32 Electrostatics

Ch. 32 Electrostatics
• Electrostatics
stands for
“electricity at rest”.
• Simply, it is the
study of static or
stationary electric
charges
32 Electrostatics

Electrostatics involves
electric charges, the forces
between them, and their
behavior in materials.
32 Electrostatics

An understanding of
electricity requires a
step-by-step approach,
for one concept is the
building block for the
next.

A knowledge of
electrostatics is that
first building block.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

Consider a force acting on you that is billions upon
billions of times stronger than gravity.

Suppose that in addition to this enormous force

there is a repelling force, also billions upon billions
of times stronger than gravity.

The two forces acting on you would balance each

other and have no noticeable effect at all.

A pair of such forces acts on you all the time—

electrical forces.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

In other words, the enormous

attractive and repulsive electrical
forces between the charges in
Earth and the charges in your
body always balance out. So, we
are aware only of the relatively
weaker force of gravity, which
only attracts.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

The fundamental electrical property to which the
mutual attractions or repulsions between particles is
attributed is called charge.

By convention, electrons are negatively charged

and protons positively charged.

Neutrons have no charge, and are neither attracted

nor repelled by charged particles.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

The Atom
Electrical forces arise from the particles in atoms.

The protons in the nucleus attract the electrons and

hold them in orbit.

Electrons are also attracted to protons, but

electrons repel other electrons.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

The helium nucleus is composed of two protons and
two neutrons. The positively charged protons attract
two negative electrons.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

Here are some important facts about atoms:

1. The nucleus of an atom is composed of
protons and neutrons.
2. Every atom, therefore, has a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.
3. All electrons are identical. Similarly, all
protons are identical and all neutrons are
identical.
32 Electrostatics

4. Atoms usually have as many electrons as

protons, so the atom has zero net charge.
5. A proton has nearly 2000 times the mass of
an electron.
6. The positive charge of a proton is equal in
magnitude to the negative charge of the
electron.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

The fundamental rule at the base of all electrical

phenomena is that like charges repel and opposite
charges attract.
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

Attraction and Repulsion
32 Electrostatics

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

What is the fundamental rule at the base of all

electrical phenomena?
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

Electrons are negatively-charged and protons
are positively charged.

When an atom is neutral, there are as many

electrons as protons, so there is no net
charge.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

If an electron is removed from an atom,
however, the atom would no longer be
neutral. It would have one more proton (or
positive charge) than electrons (or negative
charges).
Such a charged atom would then be called
an ion.
In fact, it would be a positive ion or cation
because, through the loss of at least one
electron, it would have a net positive
charge.
32 Electrostatics

If an electron is added to an atom, it would

have one more electron (or negative charge)
than protons (or positive charges).

The ion then would be a negative ion or

anion because it would have a net negative
charge; it would have gained at least one extra
electron.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

Electrically Charged Objects
Objects, which are made up of atoms, generally
have equal numbers of electrons and protons and
no net electric charge.

But, if there is an imbalance in the numbers of

those particles, accomplished by the addition or
removal of electrons, the object then becomes
electrically charged.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

Since the innermost electrons in an atom are bound
very tightly to the oppositely charged atomic
nucleus, it is the outermost or valence electrons that
are easily dislodged. This is because valence
electrons are held very loosely in many materials.

The amount of energy that is required to tear an

electron away from an atom (ionization
energy)varies for different substances.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

When electrons are transferred

from the fur to the rod, the rod
becomes negatively charged.

What about the fur?

32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

An object that has unequal numbers of electrons

and protons is electrically charged.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

Principle of Conservation of Charge

Electrons are neither created nor

destroyed but are simply
transferred from one material to
another. This principle is known as
conservation of charge.

In every event, the principle of

conservation of charge applies.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

Any object that is electrically charged has an excess
(or a deficiency) of some whole number of electrons
— there is no such thing as a fraction of an electron.

This means that the charge of any charged object is

a whole-number multiple of the charge of an
electron.
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

think!
If you scuff electrons onto your shoes while walking
across a rug, are you negatively or positively charged?
What about the rug?
32 Electrostatics

32.2 Conservation of Charge

What causes an object to become

electrically charged?
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

Newton’s law of gravitation says that the gravitational force
between two objects of mass m1 and mass m2 is
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance d between them:
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

Force, Charges, and Distance
The electrical force between any two objects obeys
a similar inverse-square relationship with distance.

