

After matter & antimatter anihilation:

small excess of quarks remain

Baryons
CMB

• How large is q ?
•From CMB and 
baryon estimate Baryon to photon ratio = ~5x10 -10

•Since 3 quarks bind to form a Baryon (Hadron)  q~ 10-10

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The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE HADRON ERA
ORIGIN OF MATTER ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY

• Where does the Matter - Antimatter Asymmetry come from ?

• Particle Physics - Standard Model - 3 basic symmetries
• Charge Conjugation (C)
• Replacing a particle by its antimatter counterpart.
• Parity (P)
• Reverses all three coordinates.
• Like a mirror where image is not only back-to-front,
but also left-right swapped and upside-down.
• Time Reversal (T)
• Interactions are independent of the arrow of time.

Weak interactions, both P and C are individually broken.

(neutrino chirality) but CP is conserved

One case of combination of C and P also not conserved C violated P violated

CP-violation, detected by Cronin & Fitch in decay neutral Kaons

CPT still believed to be conserved in all reactions CP conserved

i.e., antiparticle is indistinguishable from the mirror-image of a particle moving backwards in time
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The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE HADRON ERA
CP VIOLATION AND THE ORIGIN OF MATTER ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY

• 1964 Cronin and Fitch Experiment:

• Measurement of decay of pions from neutral Kaon particles
• Measure the decay rate at the end of 17m particle beam tube. CP violation  difference in
• Kaon decay lifetimes different by factor of 100 for the two Kaon kaon-antikaon deacy lifetimes
species

d
Ko

xpect to see only the long-lived version at the end of the beam tube,
BUT found about 1 in 500 long lived kaons decayed to 2 pions
CP violation (in K mesons due to fact that KL contain ~0.3% more Ko than anti-Ko)

Neutral Kaons also have semi-leptonic decay mode (39%, compared to 34% for 3 mode)

• CP transforms one set of decay products into the other  identical decay rates
• Experiment  positron decay mode more frequent than the electron decay mod
• CP violation with fractional excess is only 3.3 x 10-3

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The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE HADRON ERA
ORIGIN OF MATTER ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY

1967 Andrei Sakharov : 3 criterea for matter-antimatter assymetry

• Baryon number must be violated - Proton is unstable (decays into mu-meson and two
neutrinos 1030yrs)
• P and CP must be violated
• A departure from thermal equilibrium when the baryon number was being violated.

P violation requires 3 families of quarks  3 families of quarks imply CP violation

• N.B., CP violation  T violation (strong nuclear force magnetic orientation  axion  dark matter)

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The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE LEPTON ERA
Lepton era = 10-4 - 1s after Big Bang

• ~ equal numbers of , e,  in thermal equilibrium

• For every 109 photons, electrons, or neutrinos, ~ 1 proton or neutron exists
• Lepton Era continues until T<~1010K neutrinos decouple forming their own ghost Universe

<~1010K neutrinos decouple

~109K electrons and positrons annihilate
niverse gets extra source of photons (heating) which neutrinos never “see”  neutrino background col
an calculate difference between neutrino background and photon background temperatures

Thermal equilibrium, the second law of thermodynamics  entropy, S, of the Universe remained cons
As Universe expands SR3=constant
Consider Entropy conservation before and after the electron/positron annihilation

g = effective number of species in equilibrium

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The Evolution of the Big Bang

• THE LEPTON ERA
The Neutrino Background

Contributions to g calculated as product of 3 factors

• 2 if particle has distinct antiparticle, 1 if not.

• Number of possible orientations of the particle spin. g (e±) = 2 x 2 x 7/8 = 7/2
• 7/8 if particle subject to Pauli exclusion principle, 1 if not. g () = 2 x 1 x 1 = 2

Therefore;
before e± annihilation ge±, =7/2 + 2 = 11/2
after e± annihilation g0,  = 2

Since TR(v) for the neutrinos remains equal to TR(e±,  before the annihilation

The present day Temperature of T = T= 2.725/1.4 ~ 1.95 K

the neutrino background is given by and 0.11 MeV/m3

• Neutrino background very difficult detect directly

• If neutrinoes have mass, then neutrinos dominate the density of the
Universe 41
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The Neutron - Proton ratio
~ 0.1s after Big Bang

