HIGHWAY ENGINEERING-I

Chapter 2

Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Javid

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
University of Nizwa, Oman
 Contents
 Traffic demand characteristics
 Traffic flow characteristics

 Road vehicle performance and human

factors
• Vehicle kinematics
• Vehicle dynamics
• Vehicle braking distance
 Speed

2
 Learning Objectives
 Explain basic characteristics of highway
system, traffic flow and highway users

3
 Transportation Demands
 Transportation demands – volume, composition, and
patterns – are important design controls.
 The greater the demand for a facility, the more
important are its operational and safety
characteristics.
 The designer must have a good understanding of
existing and anticipated demands by pedestrians,
bicyclists, and drivers.
 Community planning goals, the selected design year,
and performance measures for a project are key
determinants of how the designer achieves the
project’s purpose and need.
 Transportation Demands
 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) — The total yearly
volume of automobiles and trucks divided by the number of
days in the year.
AADT = total traffic volume in one year / no. of days in one year
 Average annual weekday traffic (AAWT) - The average 24-
hour volume occurring on weekdays over a full 365-day year;
the number of vehicle passing a site on weekdays in a year
divided by the number of weekdays (usually 260).
AAWT = total yearly traffic volume only for weekdays / no. of weekdays in one year

 Average Daily Traffic (ADT) — The calculation of average

traffic volumes in a time period greater than one day and less
than one year. (ADT is often incorrectly used interchangeably
with AADT.)
ADT = total traffic volume in given time / no. of days in given time
*given time (time period which is more than 1 day and less than 1 year)
 Transportation Demands
 Peak-Hour Traffic (PH) — The highest number of vehicles
passing over a section of highway during 60 consecutive
minutes. T(PH) is the PH for truck traffic only.

 Peak-Hour Factor (PHF) — A ratio of the total volume occurring

during the peak hour to the maximum rate of flow during a
given time period within the peak hour (typically is 15 minutes).

 Design Hourly Volume (DHV) — The one-hour volume in the

design year selected for determining the highway design. (In
many cases, designers look at the typical worst case weekday
morning or evening peak hour or the 30th highest hour of the
year to assess the geometric requirements of their design.)

 K-factor (K) — The K-factor is the percent of daily traffic that

occurs during the peak hour.
 Traffic Count Example
Date: __________________ Location: __________________
Surveyor: ______________ Direction: __________________
Time: 8:00 AM – 9:00 AM (counting is done on hourly basis)
A

West East
B
8:00-8:15 8:15-8:30 8:30-8:45 8:45-9:00
Bus
Car
Truck
Motorcycle 7
 Traffic Count Example
Time Volume
Peak hour traffic
8:00-8:15 130 PHF 
= 660 4 x(V15 min ) max
8:15-8:30 145 = 720
735
8:30-8:45 180 PHF  0.9
= 735 4 x 205
8:45-9:00 205 = 695
9:00-9:15 190
9:15-9:30 160 = 615

9:30-9:45 140
9:45-10:00 125
8
 Peak Hour Volumes
 In design, peak-hour volumes are sometimes estimated from
projections of the AADT. Traffic forecasts are most often cast in
terms of AADTs based on documented trends and/or
forecasting models. Because daily volumes, such as the AADT,
are more stable than hourly volumes, projections can be more
confidently made using them. AADTs are converted to a peak-
hour volume in the peak direction of flow. This is referred to as
the “directional design hour volume” (DDHV), and is found
using the following relationship:

9
 Peak Hour Factor

The maximum possible value for the PHF is 1.00, which( occurs when the volume in each
interval is constant. (no variation of flow within the hour.)
The minimum value occurs when the entire hourly volume occurs in a single 15-minute
interval. In this case, the PHF becomes 0.25, and represents the most extreme case of
volume variation within the hour.
In practical terms, the PHF generally varies between a low of 0.70 for rural and sparsely
10
developed areas to 0.98 in dense urban areas.
Illustration of Daily Volume Parameters

11
PHF ? = 12
 Example (DDHV)
 Consider the case of a rural highway that has a 20-year
forecast of AADT of 30,000 veh/day. Based upon the data of
'Table 5.2, what range of directional design hour volumes might
be expected for this situation? Using the values of Table 5.2 for
a rural highway, the K factor ranges from 0.15 to 0.25, and the
D factor ranges from 0.65 to 0.80. The range of directional
design hour volumes is, therefore:
 Traffic Flow
 Complex: between vehicles and drivers,
among vehicles
 Stochastic: variability in outcome, cannot
predict with certainty
 Theories and models
• Macroscopic: aggregate, steady state
• Microscopic: disaggregate, dynamics
• Human factor: driver behavior