The relationship among electrical force, charges,

and distance—Coulomb’s law—was discovered by
the French physicist Charles Coulomb in the
eighteenth century.
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that for charged particles or

objects that are small compared with the distance
between them, the force between the charges varies
directly as the product of the charges and inversely
as the square of the distance between them.
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

For charged objects, the force between the charges varies
directly as the product of the charges and inversely as the
square of the distance between them.

Where:
d is the distance between the charged particles.
q1 represents the quantity of charge of one particle.
q2 is the quantity of charge of the other particle.
k is the proportionality constant.
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

d (distance) comes in meters, m.

q1 & q2 (charge) comes in coulomb’s, C.
•This is an SI unit.
•A charge of 1 C is like having 6.24 × 1018 electrons.
•A coulomb represents the amount of charge that passes
through a common 100-W light bulb in about one second.
k is called a proportionality constant. It always has the same
value.
•k = 9.0 × 109 N·m2/C2
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

If a pair of charges of 1 C each were 1 m apart, the

force (of attraction or repulsion) between the two
charges would be 9 billion newtons.
That would be more than 10 times the weight of a
battleship!
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

Although electrical forces balance out for
astronomical and everyday objects, at the atomic
level this is not always true.
Often two or more atoms, when close together,
share electrons.
Bonding results when the attractive force between
the electrons of one atom and the positive nucleus
of another atom is greater than the repulsive force
between the electrons of both atoms. Bonding leads
to the formation of molecules.
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

think!
a. If an electron at a certain distance from a charged particle
is attracted with a certain force, how will the force compare
at twice this distance?
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

think!
a. If an electron at a certain distance from a charged particle
is attracted with a certain force, how will the force compare
at twice this distance?

Answer:
a. In accord with the inverse-square law, at twice the
distance the force will be one fourth as much.
32 Electrostatics

32.3 Coulomb’s Law

What does Coulomb’s law state?

32 Electrostatics

32.4 Conductors and Insulators

Outer electrons of the atoms in a metal are not
anchored to the nuclei of particular atoms, but are
free to roam in the material. (Recall this is called
the electron sea model.) That means, electric
charge can “flow” through metals.

Materials through which electric charge can flow are

called conductors.

Metals are good conductors for the motion of

electric charges because their electrons are “loose.”
32 Electrostatics

32.4 Conductors and Insulators

Electrons in other materials—rubber and glass, for
example—are tightly bound and remain with
particular atoms.

They are not free to wander about to other atoms in

the material.

These materials, known as insulators, are poor

conductors of electricity.
32 Electrostatics

32.4 Conductors and Insulators

A substance is classified as a
conductor or an insulator based
on how tightly the atoms of the
substance hold their electrons.
The conductivity of a metal can be
more than a million trillion times
greater than the conductivity of an
insulator such as glass.
In power lines, charge flows much
more easily through hundreds of
kilometers of metal wire than through
the few centimeters of insulating
material that separates the wire from
the supporting tower.
32 Electrostatics

32.4 Conductors and Insulators

Electrons move easily in good conductors and

poorly in good insulators.
32 Electrostatics

32.4 Conductors and Insulators

Semiconductors are materials that can be made to behave
sometimes as insulators and sometimes as conductors.

Atoms in a semiconductor hold their electrons until

given small energy boosts.

This occurs in photovoltaic cells that convert solar energy

into electrical energy.

Thin layers of semiconducting materials sandwiched

together make up transistors. Transistors amplify electric
signals and act as electrical switches to control current in
circuits.
32 Electrostatics

32.4 Conductors and Insulators

What is the difference between a good

conductor and a good insulator?
32 Electrostatics

32.5 Charging by Friction and Contact

Two ways electric charge can be transferred are by

friction and by contact.
32 Electrostatics

32.5 Charging by Friction and Contact

We can stroke a cat’s fur and hear the crackle of sparks that
are produced.

We can comb our hair in front of a mirror in a dark room and

see as well as hear the sparks of electricity.

We can scuff our shoes across a rug and feel the tingle as
we reach for the doorknob.

Electrons are being transferred by friction when one

material rubs against another.
32 Electrostatics

32.5 Charging by Friction and Contact

Electrons can also be transferred from one material to another
by simply touching.

