1.2.

Solid-state Switching Devices

1.2.1 Power Diode

1.2.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

• Gate Turn Off (GTOs)
• Triacs
1.2.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
1.2.4 Power MOSFETs

1.2.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)

1
 OBJECTIVE

• Understand the operating principles of the Devices

• Know Typical Circuits and Symbols

• Understand Characteristics of the Devices and their

significance in application in subsequent topics
• Practical aspects like specification and common circuits of
application

2
 Power Electronics Devices
 Power switches: work-horses of
Operation in in Saturation
PE systems. and cut-off region
i2 Saturation
 Operates in two states: V22 i18
R22 i17
Fully on. i.e. switch closed. C Linear region i16
Rc i15
Conducting state L i14
i13
 Fully off , i.e. switch opened. R i12
V2 i1=0
Blocking state V2
2

Capacitors Inductors Switch Cut-off

 Power switch never operates in
linear mode.

3
 Components Utilized are “lossless”

L Switches
Electric Electric
Power 1:a Power Inductors
Input C Output
D
Vin, fin, Iin, Vout, fout, Capacitors
phase Iout, phase

Control

Resistors usage to be avoided where ever possible.

4
 IDEAL SWITCH i ( t ) 0
When Switch is Open
Power _ loss i ( t ) v ( t ) 0

i(t) When Switch Closed v ( t ) 0

+ Power _ loss i ( t ) v ( t ) 0

v(t)
Blocks voltage in both polarity.
-
Conduct Current in both directions

Switch opens or closes instantly with not time

Power loss on ideal switch is zero.

5
 v  Ideal switch:
i
 During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch
requires zero transition time. Voltage
and current are switched
time instantaneously.
 Power loss due to switching is zero
Ideal switching profile
(turn on)  Real switch:
v P=vi i  During switching transition, the voltage
requires time to fall and the current
requires time to rise.
Energy  The switching losses is the product of
device voltage and current during
transition.
time
 Major Switching loss at high frequency
Real switching profile operation
(turn-on)

6
Forward conduction loss  Ideal switch:
 Zero voltage drop across it during turn-
Ion on (Von).
 Although the forward current ( Ion ) may
be large, the losses on the switch is zero.
+Von-
Ideal switch
 Real switch:
 Exhibits forward conduction voltage (on
state) (between 1-3V, depending on type
of switch) during turn on.
 Losses is measured by product of volt-
drop across the device Von with the
current, Ion, averaged over the period.

POWER SWITCH  Conduction losses dominate at low

( Real switch) frequencies and DC

7
Why it is important to consider losses of power switches?

Considering the losses of power switches is essential because:

It improves efficiency, saving energy and reducing costs.

It ensures proper thermal management, enhancing reliability and

lifespan.

It ensures compliance with industry standards.

8
 Power semiconductor device Can be categorised into three groups:
 Uncontrolled
 Power Diode
 Semi-controlled
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 Fully Controlled Devices
 Gate Turn Off (GTOs)
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
 Power MOSFETs
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)

9
1.2.1 Power Diode
• Power Diode is simply a single junction devise
with one p-layer over an n-layer.

• Two terminal; Anode connected to p-material

layer and Cathode connected to n-material

• Circuit symbol as shown current flows from

anode to Cathode
Three important Parameters • When the diode is forward biased the current
• ON voltage drop, VF flows from anode to diode (holes pushed from p-
layer to n-layer, electrons pushed from n-layer to
• OFF Current Leakage, IR p-layer) the flow continues through the circuit due
• Reverse Recovery Time to the external power supply.

• When the diode is reverse biased it is in OFF

position with a small current leakage.

10
Current-Voltage Characteristics

S1 Id
A (Anode)

IR
+ R
Id Vd +
Vr
_ V
-
Vf Vd

IF
K (Cathode)

Diode: Symbol
Diode equivalent ckt V-I characteristics

 When diode is forward biased, it conducts current with a small forward

voltage (Vf) across it (0.2-3V)

 When reversed (or blocking state), a negligibly small leakage current (uA to
mA) flows until the reverse breakdown occurs.