14
 Speed (v)
 Rate of motion
 Individual speed L L
v  , vavg 
T T
 Average speed
• Time mean speed v i
vt  i
Arithmetic mean n
• Space mean speed vt vs
Harmonic mean L nL
vs  
ti  ti
i n i
15
 Individual Speed
(1)

Time of Location (ft) Speed

Passing (sec) 600 700 (ft/sec)
Spot 1 0.0 2.0 50.0
Speed 4.4 6.7 45.0
2
3 6.0 8.0 50.0

Vehicle
4 11.4 14.3 35.0
5 15.0 17.5 40.0
700  600
v1  50 ft/sec 6 17.5 20.0 40.0
2.0  0.0
7 21.1 23.3 45.0
50 * 3600 / 5280 34.09 (mi/hr or mph)
8 23.3 25.0 60.0

16
 Time Mean Speed

Observation Period

50  45  50  35  40  40  45  60
vt  45.6 (ft/sec)
8

17
Observation Distance
Space Mean Speed

Observation Period
100 * 8
vs  44.2(ft/sec) 30.1(mi/hr)
2  2.3  2  2.9  2.5  2.5  2.2  1.7 
18
 Traffic-Flow Parameters: Volume (q)
 Number of vehicles passing a point during a given time
interval
 Typically quantified by Rate of Flow (vehicles per hour)

Time-Space Plot

1000

900

800

700 8
q
600
25 / 3600
Distance (ft)

1152 (veh/hr or vph)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

19
Volume (q)

20
 Density (k)
 Number of vehicles occupying a given
length of roadway
 Typically measured as vehicles per mile
(vpm),
or vehicles per
mile per lane
(vpmpl)

21
Density (k)

22
 Density (k)

q(veh/hr) v(mi/hr) * k(veh/mi)

1152 (veh/hr) 30.1(mi/hr) * k

k 1152 / 30.1 38.22(veh/mi)

23
 Spacing (s)
 Front bumper to front bumper distance
between successive vehicles

S2-3 S1-2

24
 Headway (h)
 Time between successive vehicles passing
a fixed point

T=3sec
T=0 sec
h1-2=3sec

25
Spacing and Headway

spacing

headway

26
 Spacing and Headway
What are the individual headways and the average headway measured at
location A during the 25 sec period?

27
 Spacing and Headway
What are the individual headways and the average headway measured at
location A during the 25 sec period?

Time of Location (ft)

A Passing (sec) 600 700
1 0.0 2.0
h1-2
2 4.4 6.7
3 6.0 8.0 h2-3

Vehicle
4 11.4 14.3
5 15.0 17.5
6 17.5 20.0
7 21.1 23.3
8 23.3 25.0

28
 Lane Occupancy
 Ratio of roadway occupied by vehicles

L3 L2 L1

D
L i
LO  i

D 29
 Clearance (c) and Gap (g)
 Front bumper to back bumper distance and
time
Clearance (ft) or Gap (sec)

Lavg
g avg havg 
vavg Spacing (ft) or headway (sec)

cavg  g avg * vavg

30
Recap

Spacing

31
Recap

Clearance

32
Recap

# vehicles/Distance
Density

33
 Recap…
 Speed (v) – ft/sec or mph
 Flow (q) – veh/sec or vph
 Density (k) – veh/ft or vpm
 Spacing (s) – ft/veh
 Headway (h) – sec/veh
 Clearance (c) – ft/veh
 Gap (g) – sec/veh
Remember, units are critical!

34
 Fundamental Relationships
 q=kv
(veh/hr) = (veh/mi)  (mi/hr)
 h=1/q
(sec/veh) = 1 / (veh/hr)  (3600)
 s=1/k
(ft/veh) = 1 / (veh/mi)  (5280)

35
 General Speed-Density Relationship
S
V
Free normal flow

forced flow
Traffic
Jam Q or q
Capacity

K
Density at Jam
Capacity Density
36
 General Speed-Density Relationship
K
V
Traffic
Free Jam
forced flow

normal flow
Q or q
Capacity

K
Density at Jam
Capacity Density
37
 General Speed-Density Relationship
Q
V
Capacity
Free

Traffic V
Jam

K
Density at Jam
Capacity Density
38
 Types of Facilities
 Uninterrupted flow
• no fixed elements
external to the traffic
stream to interrupt
flow
• Freeways
• Multilane highways
• Two-lane highways

