Lipids:

Lipids are defined as the organic compounds insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents
like chloroform, benzene etc.
• They are also defined as the esters of fatty acids with alcohol.
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS:
• Storage form of energy. The fats and oils are used almost universally as stored forms of
energy in living organisms. 1 gm lipid produce 9.3 kcal of heat.
• Structural lipids. E.g. phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols. These lipds play a passive role in
the cell by forming impermeable barriers that separate cellular components
• Precursor of many steroid hormones- cholesterol …vit D.
• Lipids act as thermal insulator in the subcutaneous tissues and around certain organs.
• Non-polar lipids act as electrical insulators allowing rapid propagation of depolarization
waves along myelinated nerve.
• Some acts as activators of enzymes- glucose 6 phosphatase require phosphatidylcholine for
activation.
• Lipoproteins are important cellular constituents, and serving as the means of transporting
lipids in the blood.
• Important dietary constituents because of fat soluble vitamins and essential fatty acid.
• Bile salts derived from cholesterol act as a emulsifying agent and facilitate the digestion and
absorption of lipids.
• It also added taste to food.
• It also acts as carrier of natural fat soluble vitamins(A,D,E,K).
Fatty acids :
• Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with
hydrocarbon chains (-CH2-CH2-CH2-) and
represented by a chemical formula R-COOH ,
where R represents for hydrocarbonchain.
Nomenclature of fatty acids :
• The systemic name for fatty acids is derived
from the name of its parent hydrocarbon.
• The saturated fatty acids end with suffix “anoic”.
• For example the C18 , saturated fatty acid is
octadecanoic acid.
• Unsaturated fatty acids ends with suffix “enoic”,
for example C18 with 1 double bond is called as
octadecenoic acid.
CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS
• Straight chain fa
• Branched chain fa
• Substituted fa
• Cyclic fa

STRAIGHT CHAIN FATTY ACIDS

They may be saturated and unsaturated
• Saturated fa
According to the C- atoms present they may be
Even carbon fa
Odd carbon fa

. Unsaturated fa
The configuration, due to the presence of double bonds, produces a rigid bend in the aliphatic chain and
compact packing is prevented, consequently these fa are loosely packed and are therefore more easily
disturbed by heat. This accounts the low melting point of unsaturated fa.
According to the number of double bond present, they may be
Monoenoic
Polyenoic
Ecosanoids- they are derived from the 20-C polyunsaturated fa called arachidonic acid.there are 3
classes of ecosanoids
• Prostaglandins
• Thromboxanes
BRANCHED CHAIN FATTY ACIDS
These are less abundant than straight chain fa in animals and plants.
Eg. Isovaleric acid, isobutyric acid

SUBSTITUTED FATTY ACIDS

Substituted fa have one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by another
group, e.g.
Hydroxyl fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms have been replaced
by hydroxyl group
Methyl fatty acids – replaced by methyl group
They may be saturated or unsaturated, e.g. lactic acid of blood,
ricinoleic acid of castor oil
CYCLIC FATTY ACIDS
• Bearing cyclic groups
• Present in some bacteria and seed lipids, e.g. prostagland
FUNCTIONS OF FATTY ACIDS
3 major physiological functions:
1. Serve as a building blocks of phospholipids and glycolipids. These molecules are
important components of biological membranes.
2. Fatty acid derivatives serve as hormones.- prostaglandins
3 .Serve as a major fuel for most cells.
Essential fatty acids:
• Fatty acids that are required for optimal health and cannot be synthesized by the body
and have to be taken in the diet are called as essential fatty acids.
• The essential fatty acids are Linolenic acid and Linoleic acid .
• They are also called as PUFA-poly unsaturated fatty acid ie . having more than two
double bonds. Arachidonic acid is a PUFA but not as essential fa .

• These two fatty acids cannot be synthesized by humans because humans lack the
desaturase enzymes required for their production. The enzyme desaturase is required
to introduce double bonds beyond C9 of fatty acids . Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are
fundamentally important for all animals. EFAs play a major role in the maintenance of
healthy coat and skin for cats, dogs, and horses. Cell membranes in the animals skin,
fur, nails and hair are made from essential fatty acids. Like humans, animals also use
EFAs to produce hormone-like substances called eicosanoids, which are involved in
many important biological functions in the body. For example, some eicosanoids act as
EICOSANOIDS
• Greek: eikosi means twenty
• Eicosanoids are polyunsaturated
fatty acid containing 20-carbon
atoms.
• They are synthesized from
arachidonic acid.
• Prostaglandins and the related
compounds thromboxanes and
leukotriens, are collectively known
as eicosanoids.
Prostaglandins

• They derive their name from the tissue in which they were first recognized (the
prostate gland) but they are now known to be present in almost all tissues.