• After Quark/Hadron era - Neutrons & Protons (nucleons) present in equal numbers
• T~1010K >> mec2  +   e- + e+
• Nucleons in thermal equilibrium with electrons and photons

Neutron Decay
Mode

Number densities of nucleons given

by Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

mn/mp=1.002~1 Neutron Proton ratio is

decided by the temperature
(mn-mp)c2=Q=1.29MeV
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The Neutron - Proton ratio

• T~9x109K :
• electrons-positrons annihilate  +   e- + e+
• neutrinos decouple from nucleons
• Small neutron-proton mass difference  reactions shift in favour of the lighter Proton

1
Neutron freezeout

0.1

Only neutron decay mode (1) remains Nn/Np

0.01

Th
er
m
al
Eq
0.001

u
ilib
riu
 ~16mins decay time of free neutron

m
0.0001
1011 1010 109
Neutrons are disappearing quickly ! Temperature (K)
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The Formation of the Light Elements
~ 1s - 3 minutes after Big Bang

nset of nucleosynthesis locks up all the free neutrons in nuclei stopping the neutron decay

Nucleosynthesis of the elements begins with Deuterium and ends with Helium (+ a little Lithium, Beryllium, Boron)
Number densities too low to directly make 2p + 2n  4He
Sequence of 2 body reactions Can also have …..

FIRST STEP:- Deuterium 2H = D

2
H Weak Interaction because neutrinos
are involved  lower probability

Deuterium binding energy low = mn+mp+mD=2.22MeV

 Immediately destroyed
Stability when ND~Nn
 Temperature drops ~ kT~0.07 = 7x108K (t~200s)

Neutron decay mode Nn/Np~0.16 (nucleosynthesis will be quite an inefficient process)

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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The Formation of the Light Elements
~ 3 minutes after Big Bang

• Once significant amount of Deuterium has formed the heavier elements form very fast
• All post-Deuterium reactions involve strong nuclear forces, large cross sections and high reaction rates
• Reactions proceed quickly to Helium
2
H

3
H

He
3

He
4

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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The Formation of the Light Elements
Most of 3H, 3He gets locked up in 4He - how about heavier elements ?
4
He 56
Fe

6
Li s io
n Fi
ss
io
F u n

7
Li

5 8 56
7
Be

nding energy/nucleon as a function of atomic number or number of nucleons per atom.

ecrease in binding energy beyond Iron as the nucleus gets bigger, strong force loses to electrostatic for
ximum binding energy at iron  means that elements lighter than Iron release energy when fused.
lements heavier than iron only release energy when split
aks in binding energy at 4,16 & 24 nucleons from the stability of 4He combination of 2 protons/neutrons
• No stable nuclei with atomic number 5 or 8 Universe runs out of steam
• Unusually large binding energy of Helium production ceases with Helium
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• Light Element Abundances

Only the very lightest elements are Assumes ~5x10-10

synthesized in the Big Bang

Everything Else is made in

Stars 107-108 yrs later

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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• Light Element Abundances

Abundance depends on Baryon to photon ration ()

• High   higher density

•  nucleosynthesis starts earlier (higher T)
• Helium production more efficient
• Less D & 3He leftover

Mass fraction of He
~ Nn/Np~0.16 so there are ~6 protons for every neutron

So for 2n + 2p 4He  10 protons leftover  H

(1) (2)
Maximum allowed
Mass fraction He
28% 4
He+3H 7
Be+e-

Mass fraction of Li
(1) Production of 7Li from 4He+3H ~ decreasing fn()
(2) Production of 7Li from 7Be+e- ~ increasing fn()
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Recombination
• THE RADIATION ERA
Radiation era = 1s - 106yrs after Big Bang

• Radiation more dense than matter, 108 kg/m3 compared to 100 kg/m3
• Temperature 1010 K
• Expanding space filled mostly with protons and neutrinos
• Protons and neutrons combined to produce deuterium
• Helium synthesized when universe some 200 seconds old
• Universe between ~105 years old
• Temperature 3000o K, electrons captured by protons to form hydrogen atoms
• Electrons no longer scatter photons
• Universe becomes transparent to radiation; decoupling epoch when radiation decouples from
matter
• Fireball that flooded expanding universe for first 106 years appears as CBR