39
 Types of Facilities
 Interrupted flow
• have controlled and
uncontrolled access
points that can
interrupt flow
• Signalized streets
• Un-signalized streets
with stop signs
• Transit lanes
• Pedestrian walkways

40
 Example-1
Calculation of time mean speed (TMS) and space mean speed (SMS)

41
 Example-2
An observer noted that a traffic stream on a freeway
lane displayed average vehicle headways of 2.5 sec
at a mean speed of 55 mph. Estimate the density,
rate of flow, spacing, and gap of this traffic stream
assuming the average length of vehicles is 20 ft.

42
Example 2 (Solution)
Road Vehicle Performance &
Human Factor

44
 Road Vehicle Performance & Human Factor
 Studying vehicle performance serves two
important purposes:
• provides insight into roadway design and traffic operations
and the compromises that are necessary to accommodate
the wide variety of vehicles that use roadways
• it forms a basis on which to assess the impact of advancing
vehicle technologies on existing roadway design guidelines

45
 Road Vehicle Performance & Human Factor
 Performance of road vehicles forms the basis
for roadway design guidelines such as:
• length of acceleration / deceleration lanes
• maximum grades
• stopping-sight distances
• passing-sight distances
• setting speed limits
• timing of signalized
intersections

46
 Human Factors –P/R Time
 Driver Perception/Reaction
time is time to perceive and
react to a hazard in
vehicle’s path
 Empirical distribution of
brake reaction time shows
wide range
 Depends on driver
characteristics & condition,
complexity of stimulus and
required response
 Use 85th to 95th percentile
for design

47
 Reaction time vs Info Content
 Reaction to “unexpected” info
takes longer than for
“expected” info –85th percentile
data
 Increase in info quantity
(information content in “bits”)
increases reaction time
 Unexpected/1 bit gives P/R =
2.5 seconds
 Vehicle Travel Distance During
PRT:
• dr = V1 * t
 Total vehicle braking distance:
• ds = dr + d
• Where
V12  V22
d
2 g ( f G ) 48
 Vehicle Kinematics
 Acceleration: dv/dt = a (constant accel.)
 Speed: v = v1 + a * t (speed vs time)
 Distance vs time
 x = v1* t + ½ a * t2
 Distance vs speed
 x = ½ a * [v2-v12]

49
 Superelevation
F f  f s Wn  Fcn  W p  F f Fcp
Rv

≈
WV 2
F cp Fc 
W = Mg F cn gRv
M = W/g
Wn = Wcosα α Fc

Wp = Wsinα
α e
Fcp = Fccosα W 1 ft
Wn Ff
Fcn = Fcsinα

Ff Wp
α

 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f s  W cos   sin    cos 
 gRv  gRv 50
 Superelevation
W sin   W cos  WV sin 
2
 WV cos 
2
 f s    
W cos   W cos  gRv W cos   gRv W cos 
V2 V2
tan   f s  f s tan  
gRv gRv

V 2 V2
tan   f s  1  f s tan   e  fs  1  f s e 
gRv gRv

fs = side friction factor or V2

Rv 
g  f s  e
e
coefficient of friction α
1 ft
51
 Vehicle Dynamics
 There are the opposing forces that determine
straight-line performance of road vehicles
 Tractive effort is simply the force available at
the roadway surface to perform work
(expressed in lbs or [N])
 Resistance (expressed in lbs or [N]) is defined
as the force impeding vehicle motion

52
 Tractive Effort and Resistance
 Three major sources of vehicle resistance are:
• Aerodynamic
• Rolling (originates from the roadway surface/tire
interface)
• Grade or gravitational

53
 Tractive Effort and Resistance

Ff + Fr= ma + Ra+ Rrlf + Rrlr+ Rg

F= ma+ Ra+ Rrl+ Rg 54
 Aerodynamic Resistance
 Can have significant impacts on vehicle performance,
particularly at high speeds.
 Aerodynamic resistance originates from a number of
sources:
 Turbulent flow of air around the vehicle body (≈ 85%)
 Function of shape of vehicle, particularly the rear
 Friction of air passing over vehicle body (≈ 12%)
 Airflow through vehicle components such as radiators
and air vents (≈3%)