Functions of prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins and other eicosanoids have hormone like actions.
• The prostaglandins affect a wide range of cellular and tissue functions.
• Some of these are:
• – Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation: For example, in pregnancy PGF2á
are produced in
• response to oxytocin and act to promote uterine contraction..
• – Inflammatory response: PGs are involved in inflammatory response causing
pain, edema, swelling
• – Platelet aggregation: Prostaglandins have an effect on platelet aggregation.
PGE2 promote aggregation and are thus, involved in the blood clotting.
• – Regulation of Blood pressure: PGE2 decrease blood pressure
• . – Body temperature: Prostaglandins elevate body temperature producing
fever and cause inflammation, resulting in pain.
Thromboxanes
Thromboxanes were first isolated from blood platelets, thrombocytes—
hence the name.
Functions of thromboxanes
• TXA2 is produced by platelets, promotes platelets aggregation. Platelet
aggregation initiates thrombus formation at sites of vascular injury.
• TXA2 causes contractions of the smooth muscles of the arterial wall
and therefore, raises blood pressure.
Leukotrienes (LT)
Leukotrienes were so named because they were initially described in
leucocytes
Functions of leukotrienes
• The LTs facilitate chemotaxis, inflammation and allergic reactions.
• LTC4, LTD4 induce contraction of muscle of the lung and constrict
pulmonary airways. Overproduction of LT causes asthmatic attacks.
Classification of lipids:
• There are different methods of classifying lipids. The most commonly used
classification of lipids is
1. Simple lipid
2. Complex or compound lipids
3. Derived lipids.
1. Simple lipids :
These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. Depending upon the types of
alcohols they are sub classified into Neutral fats and waxes.
Neutral fats : They are also called as triacyl-glycerol. These are the esters of fatty acids
with alcohol , glycerol. Because they are uncharged they are termed as neutral fat.
oil : A fat in liquid state is called as oils.
Waxes :These are esters of fatty acids with high molecular weight monohydric long
chain alcohols. Examples are bee wax, spermacetic oil of whale etc.
2. Complex or compound lipids:
These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing additional groups. These
are subclassified accourding to the type of prosthetic group present in the lipid
as follows:
– Phospholipids: Lipids containing in addition to faty acids an alcohol and
phosphoric acid residue. If the alcohol present in the phospholipid is
glycerol they are called as glycerophospholipids and if the alcohol is
sphingosine they are called as sphingophospholipids.
– Glycolipids: Lipids containing a fatty acid, alcohol (sphingosine) and
additional residue of carbohydrates with nitrogen base they are called as
glycolipids. Examples are cerebrosides, gangliosides etc.
– Lipoproteins: Lipoproteins are formed by combination of lipid with a
protein as prosthetic groups. Serum lipoproteins are chylomicrons, very
low density lipoproteins, low density lipoproteins and high density
lipoproteins.
3. Derived lipids :
Derived lipids include the products obtained after the hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which possess the
charecteristics of lipids. Example are fatty acids, glycerol, cholesterol etc.

Storage lipids:
Triacylglycerol is the major storage and transport forms of fatty acids. These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
Three fatty acids are joined to glycerol and if all the fatty acids are of same type then it is called as simple
triacylglycerols. If there are different kinds of fatty acids they are called as mixed triacyl glycerols.

Functions:
• They are the source of energy than carbohydrates and proteins.
• Note: Plant fats like oils and waxes are unsaturated and they are liquid in nature. Moreover they have fewer
melting points.
Structural lipids or membrane lipids:
The three main kinds of membrane lipids are phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterols.
1. Phospholipids:They contain made up of fatty acids, glycerol and phosphate groups.
Phospholipids can be classified into two main types glycerophospholipids and
sphingophospholipids.

Some of the important glycerophospholipids are:

• Lecithin ( Phosphatidylcholines) : they are glycerophospholipids containing choline. They are
the important constituents of cell membrane. Dipalmitoyl lecithin is the important lung
surfactant.
• Cephalin (Phosphatidyl ethanolamine) :they are glycerophospholipids containing
ethanolamine. Clinical importance : thromboplastin (coagulation factor iii) is mainly
composed of cephalin.
• Phosphatidyl serine : it contains serine in place of ethanolamine and is found in the tissues.
• Phosphatidylinositol : inositol is present in this type of phospholipids and inositol
triphosphate acts as second messenger.
• Plasmalogens : plasmalogens are generally similar to other phospholipids but the fatty acid
chain at C1 of glycerol is linked through ether rather than ester bond.
 2. Sphingophospholipid: they contain fatty acids and sphingosine instead
of glycerol. Most important sphingophospholipids are sphingomyelin.