 Diode should not be operated at reverse voltage greater than Vr

11
 Key Characteristics
•Forward Voltage Drop (Vf):
• The voltage required to turn on the diode (typically 0.7V for silicon diodes
and 0.3V for Schottky diodes).
•Reverse Breakdown Voltage (Vbr):
• The maximum reverse voltage the diode can withstand before it breaks
down and allows a large reverse current to flow.
•Reverse Recovery Time (trr):
• The time it takes for the diode to switch from the conducting state to the
blocking state when the voltage polarity is reversed. This is critical in high-
frequency switching applications.
•Leakage Current:
• A small current that flows in reverse bias due to minority charge carriers.

12
Reverse Recovery
IF  When a diode is switched
trr= ( t2 - t0 ) quickly from forward to reverse
bias, it continues to conduct due to
t2 the minority carriers which remains
in the p-n junction.
t0
VR
 The minority carriers require
IRM finite time, i.e, trr (reverse
VRM
recovery time) to recombine with
opposite charge and neutralise.

 Effects of reverse recovery

are increase in switching losses,
increase in voltage rating, over-
voltage (spikes) in inductive
loads
13
 Applications of Power Diodes

•Rectification:
• Converting AC to DC in power supplies and inverters.
•Freewheeling:
• Providing a path for inductive load current when the main switch turns off
(e.g., in motor drives).
•Voltage Clamping:
• Protecting circuits from voltage spikes by clamping the voltage to a safe
level.
•Reverse Polarity Protection:
• Preventing damage to circuits when the power supply is connected in
reverse.

14
Types of Power Diodes
 Line frequency (general purpose):
On state voltage: very low (below 1V)
Large trr (about 25us) (very slow response)
Very high current ratings (up to 5kA)
Very high voltage ratings(5kV)
Used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications such
as rectifiers
Fast recovery
Very low trr (<1us).
Power levels at several hundred volts and several hundred amps
Normally used in high frequency circuits
Schottky
Very low forward voltage drop (typical 0.3V)
Limited blocking voltage (50-100V)
Used in low voltage, high current application such as switched mode
power supplies.
Recovery of about 100 nanoseconds
15
 Series and Parallel Connection of Diodes for High power Applications like
HVDC

Series Connection of Power Diodes

•Purpose: To increase the overall voltage rating of the diode combination.
•Application: Used in high-voltage systems like HVDC (High Voltage Direct
Current) transmission, rectifiers, and inverters.

How It Works
•When diodes are connected in series, the same current flows through all diodes,
but the voltage is divided across them.
•For example, if two diodes with a voltage rating of 1000V each are connected in
series, the combination can handle up to 2000V.

16
 Series and Parallel Connection of Diodes for High power Applications like
HVDC

Parallel Connection of Power Diodes

•Purpose: To increase the overall current rating of the diode combination.
•Application: Used in high-current systems like power supplies, motor drives, and
rectifiers.

How It Works
•When diodes are connected in parallel, the same voltage is applied across all
diodes, but the current is shared among them.
•For example, if two diodes with a current rating of 50A each are connected in
parallel, the combination can handle up to 100A.

17
 1.2.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Thyristor is a three terminal
Semi-controlled switch. It was
invented in early 1950s
• Switching ON is possible, but not
OFF
It is Three terminals
• anode - P-layer
• cathode - N-layer (opposite end)
• gate - P-layer near the cathode
• Three junctions(J1,J2,J3) and
four layers(p-n-p-n)

18
Operation of an SCR

An SCR operates in two modes:

•Forward Blocking Mode (Off State):
• When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, but no gate signal
is applied, the SCR blocks current flow.
• The device remains in the off state until a gate signal is applied.
•Forward Conduction Mode (On State):
• When a small positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal, the SCR
turns on and allows current to flow from the anode to the cathode.
• Once triggered, the SCR remains in the on state even if the gate signal is
removed, as long as the anode current is above the holding current.

In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a diode.

19
 SCR Conduction
ig vs

 Positive potential applied to the ia

wt
gate
 Current will flow - TURNED- + vo
ON vs
_
Once turned on, gate potential
can be removed and the SCR still wt

conducts CALLED LATCHING

ig

 Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying

negative gate current. It can only be turned off if Ia a wt
goes negative (reverse)
This happens when negative portion of the of
sine-wave occurs (natural commutation),

20
 Types of SCRs

Phase controlled SCR:

Rectifying line frequency voltage and current for ac and dc motor drives
large voltage (up to 7kV) and current (up to 4kA) capability
low on-state voltage drop (1.5 to 3V)

Inverter grade SCR:

used in inverter and chopper
Quite fast. Can be turned-on using “force-commutation” method.