55
 Aerodynamic Resistance
 Based on these sources, equation for determining
aerodynamic resistance is:
Ra = (ρ/2) CD Af V2
 Ra= aerodynamic resistance in lb (N)
 ρ(rho) = air density in slugs/ft 3(kg/m3)
 CD= coefficient of drag (unitless)
 Af= frontal area of vehicle (projected area of vehicle in
direction of travel) in ft2(m2)
 V= vehicle speed* in ft/s (m/s)
 * V is speed of vehicle relative to prevailing wind
speed
56
 Aerodynamic Resistance
 As seen in equation, Ra is proportional to V2. Thus,
this resistance will increase rapidly with increasing
speed.
 Air density is a function of both elevation and
temperature
• altitude,
• temperature,
 The drag coefficient is measured from empirical data
either from wind tunnel experiments or actual field
tests in which a vehicle is allowed to decelerate from
a known speed.

57
 Rolling Resistance
 Refers to the resistance generated from a vehicle’s internal
mechanical friction, and pneumatic tires and their interaction
with the roadway surface.
 Primary source (about 90%) of this resistance is the
deformation of the tire as it passes over the roadway surface.
 Tire penetration/roadway surface compression (about 4%)
 Tire slippage and air circulation around tire & wheel (about 6%)

 Factors affecting Rrl

• Rigidity of tire and roadway surface
• Tire inflation pressure and temperature
• Vehicle speed

58
 Rolling Resistance
 Due to wide range of factors that affect rolling
resistance, a simplifying approximation is used.
 Studies have shown that rolling resistance can be
approximated as the product of a friction term
(coefficient of rolling resistance) and the weight of the
vehicle acting normal to the roadway surface.
 Coefficient of rolling resistance (f rl) for road vehicles
operating on paved surfaces is approximated as:
 V 
f rl 0.01 1   with V in ft / s
 147 
 V 
f rl 0.01 1   with V in m / s
 44.73 
59
 Rolling Resistance
 Thus, rolling resistance is approximated by:

Rrl  f rl W cos  g
 However, since grades are often small, the equation is further
simplified by assuming cosθg= 1 (giving a slightly more
conservative estimate), yielding:
Rrl = frl W

Or 746 N-m/s 60
 Grade Resistance
 Gravity, of course, can offer significant resistance on inclines
 The grade resistance is determined simply as the component
of the vehicle weight acting parallel to the roadway surface

Rg W sin  g

sin  g tan  g

Rg W G
61
Problem 1

62
Problem 2

63
 Vehicle Braking Distance

W
( )a  W sin   fW cos  0
g
a  g (sin   f cos 
a  g (G  f ) when   0, sin  tan  , cos  1 64
 Vehicle Braking Distance
dv dv dx dv
a   v  adx vdv
dt dx dt dx
1 2
a ( x  x0 )  (V2  V12 )
2 2
V V
d 1 2

2 2 g ( f G )
2 2 if V 0, (the vehicle comes to complete stop), then
(V2  V1 )
2

practical stoping distance equation

d
2 g ( f G )
2
V
d 1
2 g ( f G )

where G = tan (alpha) = grade/100

note: for downgrade G is negative

g = 32.2 ft/sec2 and v is in ft/sec

f = coefficient of friction 65
 Vehicle Braking Distance
Alternative braking distance equation.

66
The total required stopping distance is a combination of the braking
Distance and the distance traveled during perception/reaction:

67
Problem 3

68
Problem 3

69
 Speed
 Speed is an important factor considered by travelers in
selecting a transportation mode or route.

 Many design elements such as horizontal and vertical curvature

and superelevation are directly related to speed.

 Other features, such as lane and shoulder width, and the width
of the roadside recovery clear zones for errant vehicles, can
vary with, but are not a direct function of the design speed.

 Factors/ conditions affecting the speed

 Speed
 Motor Vehicle Running Speed
 Running speed characterizes the time necessary to travel a
predetermined distance along a roadway (incorporating both
time while moving and stopped delays). Measures of running
speed can vary substantially by day of week and time of day
based on traffic conditions.
 Average running speed is usually used to characterize
conditions on a roadway for analytical (planning, route
selection, air quality analyses, etc.) purposes rather than for the
design of roadway geometrics.
 Speed
 Motor Vehicle Operating Speed
 Operating speed is the measured speed at which drivers are
observed operating their vehicles in fair weather during off-peak
hours. Operating speed is measured at discrete points along a
roadway.
 Operating speeds are usually reported using percentile speeds
with the 50th percentile (average) and 85th percentile (the
speed at which 85 percent of vehicles are traveling at or below)
speeds are often used to characterize the operating speed on a
roadway.
 The roadway’s features such as curves and topography, width,
access to adjacent properties, presence of pedestrians and
bicyclists, parking, traffic control devices, lighting, etc., affect
the operating speed.
 Speed
 During peak periods, when traffic congestion or intersection
operations are controlling movement along a corridor, observed
operating speeds may be substantially lower than the operating
speed measured during off-peak conditions when the roadway’s
design and context are controlling speed.