Before Recombination photon mean

free path is very short

http://zebu.uoregon.edu
Radiation and matter are thermally bound together

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Recombination
• Decoupling and Recombination

•matter in thermal equilibrium

with the radiation. photons and
e-  e-
 e 
- electrons to interact via
p p Thompson scattering
e- p p 
•Temperature drops then p+e-H 
recombination recombination
t
z

 H
 H
T

H H 
R


• Eventually interactions
stop allowing the photons
De-coupling to flow freely on scales of
H  the horizon  de-
H H  

coupling
H 
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Recombination
• Decoupling and Recombination

Time of recombination depends on

1. Ionization energy of Hydrogen =13.6eV
2. The baryon/photon ratio, ~5x10-10

mply equating the ionization energy to average photon energy ~3kT  TR ~50,000K

ut since there are many more photons than protons,

even at lower temperatures there are enough photons with the ionization energy

Use Boltzmann distribution:

•Redshift of Recombination / Decoupling ~ z=Ro/RR=TR/To=2500/2.7~1000

• more accurately z=1089 over redshift shell z=195
•380,000 years after Big Bang over a time scale of ~ 118,000yr
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Recombination
• The Surface of Last Scattering
• After Recombination and Decoupling the photons are no longer bound to matter and can
stream freely
• Photons from the Big Bang fill the universe and we observe them as the 2.7K microwave
background.
• The redshifted relic or ashes of the Big Bang
• Last time photons interacted  SURFACE OF LAST SCATTERING
•This also means that we can not observe the Universe when it was younger than ~400,000
years
BEFORE DECOUPLING: photons and matter coupled AFTER DECOUPLING: photons become free

http://zebu.uoregon.edu

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The Matter Era

• Before Recombination - Radiation coupled to matter  Matter cannot
• THE MATTER ERA cluster
• After recombination, radiation no longer influences the distribution of
matter.
• Matter can cluster and collapse around density enhancements
• Form the structures of galaxies and clusters of galaxies we observe
today
• Universe <106 years old
•Density 1 H-atom/cm3
•No galaxies existed prior to 10 6 years

• Matter era, ~106 years after big bang

•Quasars and clusters of galaxies condensing
•Density 10-25 kg/m3
•Temperature > 3000o K
•Universe flooded with brilliant yellow light

• Universe 109 years old

• Density 100 H-atoms/m3
• Galaxies coming into existence

• Present era, 13.7x 109 years after big bang

• Density 1 H-atom/m3; ~1080 particles in observable universe
• 109 photons and neutrinos for each baryon
• Galaxies exist in billions; stars forming everywhere
• CBR has redshift of 1000 and temperature of 2.7 K

• The Acceleration Era

• Cosmological Constant term has turned on
• What is the fate of the Universe ?

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The Undiscovered Country

• The fate of the Universe?

Ruling law of Nature: Entropy - objects go from order to disorder - The Arrow of Time

HEAT FLOW
T1 T2 T1>T3>T2
T3 T3
T1>T2

• STELLAR ERA:
•Energy of the Universe from thermonuclear fusion in Stars. Stellar era lasts until the last
stars have used up their fuel. ~1014yrs for 0.1Mo Red Dwarf
• DEGENERATE ERA:
•All stars in the form of stellar remnants - white/brown dwarfs/neutron stars /black holes.
• Eventually all stars become black dwarves. Galaxies dissolve
• BLACK HOLE ERA:
• Proton decays with lifetime of 1030yrs.
• Only organized units are black holes.
• Black Holes evaporate via Hawking Radiation over 10100 years for galactic sized systems.
• Universe becomes a cold photon sea
• DARK ERA:
• Universe consists of leptons + photons - ultimate disorder.
• Cools to vacuum energy state

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Summary
• Summary
Followed the evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang to the present and beyond
• The farthest back we can observe is the surface of last scattering

At times prior to this our evidence is indirect

• Early Universe must consider Particle Physics
• T0 a Quantum Theory of Gravity

• However the Big Bang Theory has had great success in predicting fine details of
• The expanding Universe
• Primordial Nucleosynthesis and the light element abundances
• The Relic Radiation from the fireball
• The beginning of structure formation
• However… we shall see that there are still many unsolved problems with this
Standard Model
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