When a charged rod is placed in contact with a neutral object,

some charge will transfer to the neutral object.

This method of charging is called charging by contact.

If the object is a good conductor, the charge will spread to

all parts of its surface because the like charges repel each
other.
32 Electrostatics
32 Electrostatics

What that also means is . . .

32 Electrostatics

32.5 Charging by Friction and Contact

What are two ways electric charge can

be transferred?
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

If a charged object is brought near a conducting

surface, even without physical contact, electrons
will move in the conducting surface.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charging by induction can be illustrated using two insulated
metal spheres.
Uncharged insulated metal spheres touching each other, in
effect, form a single noncharged conductor.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

• When a negatively charged rod is held near one sphere, electrons in the
metal are repelled by the rod.
• Excess negative charge has moved to the other sphere, leaving the first
sphere with an excess positive charge.
• The charge on the spheres has been redistributed, or induced.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

• When the spheres are separated and the rod removed, the spheres are
charged equally and oppositely.
• They have been charged by induction, which is the charging of an
object without direct contact.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charge induction by grounding can be illustrated using a metal sphere hanging
from a nonconducting string.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charge induction by grounding can be illustrated using a metal sphere hanging from
a nonconducting string.
• A charge redistribution is induced by the presence of the charged rod. The
net charge on the sphere is still zero.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charge induction by grounding can be illustrated using a metal sphere hanging from
a nonconducting string.
• A charge redistribution is induced by the presence of the charged rod. The
net charge on the sphere is still zero.
• Touching the sphere removes electrons by contact and the sphere is left
positively charged.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charge induction by grounding can be illustrated using a metal sphere hanging from
a nonconducting string.
• A charge redistribution is induced by the presence of the charged rod. The
net charge on the sphere is still zero.
• Touching the sphere removes electrons by contact and the sphere is left
positively charged.
• The positively charged sphere is attracted to a negative rod.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charge induction by grounding can be illustrated using a metal sphere hanging from
a nonconducting string.
• A charge redistribution is induced by the presence of the charged rod. The
net charge on the sphere is still zero.
• Touching the sphere removes electrons by contact and the sphere is left
positively charged.
• The positively charged sphere is attracted to a negative rod.
• If enough electrons move onto the sphere from the rod, it can become
negatively charged by contact.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

From diagram C, when someone touches the metal surface
with a finger, the charges have a conducting path to a
practically infinite reservoir for electric charge—the ground.

When we allow charges to move off (or onto) a conductor by

touching it, we are grounding it.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

Charging by induction occurs during
thunderstorms.
The negatively charged bottoms of
clouds induce a positive charge on the
surface of Earth below.
Most lightning is an electrical discharge
between oppositely charged parts of
clouds.
The kind of lightning we are most
familiar with is the electrical discharge
between clouds and oppositely
charged ground below.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

If a rod (called a lightning rod) is placed above a building and
connected to the ground, the point of the rod collects electrons
from the air.

This prevents a buildup of positive charge by induction.

The primary purpose of the lightning rod is to prevent a

lightning discharge from occurring.

If lightning does strike, it may be attracted to the rod and short-

circuited to the ground, sparing the building.
32 Electrostatics

32.6 Charging by Induction

What happens when a charged object is

placed near a conducting surface?
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

Charge polarization can occur in insulators that are

near a charged object.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

Charging by induction is not restricted to conductors.
Charge polarization can occur in insulators that are
near a charged object.

When a charged rod is brought near an insulator, there

are no free electrons to migrate throughout the
insulating material.
Instead, there is a rearrangement of the positions of
charges within the atoms and molecules themselves.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

One side of the atom or molecule is induced to be slightly
more positive (or negative) than the opposite side.

The atom or molecule is said to be electrically polarized.

32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

a. At first, there is a uniform distribution of the electron
cloud about the atom. However, when an external
negative charge is brought closer from the left, a non-
uniform distribution of the electron cloud occurs –
separating the + and – charges within the atom.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

a. At first, there is a uniform distribution of the electron cloud about
the atom. However, when an external negative charge is brought
closer from the left, a non-uniform distribution of the electron
cloud occurs – separating the + and – charges within the atom.
b. All the atoms or molecules near the surface of the
insulator become electrically polarized.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

Examples of Charge Polarization
Polarization explains why electrically neutral bits of paper are
attracted to a charged object, such as a charged comb.