Light activated SCR:

Similar to phase controlled, but triggered by pulse of light.
Normally very high power ratings

TRIAC
Dual polarity thyristors

21
Gate Turn OFF SCR (GTO)
 GTO is a special SCR which can be turned off
by negative gate current
 GTOs are comparable with SCR in power
capacity having voltage and current rating in the
range of 6kV and 4kA.

Applications of GTOs
•Motor Drives: Used in high-power AC and DC motor drives.
•Power Inverters: Used in inverters for renewable energy systems and UPS.
•HVDC Transmission: Used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC)
transmission systems.
•Industrial Power Control: Used in high-power industrial control systems.

22
Triacs Current flows both in forward and reverse
direction. It can also block both voltages.
The direction of current flow depends on the
polarity of voltage across the terminals T1 and T2.
Triacs are available for voltages of up to 1kV and
current of up to 50A.

Applications of TRIACs
•AC Power Control: Used in dimmers, fan
speed controllers, and light dimming circuits.
•Heating Control: Used in temperature control
systems for ovens and heaters.
•Motor Control: Used in AC motor speed
control applications.

23
 TRIAC is a type of Thyristors that can conduct current in both

directions when the polarity activated.

 The TRIAC is like the DIAC with a gate terminal.

 The TRICA can be ON by a pulse or gate current

 Basically the TRIAC can be a thought of simply two SCR's connected

in parallel in opposite directions with a common gate terminal.

 Unlike the SCR the TRIAC can conduct current in either direction

depending on the polarity of voltage across its anode (A1 and A2)
terminals.

24
1.2.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Collector C -Three terminal devices Collector,
Emitter and base.
IC
p
Base IB
- It can be PNP or NPN. Due to
VCE
n relatively easy mobility of
electrons than holes NPN is most
p
J3 IE common.
E

Emitter
(a) (b)

Operating principles can be seen by referring to I-V characteristics of the BJT. Current
flows from collector to emitter while the base current is used to control the current flow.
Therefore; BJT is a current controlled switch.

Common Emitter Configuration is the most used for switch application instead of
common base or common collector configurations.

25
 The three Operation Region

IC KVL IC

Saturation line
V I C R L  VCE Saturation region

IB2
RL + Base current
IB1
P2 increasing
V V V P1
IB - I C  CE 
VCE RL RL IB=0

VBE OFF
Cut-off region

In the linear region VCE is high and is greater than VCB, Collector to base junction is reverse biased.

VCE and VCB decreases with increase in IB. BJT is said to be in saturation region when the collector to base junction is
forward biased by 0.4 to 0.5 V (VCE < VBE ).
VCB VCE  VBE
I CS I CS
 The minimum base current to move the operating point to saturation region is given by I B   h FE is
hFE  FE
given on datasheets, typical 10% of rated I C.
Read Switching limits on Rashid, pp 137
Go through Examples 4.1 and 4.2 pp 128 and 131
26
 Power loss
Delay time
Storage time
Rise time
VCE Fall time

IC

90%
10% 10%
(a) Model of BJT
tr tf
t0 t1 t3 t4 t5 t6
ON OFF
 Rise time and fall time are PLoss
important from
• the switching frequency and
• Loss point of view

 The ON voltage drop of BJT is typically in mV range.

 Study series and parallel connection of BJT on Rashid PP. 150 to 155
27
 Snubber Circuits
Turn-ON snubber
D
DF L
L
+ R
V - R +
V
-
RL LL
Turn-OFF
RL
snubber
DF
DF

Turn-ON snubber Turn-OFF snubber

 The turn on snubber limits the rate of change of current in the transistor
(inductor stores energy) while. High rate of change of current results in
high voltage in the circuit (voltage spikes).
 The turn off snubber limits the rate of change of voltage across the
transistor (capacitor charges slowly). High rate of change of voltage results
in high current.
28
 Darlington
C  The current gain of ordinary BJT is in the order of 10.

 Darlington connected BJTs are most commonly used. The

current gain depends on the number of transistors in the
Darlington. Two-transistor Darlington has current gain in the order
of 100 while three-transistor Darlington has current gain in the
order of 1000.

Bipolar transistors switching frequency is in the order of

10kHz and its voltage and current rating can be as high as
E
1.5kV and 1kA.