Functions of phospholipids:
•Major lipid constituents of cell membrane
•Lecithin acts as lung surfactant.
•Needed for clotting. (cephalins)
•They act as precursors for 2nd messenger (phosphatidylinositol).
Glycolipids :
• Glycolipids are sugar containing lipids. They also contain the
sphingosine like sphingomyelins. Sphingosine and fatty acids
together is called as ceramide. Four main classes of glycolipids
are known. They are :
• Cerebrosides : they are simplest glycolipids in which there is only
1 sugar residue, either glucose or galactose.
• Sulfatides : they are cerebrosides in which monosaccharide
contains sulfate group.
• Globosides : they contain two or more sugars combined to
ceramide.
• Gangliosides : they conatin cerebrosides, oligosaccharides and N-
acetylneuraminic acid,NANA.
Sterols :
Sterols are class of steroids. Cholesterol is the major sterol in animal tissues.
Cholesterol:
•It consists of steroid nucleus containing 19-carbon atoms.
•Methyl side chains are present at position C10, C13
•Cholesterol , a 27 carbon compound, has 8 carbon side chain attached to the ring D at C17 and a
hydroxyl group attached to C3 of ring A.
•One double bond is present between C5 and C6.

Functions :
•It is major structural components of cell membranes.
•It serves as precursors for variety of biological products like
steroid hormones
Cholesterol is the precursor of the five steroid hormones, e.g.
i. Progesterones
ii. Glucocorticoids
iii. Mineralocorticoids
iv. Androgens (male sex hormones)
vi. Estrogen (female sex hormones).
Vitamin D
• essential in calcium and phosphate metabolism.
bile acids
• Bile acids, derived from cholesterol,
• act as a detergent in the intestine, emulsifying
• dietary fats
Plant sterols :
• Plants do not contain cholesterol, instead they contain phytosterol (sitosterols).
They contain 10 carbon side chain unlike cholesterol .(8 carbon chain).
• In yeast , there is ergosterol, in which there is extra double bond between C7 &
C8 and methyl group at C24.
Lipoproteins :
• Lipoproteins are large water soluble macromolecule complexes formed by the
combination of lipid and protein that transport insoluble lipids through blood
between different organs and tissues.
• The protein components of lipoproteins are called as apoprotein or
apolipoproteins.
Classes and functions of lipoproteins :
• There are mainly four types of lipoproteins .
1. Chylomicrons :
They are synthesized in the intestine and they transport dietary
lipids (Triacylglycerols) from intestine to peripheral tissues.
2. Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) :
they are synthesized in the liver and they transport
Triacylglycerols from liver to peripheral tissues.
3. Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL):
They are synthesized in the plasma and they transport
cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissues. (atherogenic
lipoprotein).
4. High Density Lipoprotein (HDL):
they are synthesizes in the liver and intestine and transport
cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver where cholesterol is
• Reactions /chemical properties of lipids:
Hydrolysis :
• hydrolysis of lipid such as triacylglycerol is done enzymatically through the action
of lipases, during digestion of fat in GI tract yielding fatty acids and glycerol.
Saponification :
• hydrolysis of fat by alkali is called as saponification . The products are glycerol and
the alkali salts of fatty acids, which are called as soaps.
Hydrogenation :
• Hydrogenation of unsaturated fats in the presence of a catalyst
(nickel) is known as “hardening”. Addition of hydrogen atom to
fatty acids is called as hydrogenation.
• During this process unsaturated fatty acids are converted into
corresponding saturated fatty acids. Hydrogenation of oil can lead
to solidification . e.g. vanaspathi

Oxidation :
• All fatty acids undergo oxidation (addition of oxygen) to produce
energy.
Rancidity :
• The unpleasant odour and taste , developed by natural
fats upon aging is referred as rancidity. Rancidity may
be due to hydrolysis or auto-oxidation of fat.
• Rancidity due to hydrolysis : Naturally occurring fats,
particularly those from animal sources are
contaminated with enzymes lipases. The action of
lipases bring about partial hydrolysis of fats leading to
rancidity.
• Rancidity due to peroxidation : oxidation of unsaturated
fatty acids may form peroxides, which then decompose
to form aldehydes of unpleasant odour and taste. This
process is increased by exposure to light and heat.
Test for purity of fat :
1. Saponification number :
• It is defined as number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify one gram of fat. It is
inversely proportional to the molecular weight of fat.
• Butter : 220
• Coconut oil : 260

2. Iodine number :
• the number of grams of iodine required to saturate 100 gms of given fat is known as iodine
number. Since , iodine is taken up by the double bonds, a high iodine number indicates a
high degree of unsaturation.
• Butter fat : 27
• Coconut oil :28

3. Acid number :
• the number of mg of KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acids present in one gm fat is
known as acid number. The acid number indicates the degree if rancidity. Acid number is
directly proportional to the rancidity.