 Numerous studies have indicated that drivers will not

significantly alter what they consider to be a safe operating
speed, regardless of the posted speed limit unless there is
constant heavy enforcement.
 Speed
 Target Speed for Motor Vehicles
 The target speed is the desired operating speed along a
roadway.
 The appropriate target speed is determined early in the project
development process, and should consider:
• The context of the roadway including area type, roadway type, and
access control;
• The volume, mix, and safety of facility users; and
• The anticipated driver characteristics and familiarity with the route.

 The designer should balance the benefits of high speeds for

long distance, environmental, community, right of way, and cost
constraints. When high speeds are selected, the designer
should also include design elements to maintain the safety of
pedestrians and bicyclists.
 Speed
 Selecting Motor Vehicles Design Speed
 Design speed is the selected speed used to determine various
geometric features of the roadway. The design speed should be
a logical one with respect to the target speed and existing
operating speed.
 When selecting a design speed, understanding the existing
operating speed and target speed addresses:
• (1) the need to meet the expectations of drivers based on the roadway
environment, and
• (2) the ways in which the setting influences the desired speed.
 It is important to understand the inter-relationship between
speed and roadway geometry. Selection of a design speed
influences the physical geometrics of the roadway. Similarly, the
physical geometrics of the roadway are important determinants
of the operating speeds that will result on the facility.
 Speed
 Free-Flow Speed (FFS)
 Speed of traffic as density approaches zero.
 Speed at which drivers feel comfortable travelling under the
physical, environmental, and traffic control conditions existing
on an uncongested section of freeway.
 Speed
 Design speed
Speed
Speed
 Sight Distance
 Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that is
visible to the roadway user.
 In most cases, specific sight distance measures apply
to motor vehicles and bicyclists. The four following
aspects are commonly discussed for motor vehicle
sight distance:
• Stopping sight distance
• Passing sight distance
• Decision sight distance
• Intersection sight distance.
 All of these sight distances are related to the design
speed of the roadway.
 Sight Distance
 Motor Vehicle Stopping Sight Distance
 Stopping sight distance is the distance necessary for a vehicle traveling at
the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path.
 The sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least the
stopping sight distance.
 Stopping sight distance is the aggregate of two distances: brake reaction
distance (between recognition of an object and brakes are actually applied =
2.5 sec is consider as adequate) and braking distance
 Formula and
 Example (See
chapter 2)
 Sight Distance
 Motor Vehicle Stopping Sight Distance
 Sight Distance
 Bicycle Stopping Sight Distance
 For on-road travel, the stopping sight distance for motor vehicles
appropriately accommodates bicycles. However, bicycle stopping sight
distance is an important consideration in the design of off-road facilities such
as shared use paths.

 Sight Distance for Pedestrians

 There is not a parallel “stopping sight distance” consideration for
pedestrians since they usually travel at lower speeds and can stop within a
few feet. However, the designer must consider the importance of
pedestrians’ ability to view and react to potential conflicts.

 The designer should provide adequate sight lines at street crossings,

around corners, and at other locations where pedestrians interface with
other users. For example, at street crossing locations, pedestrians should
be able to see a sufficient portion of the traffic stream to judge the suitability
of gaps for crossing the street.
 Sight Distance
 Passing Sight Distance
 For two-lane highways, passing maneuvers in which faster
vehicles move ahead of slower vehicles must be accomplished
on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic.