The switching current is important as the power required for control depends on its
value. Darlington BJTs have smaller base current requirements.

29
BJT
Switching frequency of (medium) 20 kHz
Max voltage rating of 1.5 kV
Max current rating of 1 kA
Continuous control current

Applications of BJTs
 Amplification
 Switching
 Signal Processing
 Sensors

30
1.2.4 Power MOSFETs ( Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor )
Power MOSFET Structure (n-channel)
Drain D D
+ a) No gate voltage
n+
b) Switched ON (positive voltage
n+
n- n- on gate)
pp pp
n+ n+ n+ n+ c) Circuit symbol
-
Source S
G
+
Gate G

(a) (b) S
(c)

Current-voltage characteristics of
Power MOSFETs

Off state: VGS < Vth

On state: VGS >> Vth

31
The impedance of the gate to source is very high in the range 109 to 1011.
Therefore; negligible current flows from gate to source that is why power
MOSFET is called voltage controlled device.

Power MOSFET has body diode which is anti-parallel to the anode-cathode.

 Power MOSFETs switching frequencies are from hundreds of kilohertz to

megahertz range. The power MOSFET rating is up to 500V and 150A.

VDS Transient Equivalent Circuit

90% VSW(st)
10% 90% Cgd
10% D
tD(ON)
tr tD(OFF)
tf Cds
VGS G
Cgs
90%
t =td(ON)+tr
10% ON tOFF=td(Off)+tf S

32
Applications of Power MOSFETs

Switching Applications
•Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS): Used in DC-DC converters and AC-DC
rectifiers.
•Motor Drives: Used in motor control circuits for speed and direction control.
•Inverters: Used in DC-AC inverters for renewable energy systems and UPS.
Amplification Applications
•Audio Amplifiers: Used in high-fidelity audio amplifiers.
•RF Amplifiers: Used in radio frequency amplifiers for communication systems.
Protection Circuits
•Overvoltage Protection: Used in circuits to protect against voltage spikes.
•Reverse Polarity Protection: Used to prevent damage from reverse voltage
connections.
Automotive Applications
•Electronic Control Units (ECUs): Used in engine control and power management
systems.
•LED Drivers: Used in automotive lighting systems.

33
1.2.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
Collector C
+
C
 Junction Structure of Insulated Gate
P+ P+ Bipolar Transistor
n+
n+
n- n- a) Structure
pp pp
n+ n+ n+ n+
G
b) Conduction
Emitter E
- c) Circuit symbol
+
Gate G

(a) (b) (c) E

 Current-voltage characteristics of
IGBT

34
IGBT Characteristics
IGBTs are hybrids of the power MOSFET and BJT having the
advantages of the two.
• They are voltage controlled as power MOSFET and
• Have low conduction loss as BJTs.

IGBTs have higher voltage and current rating

• up to 3.5 kV rating and
• Up to 2 kA current ratings .

• The resistance of n-channel is small compared to that of

power MOSFET due to injection of holes from p-layer. As the
result the voltage drop during ON state is low and the current
capacity is higher.
• Switching frequency is in hundreds of kilo Hertz.

35
Power Switches: Power Ratings

36
 Complementary Components
• Drivers:
For isolation of power circuit from control circuit and to amplify the control
signal to appropriate signal to drive the switch.
• Protection:
Over current protection for the switching devices and sensitive loads.
• Snubbers:
To protect the switching devices from transient current and voltage during
switching off and on.
• Filters:
To suppress undesired byproduct harmonics to loads to the utility etc.
• Cooling of Heat Sinks:
To remove the heat generated due to power loss in the switching devices.
• Control System:
Based on the input and desired output the controller produces the
switching pattern.
37
 References

1. “Power Electronics, Converters Applications and Design” by Mohan,

Wiley International Edition, 2003, ISBN 0-471-22693-9, USA
Part 6 Semiconductor Drives (chapters 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26)
page 505 to 666
2. Introduction to Modern Power Electronics , Anderzej M. Trzynadlowsky,
Wiley and Sons 1998, ISBN 0-471-15303-6, USA
Chapter 2 Semiconductor Power Switches, page 65 to 91
3. “Power Electronics, Circuits, Devices and Applications” Third edition by
Rashid, Pearson Prentice Hall ,2004, ISBN 0-13-122815-3
Chapter 2, 4, 7, 17

38