Molecules are polarized in the paper, with the oppositely

charged sides of molecules closest to the charged object.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

The bits of paper experience a net attraction.

Sometimes they will cling to the charged object and

suddenly fly off.

Charging by contact has occurred; the paper bits have

acquired the same sign of charge as the charged object
and are then repelled.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

A charged comb attracts an uncharged piece of paper
because the force of attraction for the closer charge is
greater than the force of repulsion for the farther charge.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

Rub an inflated balloon on your hair and it becomes charged.
Place the balloon against the wall and it sticks.
The charge on the balloon induces an opposite surface charge
on the wall. The charge on the balloon is slightly closer to the
opposite induced charge than to the charge of the same sign.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

In summary, objects are electrically charged in three ways.
• By friction, when electrons are transferred by friction
from one object to another.
• By contact, when electrons are transferred from one
object to another by direct contact without rubbing.
• By induction, when electrons are caused to gather or
disperse by the presence of nearby charge without
physical contact.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

If the object is an insulator, on the other hand, then a
realignment of charge rather than a migration of
charge occurs.

This is charge polarization, in which the surface

near the charged object becomes oppositely charged.
32 Electrostatics

32.7 Charge Polarization

What happens when an insulator is in the

presence of a charged object?
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
1. If a neutral atom has 22 protons in its nucleus, the number of
surrounding electrons is
a. less than 22.
b. 22.
c. more than 22.
d. unknown.
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
1. If a neutral atom has 22 protons in its nucleus, the number of
surrounding electrons is
a. less than 22.
b. 22.
c. more than 22.
d. unknown.

Answer: B
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
2. When we say charge is conserved, we mean that charge can
a. be saved, like money in a bank.
b. only be transferred from one place to another.
c. take equivalent forms.
d. be created or destroyed, as in nuclear reactions.
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
2. When we say charge is conserved, we mean that charge can
a. be saved, like money in a bank.
b. only be transferred from one place to another.
c. take equivalent forms.
d. be created or destroyed, as in nuclear reactions.

Answer: B
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
3. A difference between Newton’s law of gravity and Coulomb’s law is
that only one of these
a. is a fundamental physical law.
b. uses a proportionality constant.
c. invokes the inverse-square law.
d. involves repulsive as well as attractive forces.
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
3. A difference between Newton’s law of gravity and Coulomb’s law is
that only one of these
a. is a fundamental physical law.
b. uses a proportionality constant.
c. invokes the inverse-square law.
d. involves repulsive as well as attractive forces.

Answer: D
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
4. Which is the predominant carrier of charge in copper wire?
a. protons
b. electrons
c. ions
d. neutrons
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
4. Which is the predominant carrier of charge in copper wire?
a. protons
b. electrons
c. ions
d. neutrons

Answer: B
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
5. When you scuff electrons off a rug with your shoes, your shoes
are then
a. negatively charged.
b. positively charged.
c. ionic.
d. electrically neutral.
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
5. When you scuff electrons off a rug with your shoes, your shoes
are then
a. negatively charged.
b. positively charged.
c. ionic.
d. electrically neutral.

Answer: A
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
6. When a cloud that is negatively charged on its bottom and
positively charged on its top moves over the ground below, the
ground acquires
a. a negative charge.
b. a positive charge.
c. no charge since the cloud is electrically neutral.
d. an electrically grounded state.
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
6. When a cloud that is negatively charged on its bottom and
positively charged on its top moves over the ground below, the
ground acquires
a. a negative charge.
b. a positive charge.
c. no charge since the cloud is electrically neutral.
d. an electrically grounded state.

Answer: B
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
7. When a negatively charged balloon is placed against a non-
conducting wall, positive charges in the wall are
a. attracted to the balloon.
b. repelled from the balloon.
c. too bound to negative charges in the wall to have any effect.
d. neutralized.
32 Electrostatics

Assessment Questions
7. When a negatively charged balloon is placed against a non-
conducting wall, positive charges in the wall are
a. attracted to the balloon.
b. repelled from the balloon.
c. too bound to negative charges in the wall to have any effect.
d. neutralized.

Answer: A