Chapter Three
Measuring Vertical Distances: Leveling
3.1. Introduction to leveling
The vertical direction is parallel to the direction gravity at any point; it is the
direction of a freely suspended plumb-bob cord or string. The vertical
distance of a point above or below a given reference surface is called the
elevation of the point.
The most commonly used reference surface for vertical distance measurement
is mean sea level (MSL). (The words altitude, height, and grade are
sometimes used in place of elevation). Vertical distances are measured by
surveyors in order to determine the elevations of points, in a process called
running levels, or simply leveling.
The importance of leveling cannot be overestimated with a few exceptions, it
must always be considered in every form of design and construction.
Leveling provides data for determining the shape of the ground and drawing
topographic maps.
Leveling which does not require the measurement of distance, such as
establishing BMs at known positions, is sometimes called ‘fly leveling’.
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Leveling is the process of measuring vertical distances above or below a
given reference surface and a point on, near or below the earth’s surface. It
can also be defined as the processes of determining elevation differences
between various points on, near or below the surface of the earth.
3.2. Equipment used in Leveling
The equipment used in the leveling process comprises optical levels and
graduated staffs. Basically, the optical level consists of a telescope fitted
with a spirit bubble or automatic compensator to ensure long horizontal
sights onto the vertically held graduated staff.
A) Levelling staff
Levelling staffs are made of wood, metal or glass fibre and graduated in
metres and decimals. The alternate metre lengths are in black and red on a
white background. The majority of staffs are telescopic or socketed in
three sections for easy carrying. Although the graduations can take
various forms, the type adopted in the UK is the British Standard (BS
4484) E-pattern.
The smallest graduation on the staff is 0.01 m, with readings estimated to
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B) Levels
A level consists of a high-power telescope (20 to 45 diameters) with a
spirit level attached to it in such a manner that when its bubble is centered,
the line of sight is horizontal.
The purposes of the telescope are to fix the direction of the line of sight
and to magnify the apparent sizes of objects observed.
The telescope has three main parts: the objective lens, the eyepiece, and the
reticle.
The objective lens is the large lens located at the front or forward end of
the telescope.
The eyepiece is the small lens located at the viewer’s end. It is actually a
microscope that magnifies and enables the viewer to see clearly the image
formed by the objective lens.
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Terms used in levelling
1. Station – is the point where the staff is held for taking reading
from a leveling instrument.
2. Back sight (B.S.): It is the reading
taken on a staff held at point of known
elevation or at the point whose elevation
has already been determined.
3. Fore sight (F.S.): It is the reading
taken on the staff either held at the last
point whose elevation is required or held
at the turning point just before shifting the
instrument
4. Height of the instrument. (H.I): It is
the elevation of the line of sight with 7. Balancing of sight….the distance
respect to the datum. of the point where a back sight is
5. Turning point. (T.P.): For levelling taken and the distance of the point
over a long distance, the instrument has where a fore sight is taken as
to be set up a number of times. A turning measured from the instrument
point is the point selected on the route station should be approximately
before shifting the instrument. equal.
6. Intermediate sight. (I.S.): It is the
reading taken on a staff held at point
whose elevations is required, but which
is not a turning point or the last point.
Principle of direct levelling
levelling instrument is set up at a convenient position,
properly levelled
and one staff is kept at a point of known elevation.
The reading is taken on the staff and the level of the
line of sight is determined.
Now the 2nd staff is kept on the point of the unknown
elevation and a reading is taken. The level of the point
is determined from the level of the line of sight already
computed and from the 2nd staff reading.
BACK SIGHT FORE SIGHT
T.P.(TURNING POINT)
B.M.
Setup
Balancing of sight is have to
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3.5. Preparing levels for work
Setting up: Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press the tripod feet
firmly into the ground. The tripod head should be approximately
horizontal. Fix the instrument on it.
Leveling up: Level the instrument with the foot screws until the circular
bubble is in the centre.
Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs appear sharp and clear
then point the telescope towards the object (staff) and focus until you see
clearly the graduation of the staff.
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3.6. Methods for booking and reducing the levels
For booking and reducing the levels of points, there are two systems,
namely the height of instrument or height of collimation method and rise
and fall method.
The columns for booking the readings in a level book are same for both the
methods but for reducing the levels, the number of additional columns
depends upon the method of reducing the levels.
Note that except for the change point, each staff reading is written on a
separate line so that each staff position has its unique reduced level. This
remains true at the change point since the staff does not move and the back
sight from a forward instrument station is taken at the same staff position
where the fore sight has been taken from the backward instrument station.
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3.6.1. Height of Instrument Method
In reducing the levels for various points by the height of instrument
method, the height of instrument (H.I.) for the each section highlighted by
different shades is determined by adding the elevation of the point to the
back sight reading taken at that point.
The H.I. remains unchanged for all the staff readings taken within that
section and therefore, the levels of all the points lying in that section are
reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff readings, i.e., I.S. or F.S.,
from the H.I. of that section.
Less arithmetic is involved in the reduction of levels with the height of
instrument method than with the rise and fall method, in particular when
large numbers of intermediate sights is involved and thus it is faster than
the rise and fall method.
In the height of instrument method, the check is on the levels reduced at
the change points only and the check on all the sights is available only
using the second formula that is not as simple as the first one.
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Table 3.1 Height of instrument Method
The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on the
computations.
(i) B.S. – F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
(ii) [H.I. (No. of I.S.’s + 1)] – I.S. – F.S. = R.L. – First R.L.
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3.6.2. Rise and Fall Method
In the rise and fall method, the rises and the falls are found out for the
points lying within each section. Adding or subtracting the rise or fall to or
from the reduced level of the backward station obtains the level for a
forward station. In Table 3.2, r and f indicate the rise and the fall,
respectively, assumed between the consecutive points.
The rise and fall method gives arithmetic check on all the levels reduced,
i.e., including the points where the intermediate sights have been taken.
The rise and fall method, therefore, should be employed only when a very
few or no intermediate sights are taken in the whole levelling operation. In
such case, frequent change of instrument position requires determination of
the height of instrument for the each setting of the instrument and,
therefore, computations involved in the height of instrument method may
be more or less equal to that required in the rise and fall method. On the
other hand, it has a disadvantage of not having check on the intermediate
sights, if any, unless the second check is applied.
Cont…
Table 3.2 Rise and Fall Method
The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check
on the computations.
(i) B.S. – F.S. = Rise – Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.
Cont…
Working Examples
Example 3.1
The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff at a common
interval of 20 m.
(i) Draw up a level book page and reduce the levels by the height of
instrument method and rise and fall method.
(ii) (ii) Determine the gradient of the line joining the first and last points. 0.578
B.M. (= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888,
1.181, (3.679 and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.
Example 3.2
Level Survey has been conducted and the first observation was taken on the
Benchmark of 400.000m 2.337, 2.521, 2.265, 1.791, 2.000, 1.644, 1.820,
2.565, 3.420, 1.640, 2.500, 2.410, 3.170. The instrument was shifted after the
fifth and eighth readings; the First reading taken on a B.M. Make a page of
field book for level survey and find out the reduced levels (RL) by rise and
fall and Collimation methods. Also apply the Arithmetic Check
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Example 3.3
A page of level book is reproduced below in which some readings marked as
(x), are missing. Complete the page with all arithmetic checks.