 If passing is to be accomplished safely, passing sight distance

is necessary to allow the passing driver to see a sufficient
distance ahead, clear of traffic, to complete the passing
maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle and before
meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the maneuver.
 Sight Distance
 Passing Sight Distance
 Sight Distance
 Passing Sight Distance
 Sight Distance
 Decision Sight Distance
 Decision sight distance adds a dimension of time to stopping sight distance
to allow a driver to detect and react to an unexpected condition along a
roadway.
 Decision sight distance is suggested when there is evidence that it would be
prudent to provide longer sight distance, such as when complex decisions
are needed or when information is difficult to perceive.
 It is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise
difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway
environment that may be visually cluttered.
 Interchanges and intersections, changes in x-sections such as toll plazas
and lane drops, and area with visual noise.
 Provision of traffic control devices if DSD not possible
 Sight Distance
 Decision sight distance
 Sight Distance
 Intersection Sight Distance
 Sight distance is provided at intersections to allow drivers to perceive the
presence of potentially conflicting vehicles.
 This should occur in sufficient time for a motorist to stop or adjust their
speed, as appropriate, to avoid colliding in the intersection.
 Sight distance also allows drivers of stopped vehicles with a sufficient view
of the intersecting roadway to decide when to enter or cross the intersecting
roadway.
 If the available sight distance for an entering or crossing vehicles is at least
equal to the appropriate stopping sight distance for the major road, then
drivers have sufficient sight distance to anticipate or avoid collisions.
However, in some cases, this may require a major-road vehicle to slow or
stop to accommodate the maneuver by a minor-road vehicle.
 Sight Distance
 Intersection Sight Distance
 Case A – Intersections with no control on any approach
 Case B – Intersections with stop control on the minor street
 Case C – Intersections with yield control on the minor street
 Case D – Intersections with traffic signal control
 Case E – Intersections with all-way stop sign control
 Case F – Left turns from the major road
Give way
sign
 Sight Distance
 Intersection Sight Triangle
 Clear sight triangles are those areas along the intersection approach legs
that should be clear of obstructions that can block road user’s view of
oncoming traffic. The dimensions of the triangle are based on the design
speed of the intersecting roadways and the type of traffic control used at the
intersection, grades on the roadways, and the roadway width.
 Two types of clear sight triangles are used at each intersection:
 Approach sight triangles and departure sight triangles.
 Approach sight triangles are applicable for when the minor road driver is
in motion while departure sight triangles apply when the minor road
vehicle is accelerating from a stop position.

 Identification of Sight Obstructions within Sight Triangles

 Within a sight triangle there are many obstructions that can obscure the
driver’s view of oncoming vehicles. These may include buildings, vegetation,
longitudinal barriers or retaining walls, side slopes, etc.
 The horizontal and vertical alignment of the intersecting roadways and any
visual obstructions should be considered. For design purposes, the driver’s
eye’s height is assumed to be 3.5 feet above the roadway.
 The object that is used for design approximates the height of an automobile
and is assumed to be 3.5 feet above the roadway.
 Sight Distance
 Where the sight distance value used in design is based on a single-unit or
combination truck as the design vehicle, it is also appropriate to use the eye
height of a truck driver in checking sight obstructions.
 The recommended value of a truck driver’s eye height is 7.6 feet above the
roadway surface.

 Case A: Intersections with No Control on Any Approach

 Where intersection movements are not controlled by a traffic control device
(i.e., signal, STOP or YIELD sign), drivers approaching the intersection from
any direction must be able to see potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient
time to stop before reaching the intersection.
Case A: Intersections with No Control on Any Approach
Case A: Intersections with No Control on Any Approach
Case B – Stop Control on Minor Street
Case B – Stop Control on Minor Street
Case C – Yield Control
Case C – Yield Control
 Case D – Intersections with Traffic Signal Control
 At signalized intersections, the first vehicle stopped on one
approach should be visible to the driver of the first vehicle
stopped on each of the other approaches. Where left turns on
red are permitted, the sight distance triangle for a left turn from
stop applies (Case B).
 Case E – Intersections with All-Way Stop Control
 At intersections with all-way stop control, the first stopped
vehicle on one approach should be visible to the drivers of the
first stopped vehicles on each of the other approaches.
 For this reason, all-way stop control may be a preferable option
at intersections where, due to topographic or man-made
constraints, sight distances for other types of control cannot be
obtained.
 Case F – Left Turns from the Major Road
 Drivers turning left across oncoming traffic of a major roadway
require sufficient sight distance to determine when there is time
to complete the maneuver.
 If stopping sight distance has been provided continuously along
the major road and if sight distance for Case B (stop control) or
Case C (yield control) has been provided for each minor-road
approach, sight distance will generally be adequate for left turns
from the major roads.
 Therefore, no separate check of sight distance for Case F may
be needed. However, at three-leg intersections or driveways
located on or near a horizontal curve or crest vertical curve on
the major road, the availability of adequate sight distance for
left turns from the major road should be checked.
 In addition, the availability of sight distance from divided
highways should be checked because of the possibility of sight
obstructions in the median.
Case F – Left Turns from the Major Road